Unit – I General Principles

1.1 Estimating
It is an art of examination of quantities of different items and their cost. So estimating helps us
to plan the amount required for executing a work before actually carrying out the work.
Purpose of Estimating and Costing
As per good management practices we must know the material required (with complete
specifications and quantity of each item) and the cost to be incurred thereon before taking up any
new program in hand. For this, it becomes necessary to prepare a complete project for the given
program as it will act as a guide in the successful implementation of the program. The project
report includes complete details of the work to be carried out such as detailed drawings of the
work, completed details of the required materials with costing and the sequence of operations to
be performed.
Estimating is also essential as it provides us an accurate assessment of the amount of money
required money required, availability of material etc. In case any program is taken in hand is
started without preparing project report and without estimating and costing, it will be difficult,
rather impossible, to complete the work uninterruptedly because shortage of money and/or
avaibility of materials may cause blockade at any stage.

1.2 Catalogues
For the pricing of the estimate, up to date catalogues from manufacturers and whole sale dealers
for the required material must be available with the estimator.
The estimator saves time by making selection of standard catalogues. Further saving in time and
trouble can be cheived if the estimator prepares his own price lists consisting of net figures.

1.3 Recording of Estimates

All estimates must be written in a book which is kept for this sole purpose.
It is preferable to write estimates on loose sheets in order to file them with the contract
papers. With the help of estimates prepared on loose sheets and collected in the book form,
actual costs of the complete job can be more easily compared with the estimated costs—an
essential operation. Moreover much labour is saved in preparing new estimates for a similar job,
which is only possible in case the estimates are kept together in a book form.

1.4 Determination of Required Quantity of Material

The determination of quantity of casing-capping, batten or conduit and wire for house wiring is
very tedious job. The very first step in determination of required quantity of material is to decide
the layout to be adopted. After selecting the layout, following activities are then carried out:-
i. Writing down the size and length with full description of batten that will connect the
energy meter to the consumers main board.
ii. Writing down the size and length with full description of wire or cable that will
connect the energy meter to consumer’s main switch fuse.
iii. Writing down with full description about the main switch itself with its type and
capacity.
iv. Writing down the full description about the size and length of wire or cable and
batten between main switch board and main distribution board
v. Writing down with full description about the main distribution board with its type
capacity.
 vi. Writing down the full description about the size and length of wire or cable and
batten for various circuits.
vii. The batten and cables for heating circuits are in separate runs. Now a list of swiches,
switch boxes, sockets and other items can be prepared. A small amo t of money is
added to cover the cost of screws and other minor requirements.

1.4 Determination of Cost of Material

Best way to determine the cost of material required for wiring is to prepare a Table with the
columns, shown below.

Insert the items with complete specifications and quantity required in their respective columns.
Then rates for all items from standard catalogue, the total cost item wise, and finally the totaling.
If any special type of fitting is required then a letter or phone message or E-mail will have to
send to the manufacturer for a quotation. Thus we will reach the total cost of the material
required.
1.5 Determination of Cost of Labour
To determine the labour cost one the following methods must be adopted:-
i. Determine the total number of points, taking two points for main board and one point
for each sub circuit in addition to the total number of points to be installed. Then find
out the total labour cost charging @ Rs.65, 75 and 125 per point for cleat, casing
capping, batten and conduit wiring respectively.
ii. Provide the labour charges as 15 %, 20 % or 25% of material cost.

After totaling the material cost and labour cost we should provide some percentage of the above
cost under the heading contingencies and then finally arrive at the final cost of the wiring work.
1.6 Contingencies
This is for vague and unforeseen items. The amount is provided under the head of contingencies
to cover the unforeseen expenditure such as to cover extra costs on account of delays in delivery,
minor accidents and unforeseen variations from the plans of the estimating department. Such
expenses may also be due to natural calamities such as floods, earthquakes, storms, hailstorms
etc. The amount to be allowed is too variable and depends upon the exactness of the
specifications.
The contingencies fully compensate additional material cost, labour cost and other allied
expenses which could not be accounted for.
1.7 Overhead Charges
The overhead charges or standing charges of the business cover all expenditure necessary to
carry out the business, in addition to the special expenditure, incurred in carrying out a particular
job. These can be classified under the following headings:
i. Rent of offices and workshop;
ii. Allowances for the wear and tear of buildings, plant and machinery (depreciation);
iii. Wages of clerical staff;
iv. General expenses;
v. Rates and taxes;
vi. Lighting and heating;
vii. Advertising; insurance;
viii. Postage and telephone;
ix. Carriage and general travelling expenses, legal costs and bad debts etc.

1.8 Tender Form

Tender means a form on which an offer is made from a party to make supply or undertake some
work at its quoted rates on some specified conditions.
The tender is usually accompanied with an amount called earnest money. Earnest money is the
guarantee of tenderer to deposit the required security and to enter into the required agreement on
intimation of the acceptance of his tender. After acceptance of a tender, the tenderer deposits
security, which is his guarantee for due fulfillment of his contract.

1.9 Guidelines for inviting a tender

Following are the guidelines for inviting a tender
i. Whenever practicable and advantageous the contract is executed only after tenders
have been invited. In regard to contract for ― work ― or ― repairs ― tenders are always
invited, except when some exemptions have been granted by the competent authority.
ii. Tenders are ordinarily invited on tender form prescribed for the purpose. If any
alternation is to be made, it should be done after taking prior sanction of the
competent authority.
iii. Tenders are always sealed and are invited in the most open and public manner, for
example by advertising in the Government Paper or local papers written either in
Nepali or English.
iv. The tender notice always states the followings ;-
a) The place where and the time when, the contract documents can be seen, and the
blank forms of tender can be obtained with the amount that is to be paid for the
purchase of forms of tender.
b) The place where, the date on which, and the time when the tenders are to be
submitted and are to be opened.
c) The amount of earnest money to be deposited and the amount and the nature of
the security deposit required in the case of accepted tenders.
d) With whom or what authority the acceptance of the tender will rest.
 v. The earnest money of the unsuccessful tenders is refunded to the tenderers as soon as
possible after the disposal of the tenders.
vi. Usually the lowest tender is accepted, unless there is any objection to the capability of
the contractor and the works previously done by him.

1.10 Specimen Tender

Book page 14 and onwards.
 Unit –III Design, Estimation and Costing Consideration of Electrical Installation in
Buildings

3.1 Electrical Supply Systems

Electrical energy is generated at the power stations (hydroelectric, thermal or nuclear) which are
usually situated far away from the load centers. Hence a complex network of conductors between
the power stations and the consumers is required. This network of conductors may be divided
into two main components, called the transmission system and distribution system. The
generation, transmission and distribution system of electrical power is called Electrical Supply
System.
3.1.1 Single Phase Two Wire System
For supplying purely domestic loads single phase two- wires distributors are employed. It
consists of two conductors, one for phase and the other for neutral and same power loss will take
place in both the conductors. The electrical power generated at the power station is generally 3
phase and we know that the transmission of electrical power is done by 3 phase 3 wires system.
But while distributing the electrical power the power is distributed using 3 phase 4 wires system
in which the fourth wire is the neutral wire. Any of the three lines and a neutral gives a single
phase supply. These conductors are normally called as service mains or service cables.

Y
B

1st phase 2 nd phase 3 rd phase

Disadvantages:-
a) Power delivered is pulsating (not constant) and objectionable for many applications.
b) For a given frame size a single phase machine gives lesser output than a three phase
machine.
c) Parallel operation of single phase generator is difficult than that of single phase
generators.
d) For transmitting the same amount of power at same voltage a single phase line requires
more conductor than a three phase line. Thus single phase transmission is costly.
e) For a given amount of power to be transmitted through a system, the single phase system
requires conductor with a larger cross sectional area. This means greater cost and larger
initial investment.
 3.1.2 Three Phase Four Wire Distribution
Three-phase, 4-wire distribution layout is shown in following figure.

Transformers substations are built at or near the load centers of the area where the load is to be
supplied. The substations contains high voltages switchgear and bus-bars, and low voltage fuses
or links. The supply to the primary is by high voltage or extra high voltage feeder cable from the
generating station. The low voltage bus-bars are distinguished by colour marking: red, yellow,
and blue, for the phases, and black for the neutral. The local 4-wire distributors are connected in
parallel to the bus-bars through the fuses or links, and the separate cores are also distinguished
by similar color marking. Domestic and other low voltage consumer's premises are connected to
the distributors by 2-wire service cables, which are tee jointed to the distributors. In order to
balance the three phases, the consecutive services are connected to the different phases and the
neutral in turn: red-neutral, yellow-neutral, and blue-neutral. Larger non-domestic consumers are
supplied with a 4-wire service, to give 240 V single phase for lighting, as well as 415 V 3-phase
for power.

3.2 Protection of Electrical Installation

Followings are the different types of protection:-
1. Overload Protection
Thermal overload relay provides protection against overload. The key component of the thermal
overload relay is bimetallic strip and a heater coil. The heater coil is placed next to the bimetallic
strip.
When the coil gets sufficiently heated due to excessive current, the bimetallic strip flexes upward
at its outer end and releases a lacth. A spring rotated the latch about its axis to actuate the
tripping members that opens the normally closed contacts. The relay is manually reset after
tripping by means of a reset push button.
It should be noted that thermal overload relay provides protection for the motor only against
overload but not short circuits.
2. Short Circuit Protection
MCB (Miniature Circuit Breaker) is a device that provides definite protection to the wiring
installations and sophisticated equipment against over currents and short circuits. It has inverse
time current characteristic which means that greater the short circuit current, shorter is the time
required to operate the MCB.
On the occurrence of a short circuit, the short circuit current energizes the solenoid which
operates the plunger to strike the trip circuit thereby opening the normally closed contacts. The
operating time is very less (< 5 milliseconds).
MCBs are available with different current ratings of
0.5/1/2/2.5/3/4/5/6/7/7.5/10/16/20/25/32/35/40/63/100/125/160 Amperes and voltage ratings of
415/240 volts ac and up to 220 volts dc.

3. Earth Leakage Protection

Earth Leakage Circuit Breaker (ELCB) is a device that provides protection aginst earth leakage.
Following are two types of ELCB
i. Current Operated ELCB
It is used when the product of the operating current in amperes and the earth loop impedance in
ohms does not exceed 40 volts.
In normal conditions when there is no earth leakage the algebraic sum of the currents is three
coils of the CT’s is zero and no current flows through the trip coil. In case of any earth leakage,
the currents are unbalanced and the trip coil is energized and thus the CB is tripped.
ii.Voltage Operated ELCB
It is used when the earth loop impedance exceeds the values applicable to fuses or MCBs. When
the voltage between the earth continuity conductor (ECC) and earth electrode rises to a sufficient
value, the trip coil energizes and thus opens the normally closed contacts.
3.3 Earthing
Earthing means connections of the neutral point of a supply system or the non-current carrying
parts of electrical apparatus, such as metallic framework, metallic covering of cables, earth
terminal of socket outlet, stay wires etc., to the general mass of earth in such a manner that at all
times an immediate discharge of electrical energy takes place without danger.
Purpose or Importance of Earthing
In an electric installation, if a metallic part of an electric appliance comes in direct contact with a
bare or live wire (that may be due to failure of insulation or otherwise) the metal being a good
conductor of electricity is charged and static charge on it will accumulate. Now if any person
comes in contact with this charged metallic part, he will get a severe shock. Bu if the metallic
parts of the appliances are earthed, the charge will be transferred to the earth immediately, as the
metallic part comes in direct contact with a bare or live or breakdown occurs.
And as the discharge takes place to earth, the impedance of path of the c4rrent is low, a large
amount of current flows to earth, the instant, the current exceeds the limiting value, the fuse
provided in the circuit will blow off and cut off the appliance from supply. Thus earthing of
metallic parts of electrical equipment and appliances provides safety.
In general earthing is provided in order:-
1: to ensure that no current carrying conductor rises to a potential with respect to general mass of
earth than its designed insulation,
2: to avoid electric shock to the human beings, and
3: to avoid risk of fire due to earth leakage current through unwanted path.
 3.3.1Methods of Earthing
Followings are the different methods of earthing
1. Strip or Wire Earthing
In this system of earthing, strip electrodes of cross section not less than 25 mm X 1.6 mm of
copper or 25 mm X 4 mm of galvanized iron or steel are used. The length of the buried
conductor should be less than 15 meters. These conductors are buried inside the earth at depth
not less than 0.5 meter in horizontal trenches.
This type of earthing is used at places which have rocky soil earth bed because at such places
excavation work of plate earthing is difficult.
2. Rod Earthing
In this system of earthing, 12.5 mm solid rods of copper or 16 mm diameter solid rods of
galvanized iron or steel are used. The length of buried conductor should be less than 2.5 meters.
These conductors are buried vertically inside the earth manually or by pneumatic hammer.
This type of earthing is suitable for areas which are sandy in character. This system of earthing is
very cheap as no excavation work is required.
3. Pipe Earthing
This is the common and the best method of earthing as compared to other methods.
In this method of earthing, 40 mm diameter of galvanized steel and perforated pipe. The length
of the pipe should be 2.5 meter in length for ordinary soil or of greater length on case of dry and
rocky soil. The pipe is placed upright in a permanently wet soil and buried inside the earth at a
depth of not less than 3.75 meters. The size of the pipe depends upon the current to be carried
and the type of soil.
The bottom of the pipe is surrounded by broken pieces of coke or charcoal for a distance
of about 15 cm around the pipe. Generally alternate layers of coke and salt are used to increase
the effective area of the earth and to decrease the earth resistance respectively.
4. Plate Earthing
In this method of earthing, an earthing plate either of copper of dimensions 60 cm X 60 cm X 3
mm or galvanized iron of dimensions 60 cm X 60 cm X 6 mm is buried into the ground with its
vertical face at a depth of not less than 3 meters from the ground level. The earth plate is
embedded in alternate layers of coke and salt for a minimum thickness of 15 cm.
The galvanized iron earth wire is securely bolted to the earth plate with the help of nut,
bolt and washer made up of material same as that of the material of the earth plate.
1.4General Requirement for Electrical Installation
3.4.1 Electricity Rules
a) Every installation is to be protected with main switch and a fuse.
b) The conductor should carry full load current continuously without overheating and damage.
c) The installation should be safe.
d) A switch board is to be installed generally 1.25 meter above the floor.
e) All plugs and socket outlets are to be 3 pin types.
f) Sufficient number of socket outlets should be provided in all rooms.
g) 3 pin, 5 Ampere socket outlets are to be used all in light and fan circuits and 3 pin, 15 Ampere
socket outlets are to be used in all power circuits.
h) No socket outlet is to be provided in the bathroom at a height less than 1.3 meter.
i) All ceiling fan are to be hung 2.75 meter above the floor or ground.
j) No fuse or switch is to be provided in earthed conductor.
k) In 3 phase 4 wire installation the load is to be distributed equally in all the phases.
l) After completion of work, the installations are to be tested.
3.4.2 Testing of Installation
Any testing of the electrical installation shall begin after obtaining permit to work from the
engineer in charge and after ensuring the safety provisions. Following tests are to be done.
1.Testing of Switch Boards
Switch boards shall be tested in the manner indicated below:-
a) All the earth connections shall be checked for continuity.
b) The operation of the CBs shall be tested for all interlock.
c) The indicating lamps shall be checked for working.
d) The specific gravity of the electrolyte and the voltage of the control battery shall be measured.

2. Testing of Transformers
3. Testing of Cable
4. Testing of motors and other equipment
- > The insulation resistance of each phase winding against the frame and between the
windings should measured by Megger.
5. Testing of Wiring Installation
-> The insulation resistance between earth and the whole system of conductor or any
section is measured by suing Megger. The whole installation should have the insulation
resistance less than 1 Mega ohm.
6. Testing of Earthing
For checking the efficiency of earthing, following tests are recommended
a) The earth resistance of each electrode is measured.
b) The earth resistance of earthing mat is measured.
c) All electrodes are connected to the grid and earth resistance of the entire earthing system is
measured.
Note that all these tests should be carried preferably in summer season.

3.4.3 Circuit and Sub Circuit

Electrical apparatus is connected by cables to the supply main and the associated protective and
controlling devices ( usually fuses and switches). This arrangement of cables is known as circuit.
A circuit that feeds the apparatus directly is called sub circuit.
Determination of Number of Sub Circuit:-

a) Lighting Sub Circuit

See Class Copy.

b) Power Sub Circuit

See Class Copy.

3.4.4 Service Connections

The overhead line or cable connecting the suppliers distributing line (distributors) to the
consumer’s premises is called service main or service cable or service connection. The service
connection terminates at the point, where the supply conductors enter the energy meter.
3.5 Layout
Followings are the points to be considered:-
1. Position of Main Distribution Board (MDB) and Sub Distribution Board (SDB)
- The supplier (Nepal Electricity Authority) main board consisting of energy meter and main fuse
is placed at the point of entry of service cable. The meter board is fixed and sealed by the
supplier and two leads (terminals) one phase and other neutral are taken out from the meter.
These two leads are connected to the consumer’s main board.
- The consumer’s main board consisting of main switch and fuse is placed as near the supplier
meter board. The consumer’s main board is the starting point for internal wiring.
- After consumer’s main board, sub distribution board is placed. There can be more than one
SDB depending upon the power distribution within the building.
- Both the meters (supplier and consumer) are placed at a height of about 1.5 meters.

2. Position of Switches and Socket Outlets

-The switches are to be placed 1.25 / 1.35 / 1.4 meters above the floor. In nurseries, child
hospitals and schools a much higher standard height is required say 1.6 meters to 1.8 meters
above the floor.
- While fixing the position of socket outlets the position of the apparatus connected to them must
be in our view.
- Switch boards should be fitted by the side of entrance gate.

3.Height and Size of Lamps

The correct height at which the lamps must be hung depends soon the shape and size of the
room. For large rooms 2.25 meters or 2.5 meters is a good average height.

4. Dining Room
In a small and average sized dining room, the right place for the light source is over the center of
the dining table. One or two 5 ampere socket outlet and one 15 ampere socket outlet should be
provided.

5. Drawing Room
For a drawing room there is not any hard and fast rule. It depends upon the position and style of
furniture and decoration.

6. Bedroom Lights
In a bedroom one light is necessary, a few centimeters in front of the dreing table. In bedroom
two or three 5 ampere socket outlet and one 15 ampere socket outlet should be provided.

7. Kitchen Lights
In kitchens light should be provided as hanging down close infront of the cooking burner. A
second light, however , may be provided where light is required and not necessarily in center of
the room. In kitchen two 15 ampere and one 5 ampere socket outlet is to be provided.

8.Bathroom Lights
The light used in the bathroom should be fitted in a glass and fixed directly in the ceiling and out
of reach of the person standing on the edge of the bath. The switch should be either outside the
door or in case if it is to be provided inside the bathroom then the switch board must be out of
the reach of the person standing in the bath.

3.6 Load Assessment or Determination of Total Load

For determination of load of an installation the following rating may be assumed unless the
values are known or specified.
a) Fluorescent Lamp – 50 Watts
b) Incandescent Lamps, Fans – 60 Watts
c) Power Socket Outlet – 1000 Watts
d) Exhaust Fan – As per its capacity

3.7 Determination of Size of Conductor

There are three points that must be taken into account, while determining the size of conductor
for internal wiring for a given circuit.
i. Minimum Size of Cable
The conductor used in domestic wiring must not be less than 1/1.12 mm for copper wire or
1/1.40 mm for aluminum wire. It is mainly for mechanical considerations.
ii.Current Carrying Capacity
The wire or cable should be of size sufficient to carry the maximum circuit current continuously
without overheating and damage.
iii.Voltage Drop
For light load wiring,
Maximum Voltage Drop = 1 + 2 % of Declared Supply Voltage
For power load wiring,
Maximum Voltage Drop = 5 % of Declared Supply Voltage

Following table is required for solving numerical,

Unit 4. Estimating and Costing of Overhead and Underground Distribution Lines

4.1 Introduction
Electrical energy is generated at the power stations (hydroelectric, thermal or nuclear) which are
usually situated far away from the load centers. Hence an extensive network of conductors
between the power stations and the consumer is required. This network of conductors may be
divided into two main components, called the transmission and distribution system. The
generation, transmission and distribution system of electrical power is called electrical supply
system.
4.1.1 Transmission System
The transmission system is to deliver bulk power from the power stations to the load centers and
large industrial consumers beyond the economical service range of the regular primary
distribution lines. Three phase three wire system is universally adopted for the transmission of
large blocks of power. The transmission system may be further divided into primary transmission
and secondary transmission. Explain the following figure if required in examination.
 4.1.2 Distribution System
The distribution system is to deliver power from the substations to the various consumers. Three
phase four wire system is universally adopted for the distribution of electrical power. The
distribution system may be further divided into primary and secondary distribution.
The distribution system can be divided into Feeder, Distributor and Service Mains. These are
shown in diagram below.

1. Feeders: - Feeders are the conductors which connect the stations (in some cases generating
stations) to the areas to be fed by those stations. Generally from feeders no tapping is taken to
the consumers, there-fore, current loading of a feeder remains the same along its length. It is
designed mainly from the point of view of its current carrying capacity.
2. Distributors: - Distributors are the conductors from which numerous tappings for the supply to
the consumers are taken. The current loading of a distributor varies along its length
Distributors are designed from the point of view of the voltage drop in them.
3. Service Mains: - Service mains are the conductors which connect the consumer's terminals to
the distributor.

4.2 Supports for Overhead Distribution Lines

The function of line support is to support the OH line conductors. Followings are the main
requirements of the OH line supports:-
a) Cheaper in cost
b) Low maintenance cost
c) Longer Life
d) Good Looking
e) High mechanical strength to withstand the weight of conductors and wind load.
f) Light in weight without loss of mechanical strength.

Followings are the types supports used for OH distribution lines

i) Wooden Poles
Poles made of chemically treated wood are used for the distribution of electrical power for the
voltage level upto 11 kV. Wooden poles are used specially where there is sufficient avaibility of
good quality of wood. They are very economical but prone to decay. To reduce decay the
wooden poles are protected by an aluminum or zinc cap at the top and bitumen coating over the
portion of the pole below the ground.

ii) RCC Poles

Poles made of reinforced cement concrete (RCC) are stronger but more costly than wooden
poles. They have very long life and need little maintenance but they are bulky and heavy. They
are very useful in the remote areas which do not have access to transportation because these
 poles can be manufactured at the site. They are used for distribution lines up to 33kV in urban
areas.
iii) Steel Tubular Poles
They are costly than RCC poles but have the advantage of light weight, high strength to weight
ratio and longer life. The use of cap at the top, concrete muff in the ground and regular painting
prolongs their life. They are widely used for lines up to 33kV.
iv) Steel Towers
They are fabricated from painted or galvanized angle sections which can be transported
separately and the erection can be done at the site. They have advantage of long life and have a
high degree of reliability. They can withstand severe weather conditions. The risk of service
interruption due to damage of insulators is greatly reduced. They are very suitable for double
circuit lines and transmission lines greater than or equal to 66 kV.

4.3 Cross Arms

Cross Arm is a cross fitted to the pole top end portion by means of pole brackets for supporting
insulators. The line conductors are fitted to the insulators and the insulators are mounted to the
cross arm and finally the cross arm is secured (connected) to the line supports.
The function of a line support is to support the line conductors at a safe distance from the
ground whereas the function of cross arm is to keep the conductors at a safe distance from each
other and from the pole.
The cross arm may be straight, U-shape, V-shape or zigzag shape.

4.4 Guys and Stays

It becomes essential to stay OH line support at angle and terminal positions as the poles take
pull due to conductors. The theoretical angle between the pole and stay should be 45 degree but
in general practice it is usually kept 30 degree.
One end of the stay wire is fixed to the stay rod at the bottom and to the stay clamp to the pole
by means of well splitted(broken) joints with a egg type strain insulator.
The stay rod is kept far enough above the ground level so that the stay wire does not come in
contact with the soil of the ground. The egg type insulator is inserted in the sta y wire for safety.
It isolates stay wire electrically from metal supports (poles).

4.5 Selection of Underground Cables

Underground cables are used for transmission and distribution of power where it becomes
impracticable to make use of overhead construction. Such location may be congested urban area
where right of way cost would be excessive or local ordinances prohibit overhead lines for
reasons of safety, or around plants and substations; or crossings of wide bodies of water which
for various reasons would not permit the overhead crossings. The type of cable used will depend
upon the voltage and service requirements.
The type of cable to be used at a particular location is determined by the mechanical
considerations and the voltage at which it is required to operate. Usually the operating voltage
determines the type of insulation and the cables are placed in various categories depending upon
the voltage for which they are designed. According to voltage, the cables are classified as
(i) Low voltage (LT) cables for operating voltage up to 1 kV.
(ii) High voltage (HT) cables for operating voltage up to 11 kV.
(iii) Super-tension (ST) cables for operating voltage up to 33 k V.
(iv) Extra high tension (ET) cables for operating voltage up to 66,000 V.
(v) Extra super-voltage cables for operating voltage beyond 132 kV.
Unit 2. Design, estimation and costing of Illumination Scheme

2.1 Introduction
Light is a prime factor in the human life because all activities of human beings ultimately depend
upon light. Where there is no natural light we need artificial lighting. Artificial lighting is
produced electrically because electrical energy is clean, low cost, easily controllable etc. The
science of illumination engineering therefore becomes important.
2.2 Illumination
It differs from light very much. Light is a cause and illumination is the effect of that light on the
surfaces on which the light falls. Thus illumination makes the surface look more or less bright
with a certain color. Our eyes see this brightness and color and it may be pleasant or irritating.

Illumination (E) =

Therefore we see that unit of illumination is Lumen per Square Meter or Lux or Candle Meter.
2.3 Terms used in Illumination

i) Light
It is defined as the radiant energy from am hot body that produces visual sensation upon
the human eye. It is usually denoted by Q, expressed in lumen hours.
ii) Luminous Flux
It is defined as the total quantity of light energy emitted per second from a luminous
body. It is represented by and measured in Lumens.
iii) Luminous Intensity
Luminous intensity in any given direction is the luminous flux emitted by the source per
unit solid angle, measured in the direction in which the intensity is required.it is denoted by I
and measured in Candela.
iv) Candle Power
It is the light radiating capacity of light in a given direction.
v) Brightness and illuminance
When the eye receives a great deal of light from an object we say that it is bright and
brightness is important quantity of illumination.
Generally brightness of an object is not same from all point of view. When brightness is
considered in terms of measurable quantity, the term illuminance is used. Illuminance is
defined as the luminous intensity per unit projected area of either a surface source of light or
a reflecting surface. It is denoted by L.
vi) Lamp Efficiency
It is defined as the ratio of luminous flux of a lamp to power input
vii) Glare
It may be direct or reflected i.e. it may come direct from the light source or it may be
reflected brightness such as from nickelled machine parts, top of desk etc. Glare provides
discomfort to the eye so it should be avoided in the design as much as possible.
viii) Mounting Height
It is the height above the ground and below the ceiling at which the luminaries are to be
mounted. It is generally taken as 2.25 or 2.5 meters while design.
ix) Space to Height Ratio
Length Space or Horizontal Space to Mounting Height Ratio = Spacing Along the
Length / Mounting Height
Breadth Space or Vertical Space to Mounting Height Ratio = Spacing Along the
Breadth / Mounting Height

x) Coefficient of Utilization or Utilization Factor

The whole light radiated by the lamps does not reach the working plane. The ratio of
lumens reaching the working plane to the total lumen given out by the lamp or lamps is
called U.F. the value of U.F depends upon the following
a) The mounting height of lamps – U.F. decreases with the increase in mounting
height
b) Area to be illuminated – U.F increases with the increase in area to be illuminated
c) Type of lighting – more for direct lighting and less for indirect lighting
d) Colors of the surrounding etc.
Generally U.F is taken from 0.25 to 0.5 for direct lighting schemes and from 0.1 to
0.25 for indirect lighting schemes.

xi) Maintenance Factor

The illumination produced by a direct lighting installation is considerably less than
after a year or two year of use than it was initially. The loss is partly due to the ageing
of the lamps and partlyu due tp the accumulation of dust on the lamps and on the
ceiling and the walls.
It is defined as the ratio of ultimate maintained illumination on the working plane to
initial illumination on the working plane. Its value is more if the lamp fittings are
cleaned regularly say 0.8 and less if there is much dust say 0.6.

xii) Depreciation Factor

It is the reciprocal (inverse) of maintenance factor. Its value is more than unity.
 2.4 Sources of Light
According to the principle of operation the light sources are classified as following:-
1. Incandescent Lamps or Filament Lamps
When an electric current is passed through a fine metallic wire, heat is produced and the
temperature of the wire increases due to heating. At low temperature the wire radiates heat
energy. As the temperature of the wire increases due to heating it then radiates heat as well as
light energy. The higher the temperature of the wire, higher is the amount of light energy
radiated.
The incandescent or filament type lamp consists of a glass globe completely evacuated and a
fine wire, known as filament within it. The glass globe is evacuated in order to prevent the
oxidization and convection currents of the filament and also to prevent the temperature being
lowered by radiation.
The material that can be used for the filaments of the incandescent lamp are osmium, tantalum
and tungsten. Osmium is very rare and expensive so it is not used. The melting point of
tantalum is 2800 degree Celsius and therefore cannot be operated at higher temperature to give
more efficiency. Nowadays tungsten is the most commonly used metal for the filament due to
its high melting point (3400 degree Celsius) , high resistivity, low temperature coefficient, low
vapour pressure and mechanically strong to withstand vibration during use.
2. Gas filled Lamps
A metal filament can work in an evacuated bulb up to 2000 degree Celsius without oxidation
and if it is operated beyond this temperature it vaporizes quickly and blackens the lamp. For
higher efficiency it is necessary to use working temperature more than 2000 degree Celsius
keeping down the evaporation, which is possible by filling the bulb with an inert gas – argon
with small percentage of nitrogen.
3. Halogen lamps
it is the latest development in the family of incandescent lamps . it has the following
advantages:-
a) No blackening of lamp, hence no depreciation of lamp.
b) High operating temperature with increased luminous efficiency.
c) Reduced dimensions of lamp.
d) Longer life and better color rendition.

4. Gaseous Discharge Lamps

Incandescent lamps suffer from two disadvantages – low efficiency and coloured light. The
gaseous discharge lamps have been developed to overcome these drawbacks.
The basic principle of gaseous discharge lamps is shown in the following figure.

Gases are normally poor conductors but the application of suitable voltage called the ignition
voltage,across the two electrodes can result in a discharge through the gas, which is followed by
electromagnetic radiation. The wavelength of this radiation depends up on the gas, its pressure
and the metal vapour used in the lamp. Argon gas, sodium and mercury vapours are commonly
use din the manufacture of the sodium discharge lamps.
 Followings are the types of gaseous discharge lamps:-
a) Sodium Discharge Lamp
b) High Pressure Mercury Vapour Discharge Lamp
c) Neon Lamp
d) Neon tube
e) Fluorescent Tubes
Here we discuss only about Fluorescent tubes:-
It has the great advantage over other light sources in many application. The tubes can be
obtained in variety of length with illumination in a variety of colors. It is possible to obtain quite
high lighting without excessive temperature rise and danger of the glare is minimized.

###Differences between Filament Lamp and Fluoroscent Lamp [Important]###

Filament Lamp
a) Due to comparatively high working temperature high heat is produced.
b) Its brightness is more
c) Initial cost is low
d) Life of lamp is low
e) With time the light is output is rapidly reduced.

Fluroscent Lamp
f) Due to comparatively low working temperature low heat is produced.
g) Its brightness is less
h) Initial cost is high
i) Life of lamp is high
j) With time the light is output is slowly reduced.

2.5 Factory Lighting

2.5.1 Types of Factory Lighting

Sufficient lighting of factories is of vital importance, as it provides facilities for the employees,
increases production and reduces accidents.
It can be divided into two types:-

i) General lighting
In large machine shops the mounting height of the lamps depend by the necessity of keeping the
lamps above the travelling crane. In such cases it is often desirable to supplement the main
lighting by side lighting on order to give additional illumination. Since light coloured walls and
ceiling add to the effectiveness of an installation, it is necessary to get white washing or painting
done.
ii) Local Lighting
On some points fairly intense illumination is required. For this purpose local lighting can be
provided by means of suitable fittings attached to the machine. Such lamps should be mounted in
deep reflectors so that glare is avoided.
Portable hand lamps are used for maintenance work and emergency lighting.
Local lighting should never be provided alone, good general lighting is essential so that dark
places between the local lighting units are avoided because it causes discomfort to the eyes.
 iii) Emergency Lighting
It is used at the following places:-
a) For safe and speedy evacuation of personnel after main lighting circuit is off
b) For control posts
c) For first aid centers
The circuit supplying the power to the emergency lighting should be independently and
separate from the main lighting circuit.

2.5.2 Fittings for Factory Lighting

Reflectors for industrial purposes must be simple in design and easily cleaned. Followings are the
type of reflectors used:-
i) Standard Reflectors
These reflectors are made to accommodate lamps of ratings from 40 to 1500 watts and are designed
so that they provide adequate and uniform illumination on the working plane.
ii) Diffusing Reflectors
When more diffused light is required than given by the standard reflector a diffusing glass screen
may be fixed across a standard type of reflector.
iii) Concentrating Reflectors
A reflector with a concentrated beam is employed in large machine shops.
iv) Angle Reflectors
They are used to provide illumination in a vertical plane where concentrating reflectors are used.
2.5.3 Maintenance
In order to maintain the fittings, it is necessary to clean the light fittings regularly. The number of
cleaning depends up on the factory conditions and varies from once to twice a week.
2.5.4 Types of Lamps
The discharge lamps are used where colour rendering is not important. The fluorescent laps are
widely used because of its natural day light colour.

2.6 Street Lighting

The main objective of street lighting are:-
i) To make the traffic and obstructions on the road clearly visible in order to promote safety and
convenience.
ii) To make the street more attractive.
iii) To increase the community value of the street.
2.6.1 Two general principles are usually employed in the design of street lighting
calculations:-
i) Diffusion principle
In this case the lamps fitted with suitable reflectors are used. The reflectors are so designed that
they may direct the light downwards and spread as infirmly as possible over the road surface. The
illumination at any point on the road is calculated by applying point to point or inverse square law
method. Over certain proportions of the road the surface is illuminated from two lamps and the
resultant illumination is the sum of the illumination due to each lamp.
ii) Specular Reflection Principle
In this case the reflectors are curved upwards so that the light id thrown on the road at a very
large angle of incidence. This method is more economical as compared to diffusion principle
but it produces glare for the motorist.
2.6.2 Illumination Level for Street Lighting and Mounting Height of Lamps
The illumination required depends utpon the class of street lighting installations. An average well
lighted street will require illumination level between 8 to 15 lux. Excellent illumination is
obtained when the distance between the lamp posts is not more than 8 times the height of
luminaries. Lamp posts should always be fixed at the junction of roads and as far as possible
lamps should not be places near large trees.
2.6.3 Type of Lamps for Street Lighting
Mercury vapour and sodium discharge lamps have been found to have certain particular
advantage for street lighting purpose because of they consume low power for a given amount of
light. The colour and monochromatic (single colour) nature of the light produced by discharge
lamps do not matter much in street lighting installations.

2.7 Illumination Level for Different Occupancies (Rooms)

2.8 Methods of Lighting Calculation
Following methods are used:-
1. Watts per Square Meter Method

2. Lumen or Light Flux Method

Here the data given are number of lamps, wattage of each lamp, efficiency of each lamp. Then,
Lumen output of each lamp =( efficiency of one lamp) X (wattage of each lamp)
Total lumen output of all lamps,
= (Number of Lamps) X ( Lumen output of each lamp)
= (Number of Lamps) X (efficiency of one lamp) X (wattage of each lamp)
Lumen received on Working Plane = (Total Lumen Output of all Lapms) X (U.F)/D.F
= (Total Lumen Output of all Lapms) X U.F X M.F
Now explain about U.F, M.F and D.F

3. Point to point or Inverse Square Law Method

This method is applicable where the illumination at appoint due to one or more sources of light is
required, the candle powers of the sources in the particular direction under consideration being
known.