Professional Documents
Culture Documents
J a c k Lawson Oates
MASTER OF ARTS
i n t h e Department
of
History
S I M O N FRASER UNIVERSITY
F e b r u a r y 1980
A l l r i g h t s r e s e r v e d . T h i s t h e s i s may n o t be
r e p r o d u c e d i n w h o l e o r i n p a r t , by photocopy
+ o r o t h e r means, w i t h o u t p e r m i s s i o n o f t h e a u t h o r .
APPROVAL
Degree: Master o f A r t s
Examining Committee:
Chairperson: R. Koepke
C.R. Day
Sen i o r Supervi sor
r r , - - - -
-
J. Hutchinson
- - .
C . Hamilton 1 '
/,
4 c i r i a
E x t e r n a l Examiner
Professor
Department o f P o l i t i c a l science+
Simon Fraser U n i v e r s i t y
Date Approved: A -
2
b , , T $3
P A R T I A L COPYRICHT LICEhSE
I h e r e b y g r a n t t o Simon F r a s e r U n i v e r s i t y t h e r i g h t t o l e n d
my t h e s i s o r d i s s e r t a t i o n ( t h e t i t l e o f w h i c h i s shown b e l o w ) t o u s e r s
c o p i e s o n l y f o r s u c h u s e r s o r i n r e s p o n s e t o a r e q u e s t from t h e l i b r a r y
o f a n y o t h e r u n i v e r s i t y , o r o t h e r e d u c a t i o n a l i n s t i t u t i o n , on its own
m u l t i p l e c o p y i n g o f t h i s t h e s i s f o r s c h o l a r l y p u r p o s e s may b e g r a n t e d
b y me o r t h e Dean o f G r a d u a t e S t u d i e s . It i s u n d e r s t o o d t h a t c o p y i n g
o r p u b l i c a t i o n of t h i s t h e s i s f o r f i n a n c i a l g a i n s h a l l n o t b e a l l o w e d
w i t h o u t my w r i t t e n p e r m i s s i o n .
T i t l e of T h e s i s / ~ i s s e r t a t i o n :
The I n f l u e n c e o f t h e French R e v o l u t i o n on Legal and J u d i c i a l
Reform
Author :
V
(signature)
Jack Lawson Oates
(name )
February 6, 1980
(date)
ABSTRACT
has r e c e i v e d 1 it t l e a t t e n t i o n .
i d e a l s o f t h e R e v o l u t i o n a r y p e r i o d were t r a n s l a t e d i n t o important l e g a l
e v a l u a t e d w i t h o u t reference t o t h e s i t u a t i o n which p r e v a i l e d p r i o r t o
i t s e l f w i t h t h e p a r t p l a y e d by those i n d i v i d u a l s whose e f f o r t s l a r g e l y
heritage.
c i v i l l e g i s l a t i o n d u r i n g t h e R e v o l u t i o n a r y p e r i o d were i n c o n c l u s i v e , t h e
preserved.
The last part of this thesis concerns the reorganization of t
period survived: the uniformity of the law, equality before the law,
penalties.
TABLE OF CONTENTS
Page
INTRODUCTION ................................................
CHAPTER I
THE SITUATION UNDER THE OLD REGIME ........................
The A d m i n i s t r a t i o n of J u s t i c e ..........................
The L a c k o f L e g i s l a t i v e U n i t y ..........................
The S t a t e o f C r i m i n a l Law and Procedure ................
CHAPTER I I
THE MOVEMENT FOR REFORM PRIOR TO THE REVOLUTION ...........
The I n f l u e n c e o f t h e P h i l o s o p h e s .......................
Crown and Parlements ...................................
CHAPTER I l l
THE REVOLUTION AND CIVIL LEGISLATION ......................
Ascendant P r i n c i p l e s ...................................
C o d i f i c a t i o n o f t h e C i v i l Law ..........................
The Work o f t h e R e v o l u t i o n a r y Assemblies ............
L e Code Napoleon ....................................
Page
CHAPTER IV
THE REVOLUTION AND CRIMINAL LEGISLATION .................... 60
The Work o f t h e Revolutionary Assemblies ................ 60
Le Code d ' i n s t r u c t i o n c r i m i n e l l e o f 1808; and l e
Code penal o f 1810 .................................... 72
CHAPTER V
THE REVOLUTION AND JUDICIAL ADMINISTRATION ................. 85
CONCLUS l ON ................................................... 98
p r e v a i l e d p r i o r t o t h e R e v o l u t i o n i n o r d e r t o access a c c u r a t e l y t h e i r
i n t h i s area.
I then d e s c r i b e t h e i n c o r p o r a t i o n o f t h e R e v o l u t i o n a r y i d e a l s i n t o
w i t h s p e c i a l r e f e r e n c e t o t h e v a r i o u s safeguards i n t r o d u c e d on b e h a l f
l e g i s l a t i o n d u r i n g t h e R e v o l u t i o n a r y p e r i o d were i n c o n c l u s i v e , the
s e p a r a t i o n o f powers and e x e m p l i f i e d t h e d e t e r m i n a t i o n o f t h e R e v o l u t i o n a r i e s
t o f r e e t h e e x e c u t i v e from j u d i c i a l c o n t r o l .
p e r i o d , thus e n s u r i n g t h e i r s u r v i v a l : e q u a l i t y b e f o r e t h e law, t h e
penal t i e s .
CHAPTER I
The A d m i n i s t r a t i o n o f J u s t i c e
The a d m i n i s t r a t i o n of j u s t i c e i n t h e s e i g n i o r i a l c o u r t s , as d i s t i n c t
the j u r i s d i c t i o n a l l i m i t s o f t h e t r i b u n a l s be l i m i t e d i n a c l e a r and
assemblies - and h e n c e f o r t h be p a i d by t h e S t a t e .
9
The c o n d i t i o n o f t h e a d m i n i s t r a t i o n o f j u s t i c e i n t h e o l d regime
o n l y p r o v e t o be far-reaching.
The Lack o f L e g i s l a t i v e U n i t y
many sought p r o t e c t i o n a g a i n s t t h e a r b i t r a r y a d m i n i s t r a t i o n o f
j u s t i c e as p r a c t i c e d by t h e c o u r t s by advancing t h e concept o f c o d i f i c a t i o n
*
be l e f t t o t h e judges i n a p p l y i n g t h e law.
law was known as " l e d r o i t e ' c r i t " which was founded upon t h e Roman
by i t s u n i f o r m i t y , i t s r e l a t i v e s t a b i l i t y , i t s comprehensiveness, and i t s
and s i x t e e n t h c e n t u r i e s .
i n f l u e n c e over personal s i t u a t i o n s , p a r t i c u l a r l y i n t h e m a t t e r o f
marriage.
L o u i s X I V had a t t a i n e d s u f f i c i e n t r e c o g n i t i o n t o have b i n d i n g f o r c e
l e s s u b s t i t u t i o n s f idgicommissai r e s (1747).
o f a f f a i r s i n France u n t i l t h e p e r i o d o f t h e R e v o l u t i o n .
c a h i e r s u b m i t t e d by t h e T h i r d E s t a t e of P a r i s s u c c i n c t l y described t h e
u n s a t i s f a c t o r y s i t u a t i o n w h i c h p r e v a i l e d under t h e o l d regime:
condamnation i n c h i t a b l e , t a n t i l s a v a i e n t rendu l a j u s t i f i c a t i o n
diffici1e.1'~~
t o an a r c h a i c and i n q u i s i t o r i a l t r i a l procedure b u t a l s o t o an e q u a l l y
t r e a t e d as c o n c l u s i v e p r o o f o f g u i l t , t o r t u r e was p e r m i t t e d d u r i n g t h e
and c o r p o r a l m u t i l a t ion.
t h e judges d i d n o t r e s u l t i n an a l l e v i a t i o n o f t h e s e v e r i t y o f punishment:
r i g u e u r un crime ou un p r o j e t c r i m i n e l . Le p l u s mince l a r c i n , un
v u l g a i r e r e c e l pouvaient v a l o i r l a rnor
e
The Ordonnance C r i m i n e l l e o f 1670 had, by i t s many omissions
grave dkfaut". 25
personnes".
33
were r e a l i z e d u n t i l t h e decade o f t h e R e v o l u t i o n .
\
CHAPTER I I
The I n f l u e n c e o f t h e Philosophes
t h e i r e f f o r t s , by f o c u s i n g a t t e n t i o n on t h e d e f i c i e n c i e s o f t h e e x i s t i n g
-
De 1'Esprit des L o i s which was p u b l i s h e d i n 1748. I n t h i s work he
despotiques, oh t a n t ce q u i i n s p i r e l a c r a i n t e e n t r e p l u s dans l e s
mo i".3 8
The s e c r e t procedure of t h e c o u r t s was c r i t i c i z e d by Montesquieu
f o r t h e reason t h a t r e p r e s s i v e c r i m i n a l proceedings n o t o n l y c o n s t i t u t e d
safeguard o f 1 i b e r t i e s f o r a l l . 39 Two c o n d i t i o n s a r e e s s e n t i a l ,
t h e p o s s i b i l i t y o f 1 i b e r t y o f defence. I n a d d i t i o n he c a l l e d f o r t h e
w i t h t h e s u b j e c t e x h a u s t i v e l y , h i s e f f o r t s caused t h e shortcomings
/
The famous book authored by Cesare Beccaria, t h e T r e a t i s e on Crimes -
and Punishments,
- was p u b l i s h e d i n M i l a n i n t h e I t a l i a n language, b u t a
/
A Milanese j u r i s t , B e c c a r i a was t h e f i r s t t o f o r m u l a t e p r e c i s e l y
importance o f t h e n a t u r e o f p r o o f r e q u i r e d t o e s t a b l i s h t h e o f f e n s e .
46 .
#
B e c c a r i a argue d t h a t punishment should be c o n f i n e d t o offenses w h i c h
A l t h o u g h ~ e c c a r f a ' s t r e a t i s e provoked c o n s i d e r a b l e d i s c u s s i o n
i n France, t h e r e was l i t t l e a t t e m p t by j u r i s t s t o a p p l y h i s t h e o r i e s
I n c o n t r a s t t o t h e a t t i t u d e s o f i n d i f f e r e n c e and h o s t i l i t y d i s p l a y e d
/
t r e a t i s e , and i n t h e l a t e r y e a r s o f h i s l i f e he became t h e r e c o g n i z e d
and g l o r y , r e v e a l e d f a t a l weaknesses i n c e r t a i n o f t h e i n s t i t u t i o n s of
~ o l t ~ i ar l es o pub l i s h e d s e v e r a l works a t t a c k i n g t h e f a u l t s o f t h e
be p r e f e r r e d as a punishment t o c a p i t a l e x e c u t i o n because t h e c r i m i n a l
impossible.
o f t h e j u r i s t s were f r a n k l y r e a c t i o n a r y . V o l t a i r e regarded t h e
by a l l t h e l i m i t a t i o n s o f c o r p o r a t e s e l f - i n t e r e s t . As A . Wattinne
r e f o r m e r s f a i l e d t o go t o t h e h e a r t o f t h e problem.63 During t h e
I n c o n t r a s t t o t h e m a j o r i t y o f t h e i r colleagues, however, a
w i t h p a r t i c u l a r r e f e r e n c e t o d e t e n t i o n pending t r i a l , insidious
-- --
L e t t r e s s u r l a prockdure c r i m i n e l l e de l a France. His conscientious
e f f o r t s a t r e f o r m were met w i t h i n t e n s e h o s t i l i t y on t h e p a r t o f t h e
c r i m i n e l l e . 1 [67
d i s c u s s i o n and s t u d y i n t h e y e a r s p r e c e d i n g t h e R e v o l u t i o n . To s t a t e
t h a t t h e i r i n f l u e n c e was a l o n e r e s p o n s i b l e f o r t h e s i g n i f i c a n t reforms
s o c i e t y w h i c h would no l o n g e r t o l e r a t e an a r c h a i c system o f c r i m i n a l
l a ~ 6 v o l u t i o nquleux-m&mes c o n t r i b u g r e n t 2 p r g p a r e r . I170
t h e l a t t e r p a r t o f t h e e i g h t e e n t h c e n t u r y by t h e o r g a n i z e d o p p o s i t i o n
Besides t h e i r j u d i c i a l f u n c t i o n s , t h e y c l a i m e d and e x e r c i s e d c e r t a i n
p o l i t i c a l powers which d e r i v e d from t h e r i g h t o f r e g i s t e r i n g r o y a l
L o u i s X I V o r destroyed by an e n l i g h t e n e d despot.
72
by a b o l i s h i n g t h e P a r i s i a n c o u r t o u t r i g h t and by e s t a b l i s h i n g a new
system o f appeal c o u r t s w i t h f u n c t i o n s n a r r o w l y r e s t r i c t e d t o t h e
a p r o p r i e t a r y r i g h t t o t h e i r p o s i t i o n , t h e new m a g i s t r a t u r e r e c e i v e d a
r e d e f i n i t i o n o f t h e i r competence. 7 5
I n s p i t e o f t h e widespread a g i t a t i o n t h a t these changes caused,
*
sincGre de l a monarchie e t de j o u e r , dans ce t r a v a i l d'une a c t i v i t 6
8o
insoupsonn6e, a u t r e chose qu'un r61e p a s s i f ou symbollque."
toward a s i m p l i f i c a t i o n o f j u d i c i a l procedure, a m e l i o r a t i o n o f c r i m i n a l
render p o s s i b l e a r a d i c a l r e d u c t i o n i n t h e number o f m a g i s t r a t e s . 8 8
P r i o r t o t h i s e d i c t , c i v i l and c r i m i n a l cases were judged, in
w i t h a consequent l o s s o f income t o t h e m a g i s t r a t e s .
P r a c t i c a l l y l e g i s l a t e d o u t of. e ~ i s t e n c e . ' ~ T h e i r e x e r c i s e o f c r i m i n a l
+
~ r i s o nf a c i l i t i e s , and on t h e employment o f a l i c e n s e d judge, s c r i b e , and
I n h i s speech on May 8 t h a t t h e --
l i t de j u s t i c e , Lamoignon was
t o s t a t e t h e reasons t h e r e f o r e ( A r t . 3) lo'
; a m a j o r i t y o f two v o t e s was no
1s an i n t e r e s t i n g document as i t represents t h e l a s t t i m e t h a t r o y a l t y . .
o f f i c e s o f t h e P a r i s i a n and p r o v i n c i a l parlements. As a r e s u l t o f
-
(cour p l & i k r e ) . The j u d i c i a l component o f t h i s i n s t i t u t i o n was t o cons s t
j u d i c i a l and f i s c a l reform.
Ascendant P r i n c i p l e s
n o t a b l y t h e b e l i e f i n t h e e x i s t e n c e o f a n a t u r a l law. T h i s law, o l d e r
a dominant i n t e l l e c t u a l f o r c e , t h e r e was an o p t i m i s t i c b e l i e f t h a t e x i s t i n g
f i r s t p r i n c i p l e s , p u t i n t h e i r place.
t h e e s s e n t i a l p r i n c i p l e s of t h e R e v o l u t i o n and t h e d e s i r e d l e g a l and
$
f
j u d i c i a l reforms. The preface r e s t a t e d t h e t h e o r y o f n a t u r a l law which
and s e v e r a l a r t i c l e s r e f l e c t e d t h e ardent w i s h o f t h e R e v o l u t i o n a r i e s
n e g l e c t o f t h e r i g h t o f a s s o c i a t i o n ; and i t s i n s u f f i c i e n t a t t e n t i o n t o
118
religious liberty. Nevertheless t h i s s i g n i f i c a n t document, by espousing
t h e a s p i r a t i o n s o f t h e R e v o l u t i o n a r i e s , heralded t h e end o f p r i v i l e g e -
and so o f t h e o l d regime - and i n t h i s respect i t inaugurated a new age.
119
A t t h e o u t s e t , then, v i c t o r y appeared t o belong t o t h e p a r t y
e q u i t a b l e and u s e f u l t o s o c i e t y .
p l u s de h a r d i e s s e e t de vigueur que l e s m a t t r e s de l a p h i l o s o p h i e ne
/ ',I20
l ' a v a i e n t dgsire.
1! A p a r t from p o l i t i c a l exigencies, t h e p r i n c i p l e s o f t h e R e v o l u t i o n a r i e s
t
were tempered by another powerful f o r c e : the s p i r i t o f t r a d i t i o n . If
t h e p h i l o s o p h i c a l s p i r i t was a source o f i n s p i r a t i o n t o t h e l e g i s l a t o r s ,
t h e i n f l u e n c e o f t h e c o n s e r v a t i v e j u r i d i c a l t r a d i t i o n tended t o dampen
m a i n t a i n l e g a l d i s t i n c t i o n s and t o temper a b s o l u t e e q u a l i t y w i t h c e r t a i n
restrictions.
t h e temporary c o n t i n u a t i o n o f c e r t a i n o b l i g a t i o n s ( ~ r t i c l e s1 , 5 , 6 ) . 124
Nevertheless, i t may be s a i d t h a t t h i s l e g i s l a t i o n c o n s t i t u t e d a s i g n i f i c a n t
o p p o r t u n i t y t o a1 1 c i t i z e n s ( A r t i c l e 1 1 ) . 125
c u r t a i l e d many o f t h e e x i s t i n g i n e q u i t i e s . However, t h e l e g i s l a t o r s
h g r i t i e r s AB INTESTAT de l a q u a l i t k d 1 a i n 6 ou de put&, de l a d i s t i n c t i o n
t o say, marriage b e f o r e t h e p u b l i c o f f i c e r o f t h e m u n i c i p a l i t y w i t h o u t t h e
Decree R e g u l a t l n g ~ i v o r c e l ~ 'which
, may be considered as a l o g i c a l
d i s s o l u t i o n o f m a r r i a g e by d i v o r c e . T h i s l e g i s l a t i o n was another
i n s p i r e d by t h e p r i n c i p l e s o f i n d i v i d u a l freedom and e q u a l i t y , as w i t n e s s
t h e L e g i s l a t i v e Assembly, i t remained f o r t h e l e g i s l a t i o n o f t h e
c o n d i t i o n a i n s i f a i t e aux e n f a n t s n a t u r e l s r g v o l t a i t l a s e n s i b i 1 i t 6 des
a l l a i t reposer l e d r o i t de succession."
138
S i m i l a r l y , t h e l e g i s l a t o r s sought t o a c h i e v e a "me'biocrite' des
o f t h e a c t c a l l e d f o r an equal d i v i s i o n o f i n h e r i t a n c e among h e i r s ,
r e f l e c t e d t h i s change i n dominance.
Thus, d u r i n g t h e p e r i o d o f t h e D i r e c t o r y , s e v e r a l p r o v i s i o n s o f t h e
t h e r e a l i z a t i o n o f t h e i d e a l s o f t h e R e v o l u t i o n a r i e s was p l a i n l y v i s i b l e :
C o d i f i c a t i o n o f t h e C i v i l Law
s u c c i n c t l y d e s c r i b e d by P. Sagnac: "Rien de f i x e , r i e n de c o h 6 r e n t , c 1 e s t
un chaos o'u l e j u r i s c o n s u l t e se perd. C ' e s t une d i v e r s i t e ' e t une
laws.
Among t h e most s t e a d f a s t a s p i r a t i o n s o f t h e R e v o l u t i o n a r i e s ,
t h e r e f o r e , was t h e d e s i r e t o p r o v i d e t h e n a t i o n w i t h a code o f u n i f o r m
~ e n t u r i e 5 . l ~The
~ French R e v o l u t i o n , w i t h i t s i d e a l o f a r a t i o n a l s o c i a l
e f f o r t s a t t h i s t i m e were d i r e c t e d , a t p u b l i c i n s i s t e n c e , toward t h e
I k g i s l a t i o n c r i m i n e l l e j ~ ' ~and
~ , a Penal Code was d u l y promulgated i n 1791
I n s p i t e o f t h e v i o l e n c i and d i s o r d e r a s s o c i a t e d w i t h t h e ensuing,
. .
R e v o l u t i o n a r y assembly, "ce f u t l a Convention N a t i o n a l e q u i e u t l a
C iv i l f r a n g a i s . 111 54
"C'est l a v o i x de l a n a t u r e e t c e l l e de l a r a i s o n q u i se f o n t entendre;
c h o i s l s p a r l e ~ o m i t e de
' s a l u t p u b l i c , r g v i s e r a e t retouchera l e code
l e s id6es ava i e n t changg, une re'act ion g & k r a l e se man if e s t a it. 1,161
The D i r e c t o r y , i n i t s t u r n , s e t i t s hand t o t h e c o d i f i c a t i o n o f
Enlightenment.
164
j u r i s t s o f t h e l e g i s l a t i v e c o m m i t t e e s h a d n o t been wasted, f o r i t
I n s p i t e o f t h e unsuccessful R e v o l u t i o n a r y attempts t o c o d i f y t h e
c i v i l law, t h e l e g i s l a t i o n o f t h i s p e r i o d was t o e x e r t a s a l u t a r y
Revolutionary l e g i s l a t i o n , i n i t s t u r n , was a r e f l e c t i o n o f t h e i d e a l s
which made p o s s i b l e t h e u l t i m a t e - r e a l i z a t i o n o f a n a t i o n a l c i v i l
code.
Le Code ~ a ~ o l g o n *D u r i n g t h e Consulate and t h e f i r s t Empire t h e
T h i s enormous p r o d u c t i o n o f l e g i s l a t i o n i n a r e l a t i v e l y s h o r t span
-
* O r i g i n a l l y e n t i t l e d Code c i v i l des f r a n q a i s , t h e t i t l e was changed t o
l e s s w e l l disposed t o t h e p r i n c i p l e o f i n d i v i d u a l l i b e r t y i n comparison
t h e c a t a l y s t i n b r i n g i n g t h e t a s k t o a conclusion.170 Furthermore
.
Tronchet 178 A1 though t h e former championed t h e Roman concepts o f law,
n a t u r a l law.
Thus, i n c o m p i l i n g t h e C i v i l Code, t h e draftsmen were i n f l u e n c e d
c u r i o u s m i x t u r e , d e a l i n g w i t h m a t t e r s as d i v e r s e as g i f t s , w i l l s and
nature.
183 ,
The sources upon which t h e draftsmen r e l i e d i n t h e c o m p i l a t i o n o f
i t i n e v i t a b l y had t o d i s c a r d p a r t o f t h e R e v o l u t i o n a r y t h i n k i n g .
*
I n d e a l i n g w i t h t h e i n s t i t u t i o n o f marrlage, t h e draftsmen had t o
de l a l o i v i s - 5 - v i s de l a r e l i g i o n : v o i l a ce q u i j u s t i f i e l a s 6 c u l a r i s a t i o n
As p r e v i o u s l y mentioned, t h e R e v o l u t i o n a r i e s had a u t h o r i z e d d i v o r c e
*
f o r reasons o f i n c o m p a t i b i l i t y was suppressed as being c o n t r a r y t o t h e
- 3.).
( ~ r t i c l e s275 e t 197
f o r cause o f a d u l t e r y , t h e a d u l t r e s s c o u l d be c o n f i n e d i n a house o f
t h e e f f e c t o f t h i s sentence by consenting t o r e c e i v e h i s w i f e a g a i n
t o punish t h e e r r a n t husband.
t h e concepts o f l i b e r t y and e q u a l i t y i n t o t h e f a m i l i a l u n i t , t h e C i v i l
Code, by c o n t r a s t , p a r t i a l l y r e s t o r e d t h e t r a d i t i o n a l view t h a t t h e head
of t h e f a m i l y was t h e r e a l a u t h o r i t y . P r o v i s i o n s were i n c o r p o r a t e d i n t o
t h e Code p e r m i t t i n g t h e f a t h e r t o i n c a r c e r a t e h i s c h i l d r e n w i t h o u t
governmental a u t h o r i t y ( A r t i c l e -
375 e t 3.)201, and t h e m a r r i a g e r i g h t s
a u t h ~ r i t a r i a n i s m ~was
~ ~ ,t o extend t o a l l areas o f France d i s a b i l i t i e s
t h e R e v o l u t i o n a r y p r i n c i p l e s concerning r e s t r i c t i o n o f testamentary
i n t h e freedom g r a n t e d t o t e s t a t o r s t o dispose o f t h e i r p r o p e r t y by
t h e R e v o l u t i o n a r y l e g i s l a t i o n , t h e d i s p o s i t i o n s a u t h o r i z e d by t h e Code
e f f e c t i v e l y prevented t h e c r e a t i o n o f i n e q u a l i t i e s through i n h e r i t a n c e .
d e s t r u c t i o n o f t h e c o r p o r a t e p r o p e r t i e s , had b e n e f i t t e d t h e m i d d l e
( A r t i c l e 346) . 2 1 5
The p r o v i s i o n s concerning t h e s t a t u s o f i l l e g i t i m a t e c h i l d r e n
unless a f f o r d e d l e g a l r e c o g n i t i o n . T h e i r s i t u a t i o n was e x e m p l i f i e d by
r e l a t i o n s o f t h e i r f a t h e r o r mother. 11217
The Code r e i n f o r c e d t h e d i s a b i l i t i e s o f i l l e g i t i m a t e c h i l d r e n
by making no p r o v i s i o n t o f a c i l i t a t e i n v e s t i g a t i o n s i n t o q u e s t i o n s o f
paternity; i n f a c t , s c r u t i n y as t o p a t e r n i t y was e x p r e s s l y f o r b i d d e n
t h e Code ~ a ~ o l g oand
n i t s e f f e c t on t h e R e v o l u t i o n a r y t r a d i t i o n , it is
d r o i t r&olutionnaire." While r e v e r t i n g i n p a r t t o t h e j u r i s t i c
h i s t o r i c a l t r a d i t i o n w h i l e p r e s e r v i n g t h e e s s e n t i a l p r i n c i p l e s o f 1789.
sense i t was r e v o l u t i o n a r y .
CHAPTER I V
As n o t e d p r e v i o u s l y , t h e c a h i e r s which t h e c o n s t i t u e n t s d e l i v e r e d
o f P a r i s on October 14, 1 7 8 9 , ~
was
~ ~intended t o r e c t i f y the graver
t h e n a t i o n t o enjoy t h e b e n e f i t o f v a r i o u s p r o v i s i o n s , which, w i t h o u t
o f t h e examination s h a l l t a k e p l a c e c o n f r o n t a t i v e l y w i t h him,
pronounced except by a t w o - t h i r d s o r f o u r - f i f t h s m a j o r i t y , r e s p e c t i v e l y ,
more, t h e f o l l o w i n g A r t i c l e s t i p u l a t e d t h a t : " T r i a l by j u r y s h a l l t a k e
reading o f w r i t t e n d e p o s i t i o n s t o t h e t r i a l j u r y , whereas a c t i o n s i n
C o n s t i t u e n t Assembly decided t o s a c r i f i c e t h e t r a d i t i o n a l i n s t i t u t i o n s
A r t . 3) .238
I t was recognized, however, t h a t no s e r v i l e i m i t a t i o n o f t h e
t h e Decree d i d n o t adhere t o t h e t r a d i t i o n a l E n g l i s h r u l e r e q u i r i n g
t h a t t h e f a c t i s n o t c e r t a i n , o r t o decide i n h i s favour t h e q u e s t i o n s
2 40
p u t by t h e p r e s i d e n t r e l a t i v e t o i n t e n t " - ( p a r t I I , T i t . V I I , A r t . 28).
t o a summary examination b e f o r e t h e o f f i c e r o f t h e j u d i c i a l p o l i c e , t o
o f a r r e s t . ,1242
i
The j u s t i c e o f t h e peace c o u l d i n i t i a t e a c t i o n e i t h e r o f f i c i a l l y
passed t o t h e c r i m i n a l t r i b u n a l and t h e t r i a l j u r y .
*
Thus t h e p r e l i m i n a r y examination, which c o n s t i t u t e d n e a r l y t h e
t o t h e j u s t i c e o f t h e peace. Furthermore, t h e r i g h t o f p r o s e c u t i o n
Assembly had p r e v i o u s l y p r o c l a i m e d t h e b a s i c p r i n c i p l e s o f c r i m i n a l l a w
crime d e f i n e d p r i o r t o i t s commission.
t h e v a r i o u s punishments p r e s c r i b e d f o r c o n v i c t e d c r i m i n a l s . These
*
punishments were death, l a b o u r i n chains, confinement, t r a n s p o r t a t i o n ,
f i r s t t i t l e d e a l t w i t h crimes a g a i n s t p u b l i c i n t e r e s t s , t h e second, w i t h
2 52
crimes a g a i n s t i n d i v i d u a l s .
l e g i s l a t i o n was g r e a t l y s u p e r i o r t o t h a t which e x i s t e d p r i o r t o t h e
by t h e Decree of 23 F r u c t i d o r , An I I , commissioned t h e j u r i s t M e r l i n t o
2 56
prepare a comprehensive code on t h e whole o f c r i m i n a l l e g i s l a t i o n .
procedural d e t a i 1s.
b r i e f r e g a r d i n g t h e p a r t t o be played by t h e j u s t i c e o f t h e peace i n t h e
m i n u t e l y w i t h t h e proceedings b e f o r e t h e t r i a l j u r y . T h i s was a n a t u r a l
o l d law.
e a r l i e r by t h e C o n s t i t u e n t Assembly. I n l i k e manner, t h e p o r t i o n of
i n f u l l f o r c e u n t i l t h e e a r l y p e r i o d o f t h e Consulate.
c o n t a i n e d r e a c t i o n a r y elements which u n e q u i v o c a l l y r e f l e c t e d t h e
a u t h o r i t a r i a n views o f Bonaparte.
263
C r i m i n a l procedure, i n p a r t i c u l a r , underwent a r a d i c a l change
t h e o l d o f f i c e o f p u b l i c prosecutor i n i t s e n t i r e t y i n t h e proceedings
b e f o r e t h e c r i m i n a l courts.
c r i m i n e l le" o f 1808.
p e n a l t i e s , a f i r s t j u r y s h a l l admit o r r e j e c t t h e i n d i c t m e n t ; i f i t be
i t s i n f l u e n c e w i t h t h e establishment o f a c o n c u r r e n t c r i m i n a l j u r i s d i c t i o n .
f o r o r d i n a r y c r i m i n a l cases, t h e o t h e r i n v o l v i n g t h e use o f s p e c i a l
t o t h e i n t e r n a l s a f e t y o f t h e State.
C o n c u r r e n t l y w i t h t h e establishment o f t h e s p e c i a l c o u r t s , p r e l i m i n a r y
census q u a l i f i c a t i o n s . I n a d d i t i o n , t h e p a r t i e s t o an a c t i o n were g i v e n
t h e r i g h t t o cha l l e n g e , i n c o u r t , t h e proposed panel o f j u r o r s . Finally,
Bonaparte t o o b t a i n t h e o p i n i o n s o f t h e m a g i s t r a c y on t h e work o f t h e
o f t h e i n q u i r y , came b e f o r e t h e l e g i s l a t i v e s e c t i o n o f t h e Council o f
i s t h e c h a l l e n g e t o be exercised? S h a l l t h e examination be p u r e l y o r a l ,
o r p a r t l y o r a l and p a r t l y w r i t t e n ? S h a l l s e v e r a l questions be p u t
w i s h i n g t o abandon t h e p r i n c i p l e s o f t h e R e v o l u t i o n , defended i t w i t h
n o t f a v o u r a b l e t o press f o r t h e suppression o f t h e j u r y b u t t h a t o p i n i o n
Per iod.
f u n c t i o n s b e i n g t r a n s f e r r e d t o a s p e c i a l s e c t i o n o f t h e Court o f Appeal.
F r i m a i r e , An V I I I , d i d n o t prove t o be a d e t e r r e n t . As S. Esmein
be s a i d t o have gained a p a r t i a l v i c t o r y .
e l i g i b i l i t y was l i m i t e d t o c e r t a i n c a t e g o r i e s o f persons, e s p e c i a l l y
o f the Revolution.
t h e p r e p a r a t i o n o f a q u e s t i o n n a i r e i n 1804 t o f a c i l i t a t e t h e debates
be i n t r o d u c e d f o r a p a r t i c u l a r c l a s s o f c r i m i n a l s , a f t e r t h e e x p i r a t i o n
r
f u t u r e good conduct? S h a l l rehabi 1 it a t i o n be accorded t o c o n v i c t s whose
technique, the Code was drafted with great clarity and the various
provisions were presented systematically and methodically. Crimes of the
same generic type were now grouped together, even though they might vary
I n comparison, then, with the Codes of 1791 and 1795, the Penal
Code of 1810 was especially retrogressive concerning severity of punishments.
Nonetheless, the essential principles of the Revolutionary legislation were
maintained. Equality before the law was recognized by having the same
penalties for all citizens, and the fundamental principle of legality of
C o n s t i t u e n t Assembly t u r n e d i t s a t t e n t i o n t o t h i s m a t t e r a t an e a r l y
V e n a l i t y o f j u d i c i a l o f f i c e was suppressed by A r t i c l e 7 of t h e
302
Decrees o f August 4-11, 1789, and, more i m p o r t a n t l y , t h e j u d i c i a r y was
competence o f t h e new j u d i c i a l h i e r a r c h y .
t h e i r independence by a b o l i s h i n g t h e p r i n c i p l e o f i r r e m o v a b i l i t y which
d i s t r u s t o f t h e j u d i c i a r y by b a r r i n g c o u r t s from i n t e r f e r i n g i n t h e
o p e r a t i o n o f a d m i n i s t r a t i v e a c t s o r i s s u i n g summonses t o a d m i n i s t r a t o r s
*
on charges connected w i t h t h e i r d u t i e s ( A r t i c l e 13). 308 Furthermore,
l e g i s l a t i v e branch o f government o r o b s t r u c t i n g t h e e x e c u t i o n of
These p r o v i s i o n s r e s t r i c t i n g t h e j u d i c i a l power w i t h i n c l e a r l y
d e f i n e d l i m i t s were i n c o r p o r a t e d i n t o t h e C o n s t i t u t i o n o f September
t h e i r f a i t h i n t h e f e a s i b i l i t y of a l e g a l system based e n t i r e l y on s t a t u t e s ,
from a r b i t r a l d e c i s i o n s was n o t p e r m i t t e d u n l e s s t h e p a r t i e s e x p r e s s l y
I n a d d i t i o n t o t h e m a t t e r s s t i p u l a t e d t o be w i t h i n h i s competence under t h e
no w r i t t o commence a c i v i l a c t i o n would be a d m i t t e d t o a d i s t r i c t c o u r t
w i t h an a b s o l u t e m a j o r i t y o f v o t e s by t h e a c t i v e c i t i z e n s u n i t e d i n p r i m a r y
316
assemblies ( T i t . Ill, Art. 1 -
e t 3.). I t should be noted t h a t t h e
c o n d i t i o n s o f e l i g i b i l i t y made no r e f e r e n c e t o t h e need f o r j u d i c i a l
qu'on l u i a s s i g n a i t . J 1 7
a p p e l l a t e j u r i s d i c t i o n j u s t mentioned, t h e d i s t r i c t c o u r t s were g i v e n
o f r e a l e s t a t e s u i t s o f which t h e p r i n c i p a l i t e m i s f i f t y l i v r e s of f i x e d
j u r i s d i c t i o n t h e C o n s t i t u e n t Assembly chose n o t t o c r e a t e a c o u r t
parlements. 11321
s h o r t l y by t h e c r e a t i o n o f c o u r t s o f summary j u r i s d i c t i o n . , pursuant t o
e i t h e r by the i n j u r e d p a r t y , o r by t h e l o c a l p u b l i c prosecutor, o r by
overstep i t s a u t h o r i t y , t h e C o n s t i t u e n t Assembly s t r i c t l y l i m i t e d t h e
f u n c t i o n s assigned t o i t . A r t i c l e 1 o f t h e e n a b l i n g decree p r e s c r i b e d
r e a l i z e d t h e u n i f o r m i t y o f c o u r t d e c i s i o n s which i s a necessary
complement o f l e g i s l a t i v e u n i t y .
As a r e s u l t o f t h e new j u d i c i a l o r g a n i z a t i o n w i t h which t h e
C o n s t i t u e n t Assembly endowed t h e c o u n t r y , t h e e x c e p t i o n a l c o u r t s
changes, t h e broad o u t l i n e s o f t h e j u d i c i a l o r g a n i z a t i o n c r e a t e d by t h e
c o n d i t i o n s o f p r o f e s s i o n a l c a p a c i t y w i t h respect t o t h e e l e c t i o n o f
o f t h e Convention, t h e p r i n c i p l e o f t h e s e p a r a t i o n o f powers g r a d u a l l y
t h e R e v o l u t i o n a r y government.
o f safeguards f o r t h e p r o t e c t i o n o f t h e i n d i v i d u a l . As J. Godfrey
observes: he he R e v o l u t i o n a r y t r i b u n a l ] must, i n t h e f i n a l a n a l y s i s , be
socia 1
The C o n s t i t u t i o n o f 5 F r u c t i d o r , An I I I, i n s t i t u t e d f u r t h e r
modif ic a t i o n s i n j u d i c i a l o r g a n i z a t i o n . Mav i n g a b o l i s h e d t h e d i s t r i c t
as an a d m i n i s t r a t i v e u n i t , i t a l s o a b o l i s h e d t h e d i s t r i c t c o u r t s and
*
replaced them w i t h departmental c o u r t s f o r purposes o f c i v i l s u i t s i n
c i t y , one f o r c i v i 1 j u s t i c e , and t h e o t h e r f o r c r i m i n a l j u s t i c e .
On t h e whole, t h e j u d i c i a l system f u n c t i o n e d s a t i s f a c t o r i l y d u r i n g
v o i e ?i1'Empire. 11336
Under t h e Consulate, t h e C o n s t i t u t i o n o f 22 F r i m a i r e , An V l l l
administration. A r t i c l e 61 o f t h e C o n s t i t u t i o n p r o v i d e d t h a t t h e r e
t r i a l j u r i e s , a r b i t r a t i o n , and t h e h a n d l i n g o f c o n c i l i a t i o n by j u s t i c e s
t o t h e m a t t e r o f j u d i c i a l o r g a n i z a t i o n , he l a r g e l y r e e s t a b l i s h e d t h e
c o u r t s were c r e a t e d t o r e v i e w judgments o f c o u r t s o f f i r s t i n s t a n c e as
345
w e l l as judgments from t h e commercial c o u r t s .
t h e r e g u l a r c r i m i n a l c o u r t s f o r reasons o f economy.
347
CONCLUSION
t h e demands o f t h e m i d d l e c l a s s f o r e q u a l i t y o f r i g h t s , equal j u s t i c e ,
g i v e n a p a r t i a l and c l a s s i n t e r p r e t a t i o n by t h e l e a d e r s o f t h e R e v o l u t i o n
c o n c e p t i o n o f e q u a l i t y was l i m i t e d t o t h e d e s i r e t o a b o l i s h p r i v i l e g e . As
an e q u a l i t y n o t o f p r o p e r t y b u t o f s t a t u s . "
348
As t h i s p r o c l a m a t i o n o f e q u a l i t y o f r i g h t s made t h e f r e e ownership o f
c h a l l e n g e t o t h e narrower i n t e r p r e t a t i o n o f t h e D e c l a r a t i o n , and u l t i m a t e l y
t o cause t h e b o u r g e o i s i e t o appeal t o m i 1 i t a r y d i c t a t o r s h i p t o p r o t e c t i t s
*
s o c i a l and economic preeminence.
a c c u r a t e l y r e f l e c t e d t h e changing a t t i t u d e s d i s p l a y e d by t h e d i f f e r e n t
s p e c i f i c p r o h i b i t i o n s a g a i n s t w i l l i n g p r o p e r t y unequally were o n l y
introduced i n 1794.)
u n c e r t a i n t i e s which c h a r a c t e r i z e d much o f t h e c i v i l l e g i s l a t i o n o f t h e
ordered t o g e t h e r w i t h t h e c o n f i s c a t i o n o f t h e p r o p e r t y o f t h e emigr&;
w i t h p r i v a t e p r o p e r t y was thus c i r c u m s c r i b e d i n t h e b e l i e f t h a t t h e
t h e new governing c l a s s .
*
The Dec l a r a t i o n o f R i g h t s accompanying t h e C o n s t i t u t i o n o f An I l l
e x p r e s s l y confirmed by t h e d e f i n i t i o n g i v e n t o p r i v a t e p r o p e r t y : "La
t h e maintenance o f a s o c i a l h i e r a r c h y and t h e p r o t e c t i o n o f i n d i v i d u a l
t h e i r advantage t h e s a l e o f n a t i o n a l p r o p e r t y .
354
t h e R e v o l u t i o n seemed t o be threatened.
r e f l e c t e d b o t h i n t h e r e s t o r a t i o n o f p a t e r n a l a u t h o r i t y and t h e f r e e r
d i s p o s i t i o n o f p r i v a t e p r o p e r t y , as w e l l as i n t h e increased s e v e r i t y o f
1 1 i n t 6 r 6 t de l a c l a s s e poss6dante. I 1 r z g l e l e s c o n d i t i o n s d ' e x i s t e n c e de
e
2. M. Marion, D i c t i o n n a i t - e des i n s t i t u t i o n s de l a France aux X V I I
e t X V l l l e s i s c l e s , (Paris: August P i c a r d , 1923), p. 315.
3. -
Ibid., p. 314.
4. J. M a c k r e l l ,
" C r i t i c i s m o f s e i g n i o r i a l j u s t i c e i n eighteenth-century
France", i n .French Government and Soci e t y 1500- 1850, J F. .
Bosher (ed.), (London: A t h l o n e Press, 1973), p. 125.
9. -
Ibid., p. 142.
11. R. David and H, DeVries, The French Legal System, ( ~ e wYork: Oceana
pub1 i c a t i o n s , 1958), p. 1 1 .
14. Sagnac, La I g g i s l a t i o n c i v i l e , p. 6.
e
21. R. Anchel, Crimes e t chatiments au X V l l l sizcle, (paris: Librairie
acad&nique P e r r i n , 1933), p. 29.
22. Ibid., p. 4.
27 Ibid., p. 398.
28. Ibid., p. 399.
36. Ib i d .
38 Ibid., p. 25.
40. Ibid.
43. M a c k r e l l , S e i g n i o r i a l J u s t i c e , p. 134.
48. Ibid.
49. Ibid.
50. M a c k r e l l , S e i g n i o r i a l J u s t i c e , p. 134.
/
52. Maestro, V o l t a i r e and Beccaria, p. 101.
64. -
Ibid., p . 31.
66. -
Ibid.
/
69. Maestro, V o l t a i r e and Beccaria, p . 155.
75. Ibid.
81. J. D e c l a r e u i l , H i s t o i r e g6ngrale du d r o i t f r a n s a i s de o r i g i n e s d e s
3 1789. ( P a r i s : L i b r a i r i e du Recueil ~ i r e y . 1925),
83. Ibid., p. x x i .
85. M a c k r e l l , S e i g n i o r i a l J u s t i c e , p . 128.
87. Ibid., p. 6.
92 Ibid., p. 478.
e
98. J. Flammermont, Remonstrances du Parlement de P a r i s au X V l l l
~ i z c l e , (paris: l m p r i m e r i e n a t i o n a l e , 1898) Vol. 3, p. 770.
100. I b i d . , p. 530.
102. =l b i d p. 531.
103. I b i d . , p. 531.
104. I b i d . , p. 532.
-
105. l b i d p. 532.
-
115. I b i d .
116. I b i d .
117. I b i d .
121. I b i d . , p. 46.
124. I b i d . , p. 59.
-
125. l b i d p. 60.
131. I b i d . , p. 333.
-
133. I b i d . , p. 233.
-
138. Esmein, D r o i t f r a n s a i s de 1789 2 1814, p. 235.
139. I b i d . , p. 239.
142. I b i d .
143. I b i d .
146. Sagnac, La l g g i s l a t i o n c i v i l e , p. 3.
*
J.
I
s
-
148. I b i d .
-
152. Ibid., p. 48.
-
153. Ibid., p. 48.
-
154. Ibid., p. 48.
-
155. I b i d . , p. 48.
156. l b i d
Po 9 p. 51.
-
162. I b i d .
-
163. I b i d . , p. 54.
164. Markham, Napoleon, p. 96.
-
168. Esmein, Droit fransais de 1789 2 1814, p. 329.
178. Ibid.
184. -
Ibid., p. 286.
185. I b i d . , p. 286.
-
188. I b i d .
-
197. Ibid., p. 76.
-
198. I b i d . , p. 83.
-
199. Ibid., p. 86.
203. -
Ibid., p. 59.
204. -
Ibid., p. 60.
205. -
Ibid., p. 391.
210. -
Ibid., p. 249.
211. -
Ibid., p. 244.
212. ~ e r e b o u r s - ~ i ~ e o n n i z rLa
e , F a m i l l e e t l e Code C i v i l , Vol. 1, p. 280.
-
219. P l a n i o l . R e v o l u t i o n and t h e C odes, V
- a i s de 1789
221. Esmein, D r o i t f r a n q 2 1814, p. 250.
-
224. I b i d . , p. 180.
226. Ibid.
230. Ibid.
231. Ibid.
232. Stewart, Documentary Survey, p. 146.
-
233. I b i d .
-
236. I b i d .
237. I b i d . , p. 410.
-
238. l b i d . , p. 415.
239. Ibid., p. 41 6.
243. -
Ibid., p. 411.
244. I b i d . , p. 419.
246. I b i d . , p. 419.
249. I b i d . , p . 194.
250. M. ~ o u c a ? u l t , S u r v e i l l e r e t p u n i r , ( P a r i s : E d i t i o n s Gallimard,
19751, p. 18.
251. Von Bar, C o n t i n e n t a l C r i m i n a l Law, p . 321.
276. Marc Ancel, " I n t r o d u c t i o n " t o The French Penal Code, G.O.W. Mueller
(ed .) , o on don : Sweet & Maxwell L i m i ted, 1960) , p 3. .
277. Esmein, C o n t i n e n t a l Criminal Procedure, p. 464.
283. I b i d .
-
284. Esmein, D r o i t f r a n s a i s de 1789 2 1814, p. 337.
293. -
Ibid., p. 9.
294. Ibid., p. 5.
298. -
Ibid.
305. -
Ibid.
306. Ibid.
308. S t e w a r t , Documentary Survey, p. 145.
.
311. Esmein, D r o i t f r a n ~ a i sde 1789 2 1814, p.
313. Ibid.
144.
314. Ibid.
319. Ibid.
336. -
Ibid., p. 481.
338. -
Ibid.
341. -
Ibid., p. 773.
350. I b i d . , p . 241.
352. Ibid.
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