Biodiversity

- It is the variety of life on Earth, in all its forms and all its interactions. If that sounds
bewilderingly broad, that’s because it is. Biodiversity is the most complex feature
of our planet and it is the most vital. “Without biodiversity, there is no future for
humanity,” says Prof David Macdonald, at Oxford University.
Convention Biodiversity
- The Convention on Biological Diversity (CBD) is an international legally-binding
treaty with three main goals: conservation of biodiversity; sustainable use of
biodiversity; fair and equitable sharing of the benefits arising from the use of
genetic resources. Its overall objective is to encourage actions, which will lead to
a sustainable future.
- The conservation of biodiversity is a common concern of humankind. The
Convention on Biological Diversity covers biodiversity at all levels: ecosystems,
species and genetic resources. It also covers biotechnology, including through the
Cartagena Protocol on Biosafety. In fact, it covers all possible domains that are
directly or indirectly related to biodiversity and its role in development, ranging from
science, politics and education to agriculture, business, culture and much more.
Endemic Species
- Endemic species are plants and animals that exist only in one geographic region.
Species can be endemic to large or small areas of the earth: some are endemic to
a continent, some to part of a continent, and others to a single island. Usually an
area that contains endemic species is isolated in some way, so that species have
difficulty spreading to other areas, or it has unusual environmental characteristics
to which endemic species are uniquely adapted. Endemism, or the occurrence of
endemic animals and plants, is more common in some regions than in others. In
isolated environments such as the Hawaiian Islands, Australia, and the southern
tip of Africa, as many of 90% of naturally occurring species are endemic. In less
isolated regions, including Europe and much of North America, the% age of
endemic species can be very small.
- Biologists who study endemism do not only consider species, the narrowest
classification of living things; they also look at higher level classifications of genus,
family, and order. These hierarchical classifications are nested so that, in most
cases, an order of plants or animals contains several families, each of these
families includes several genera (plural of "genus"), and each genus has several
species. These levels of classification are known as "taxonomic" levels.

3 Levels of Biodiversity Species diversity

Species diversity
- is the effective number of different species that are represented in a collection of
individuals (a dataset)? The effective number of species refers to the number of
 equally-abundant species needed to obtain the same mean proportional species
abundance as that observed in the dataset of interest (where all species may not
be equally abundant). Species diversity consists of two components, species
richness and evenness. Species richness is a simple count of species, whereas
species evenness quantifies how equal the abundances of the species are.

Genetic diversity
- , the level of biodiversity, refers to the total number of genetic characteristics in
the genetic makeup of a species. It is distinguished from variability, which
describes the tendency of genetic characteristics to vary. Genetic diversity serves
as a way for populations to adapt to changing environments. With more variation,
it is more likely that some individuals in a population will possess variations of
alleles that are suited for the environment. Those individuals are more likely to
survive to produce offspring bearing that allele. The population will continue for
more generations because of the success of these individuals.

Ecosystem diversity
- refers to the diversity of a place at the level of ecosystems. The term differs from
biodiversity, which refers to variation in species rather than ecosystems.
Ecosystem diversity can also refer to the variety of ecosystems present in
a biosphere, the variety of species and ecological processes that occur in different
physical settings.

Philippines as Mega-Diversity

The Philippines is admittedly one of the richest countries in the world as far as species
biodiversity is concerned. Heaney and Regalado, in their book “Vanishing Treasures of
the Philippine Rain Forest” published in 1998, captured the imagination of the science
community and the rest of the Filipinos when they describe the Philippines as the “The
Galapagos Islands times ten”. Galapagos Islands have a special meaning for biologists,
because the unique plant and animal species composition and the high biodiversity of the
place greatly influenced Darwin as he formulated the concept of evolution and the theory
of natural selection.

Biodiversity is an important characteristic of ecosystem that is related to the number of

different species they contain. It is the wealth of all living things on Earth today that is the
product of millions or billions of years of evolutionary period and history.

The theory of natural selection states that, generally, it is the environment (or nature) that
determines which of the new traits will or will continue in a population. The traits that
persist will give the population high survival rates and high reproductive rates.

The Philippines is regarded as one of the 17 mega-diversity countries in the world

because it is blessed with an exceptionally rich diversity of species and an amazing
abundance of endemic species. Endemic species refers to those organisms that are
found nowhere else in the world except the place specified.
 The Philippine Archipelago is composed of 7,107 islands with a total land area of one 30
million hectares. This means that, except for Ecuador, the Philippines is the smallest of
the 17 mega-diverse countries of the world. The Philippines covers only 2/100 of the total
land area of the earth, yet 20,000 species of plants and animals were recorded here, half
of which are found nowhere else in the world. Of the estimated 7,620 species of plants
documented in the country, 5,832 are believed to be endemic. This puts the Philippines
the 23rd ranking in the world and the 6th ranking in Southeast Asia in terms of plant
diversity. The Philippines also occupies a world ranking of 4 in terms of bird endemism
and 5 in terms of mammalian and reptilian endemism.

There are three major reasons why these species of living things are important to us.
They are as follows:

1. Species diversity serves as valuable biological resources that we depend on to

provide our food, industrial and medical needs.
2. Greater diversity of species provides more ecological services as well as aesthetic
and cultural values of natural ecosystems, and
3. Species of living organisms, especially those that are endemic to the Philippines,
constitute not only national heritage but global patrimony as well.

Ecosystem Services and Their Importance for Agriculture

Ecosystem services are defined as “the benefits provided by ecosystems to humans”.
Many key ecosystem services provided by biodiversity, such as nutrient cycling, carbon
sequestration, pest regulation and pollination, sustain agricultural productivity.
Promoting the healthy functioning of ecosystems ensures the resilience of agriculture as
it intensifies to meet growing demands for food production. Climate change and other
stresses have the potential to make major impacts on key functions, such as pollination
and pest regulation services. Learning to strengthen the ecosystem linkages that
promote resilience and to mitigate the forces that impede the ability of agro-ecosystems
to deliver goods and services remains an important challenge.

Ecosystem services can be:

 Supporting (e.g. soil formation, nutrient cycling, primary production)

 Provisioning (e.g. food, fresh water, fuelwood, fiber, biochemicals, genetic
resources)
 Regulating (e.g. climate regulation, disease regulation, water regulation, water
purification, pollination)
 Cultural (e.g. spiritual and religious, recreation and ecotourism, aesthetic,
inspirational, educational, sense of place, cultural heritage).

Biodiversity Underpins Economic Activity

Agriculture, forestry and fisheries products, stable natural hydrological cycles, fertile
soils, a balanced climate and numerous other vital ecosystem services depend upon the
conservation of biological diversity. Food production relies on biodiversity for a variety of
food plants, pollination, pest control, nutrient provision, genetic diversity, and disease
prevention and control. Both medicinal plants and manufactured pharmaceuticals rely
on biodiversity. Decreased biodiversity can lead to increased transmission of diseases
to humans and increased healthcare costs. The outdoor tourism industry relies on
biodiversity to create and maintain that which tourists come to see, as does the multi-
billion-dollar fishing and hunting industry.

Major threats of biodiversity to us

1. Climate change
Changes in climate throughout our planet's history have, of course, altered life on Earth
in the long run — ecosystems have come and gone, and species routinely go extinct.

But rapid, manmade climate change speeds up the process, without affording
ecosystems and species the time to adapt. For example, rising ocean temperatures and
diminishing Arctic sea ice affects marine biodiversity and can shift vegetation zones,
having global implications.

Overall, climate is a major factor in the distribution of species across the globe; climate
change forces them to adjust. But many are not able to cope, causing them to die out.

What can we do? Individuals can take various steps to fight climate change, such as
reducing their carbon footprints, promoting education and contacting elected officials.
International governments and cities can lead the charge, however, and the 2015 United
Nations Climate Change Conference in Paris will hopefully be a turning point.

2. Deforestation and habitat loss

Deforestation is a direct cause of extinction and loss of biodiversity. An estimated 18
million acres of forest are lost each year, due in part to logging and other human practices,
destroying the ecosystems on which many species depend.

Tropical rainforests in particular, such as the Amazon, hold a high percentage of the
world's known species, yet the regions themselves are in decline due to humans.

What can we do? The solutions to deforestation mostly lie in policy — companies and
corporations can adopt best practices and refuse to use timber and paper suppliers that
contribute to deforestation. In the same vein, conscious consumers can refuse to
patronize companies that do, and put pressure on retailers that employ unsustainable
manufacturing methods. Individuals can also participate in land preservation through
charities and private corporations. Ultimately, however, international governments need
to enact stronger, scientific forest protection laws.
3. Overexploitation
Overhunting, overfishing and over-harvesting contribute greatly to the loss of biodiversity,
killing off numerous species over the past several hundred years. Poaching and other
forms of hunting for profit increase the risk of extinction; the extinction of an apex predator
— or, a predator at the top of a food chain — can result in catastrophic consequences for
ecosystems.

What can we do? Conservation and continued awareness surrounding overexploitation,

especially poaching and overfishing, are key. Governments need to actively enforce rules
against such practices, and individuals can be more conscious of what they eat and
purchase. Other solutions, such as removing subsidies granted to large-scale fisheries,
can help, too.

4. Invasive species
The introduction of non-native species into an ecosystem can threaten endemic wildlife
(either as predators or competing for resources), affect human health and upset
economies.

What can we do? According to the National Wildlife Federation, solutions include creating
systems to prevent introduction of invasive species in the first place, effectively monitoring
for new infestations and swiftly eradication newly detected invaders. Some scientists use
more creative means, such as Google Street View.

5. Pollution
From the burning of fossil fuels (releasing dangerous chemicals into the atmosphere and,
in some cases, depleting ozone levels) to dumping 19 billion pounds of plastic into the
ocean every year, pollution completely disrupts the Earth's ecosystems. While it may not
necessarily cause extinction, pollutants do have the potential to influents species' habits.

What can we do? The average person can do several things to fight atmospheric and
hydrologic pollution, such as recycling, conserving energy at home and using public
transportation. The Environmental Protection Agency has a helpful guide here.

As a student we can do a lot of things to protect biodiversity

1. Help Native Pollinators. Pollinators are the key to reproduction for most flowering
plants which are foundational to the survival of many species on our planet. Therefore,
the criteria of Biodiversity Hotspots give so much weight to the number of plants in an
area. Give pollinators an extra boost in your backyard by: reducing or eliminating the
use of pesticides, providing nectar sources by planting a variety of wildflowers and
native plants that will bloom throughout the season, leaving logs and rocks in your yard
or build bee boxes for native bees to make their home, encouraging your City to stop
weed-whacking median strips and sidewalk edges and let native wildflowers grow to
create pollinator corridors. Visit the Xerces Society for Invertebrate Conservation to
learn more.
2. Reduce or eliminate pesticides and fertilizer. Consider getting rid of your lawn,
especially if you live in an arid region. Instead, plant native plants that are well adapted
to your area. This will reduce the need to use pesticides and fertilizers. Don’t buy plants
from nurseries that use systemic pesticides such as neonicotinoids. When applied, they
persist in all parts of the plant from the seed to the stem to the blossom and wreak
havoc on already stressed pollinators. Use organic compost and soil additives instead.
Soil health is the best prevention for pest infestations, but if you do get visited by
unwanted guests, learn how to care for your plants with organic pest control.
3. Restore habitat in your yard. If you have a yard, consider turning it into a mini-
wildlife sanctuary. National Wildlife Federation has a program to help you attract wildlife
whether you have a balcony or a 20-acre farm. In a world where habitat loss is the
number one cause of biodiversity loss, providing wildlife with water, food, cover, and a
place to raise their young can go a long way.
4. Restore habitat in your community. If you don’t have a yard, consider volunteering
on an ecological restoration project in your area. Good places to look for volunteer
opportunities are land trusts, wildlife foundations, Native Plant Societies, government
agencies (e.g. Forest Service, Fish & Wildlife), and environmental organizations. You’ll
spend time outdoors and learn about the native plants and animals.
5. Reduce your consumption. This is arguably the action that will have the biggest
positive impact on the environment. The more we reduce our demand for new
resources, the less habitat will be destroyed to get those resources or the energy to
make those products, and the less waste goes into the landfill. Become a
minimalist. Most “minimalists” choose to live a simple life to free up their time to do the
things they love rather than spending time shopping and repairing stuff. The idea is
“Own Less, Live More.” But it’s undeniable that the minimalist lifestyle also greatly
benefits the environment.
 6. Reuse and recycle. Composting is key here. It reduces the amount of waste going
into landfills and the space needed to hold that waste. Look into ways you can use
those purchases intended for single-use. Keep up with what is recyclable in your area.
As new markets for recycled products open, even small towns like mine can increase
the numbers of items that they are able to collect.
7. Reduce your energy demand. Burning fossil fuels is the number one driver of
climate change which is exponentially quickening biodiversity loss by presenting
unparalleled challenges to the world’s plants and animals. Start by conserving energy in
your home. A Home Energy Audit can help raise your awareness about where you can
reduce energy use in your home. Then incorporate renewable energy. Solar,
8. Buy local foods. Buying from your local farmer at a farmer’s market or through a
farm stand gives you the ability to find out how your food was grown and make requests
for different practices such as no pesticides, or a greater diversity of produce. It’s easier
to ask someone you have a relationship with to change their practices than a big
corporation.
9. Buy organic foods. While organic certification doesn’t guarantee that your food is
100% free of pesticides, organic growers are held to criteria of minimal pesticide use.
10. Donate to conservation efforts. Species extinction is happening at an
unprecedented rate and there never seems to be enough money to save everything.
Prioritize your charitable giving to support conservation efforts in the world’s biodiversity
hotspots. As James Borrell, a PhD student in Conservation Genetics stated in his article
on The Conversation, “We’re likely to get far greater “biodiversity for our buck” on
every pound spent abroad, especially if we focus on the world’s poorest
developing countries, many of which are in global biodiversity hotspots.” The
Unfolding Earth (this website) will soon be listing reputable, vetted organizations that
are doing the work needed to protect wildlands, save biodiversity, and support
sustainable development in Biodiversity Hotspots.
11. Advocate for Biodiversity.
 Educate yourself about the importance of biodiversity and be able to answer the
questions, “Why does it matter so much?” and “Why should we make sacrifices to
protect it?”
 Genetically modified crops pose multiple serious threats to biodiversity. Support the
International Union of Concerned Scientists recommendations on GM crops.
 Make connections. Get to know wildlife and conservation biologists as well as political
activists and community leaders in your area. Use social media to connect with
experts and campaigns.
 Lobby your government. Sign or create petitions. Support politicians who support
measures to protect biodiversity.
 Share your message. Talk to your friends in person. Use social media. Start a blog.
Speak at local events.