International Business of Car Industry

Wen-Yang Chiang

University of Texas At Dallas

IMS 3310.004 -International Business

Professor Shawn Carraher

05/10/2017
Abstract

Purpose: This study examines how drastically different nations’ regulations and consumer’s needs for

the automotive has affected the way cars designed over the recent years. This includes the design of the

car’s exterior, interior and technology. How differently car companies sell the cars in foreign countries

compare to their home country.

Approach: Car companies studying how they could meet government’s regulations. Data showing the

result before and after the regulation deployment. The effects to the car due to the regulations. How car

makers could also be competitive at the same time in both foreignly and domestically.

Findings: The findings showed that not only domestic regulation affected the way car companies make

their cars, but also foreign countries’ regulation had forced car companies to change their design

language enable to stay inside the target market. To stay in a heavily competitive market, automobile

makers make new strategies for their product to stay in a competitive manner against other companies.

Contribution: Car vehicle is one of the most important transportations in the world, it is important to

understand how car companies approach for a solution as they face with new regulations to meet

certain requirements. This study not just apply to cars but also many different international businesses

as well.
Introduction

Car industry had faced major changes ever since different governments deployed new

regulations over the years. Before regulations were deployed, car companies could design their cars to

companies’ images without any interference so consumers could differentiate which company design

which car. Car’s designed were also influenced by the culture of that era. However, the designs were

considered dangerous because cars of that era did not have many safety features that are common

today. The car of 1960s would not pass any regulation if they came out today. In United States, federal

government passed the law to require most vehicles to have seat belts which took effect in the 1960s.

The law had since then been modified by different states to meet their requirements. There are other

laws such as the airbags law that took effect in the late 1990s. This led all car designs started to look

similar because it is easier to meet all of the requirements, these safety technologies took up specific

places of the car and limited the car designers’ option when they designed a new car. However, United

States government is not the only one that make regulations for the cars.

Automobile is the most popular transportation in the world, in just 2016, there were 77.31

million automobiles sold around the globe. There are many car makers in the world, mostly located in

Europe, North East Asia and America. Each influenced by the culture of their origin, have a very different

design. However automotive industry is a global business, all car makers does not make cars for only

their home countries. But to sell their cars to foreign countries, car makers have to meet the demand

and requirement of the countries they are selling to. Such as Europe and Asia’s regulation for pedestrian

safety went live in the early 2000s. United States however, does not have the regulation. Most Asian

countries and European countries favor small cars over big cars. But for car makers like General Motors

and Ford to sell their cars to Asia and Europe, car makers would have to redesign their cars so that their

vehicles would meet the requirements. To make sure that their cars would sell in foreign countries, US
car makers also had to develop new strategies. Same rule applies to European and Asian car makers, for

foreign car makers to sell their cars in the United States, foreign car makers also have to meet the

requirement and the car culture of the United State. In the century that consumers care about the

environment, there is a type of car that is efficient and better for the environment starting to bloom

which forces every car makers to develop the technology so car makers could stay competitive. Global

business has forced all automotive manufacturers to change, to improve, to enable to compete in a very

competitive and diverse market.

Literature Review

Humans have been trying to develop ways to travel ever since they set foot on the world. After

walking, riding animals, or using animals to carry carriages for a very long time, people wanted new

ways to travel. According to Karl-Heinz Dietsche’s History of the Automobile, he mentioned that when

the original steam engine was invented in the 17th centuries by Ferdinand Verbiest, a Flemish member of

the Jesuit mission in China, even though it was a failure, people had been trying to figure out how

automotive could work without any unpredictable power such as animals. The steam engine was further

developed in the 18th centuries by Nicolas-Joseph Cugnot who created a self- propelled mechanical

vehicle. However, the engine had many problems such as water supply and maintaining steam pressure.

It was not until 1879, when Karl Benz, who was considered the inventor of the modern car, built a

working integral combustion engine, similar to engines in the modern age (Dietsche & Kuhlgatz, 2015).

After that, the era of car began. Just like every other item, cars have attracted many enthusiasts ever

since they became popular, in Europe, they are called petrol head, and in America, they are simply

called car guy/girl or car person. Automobile industry is very competitive, there are so many automobile

manufacturers in the world, many developed countries have a car maker of their own. However, the

most distinctive automobile manufacturers are those from Europe, Asia and America.
 American cars are very significant in car history, car designs are often influence by pop cultures,

Hollywood movies throughout history. The most significant one however, is Henry Ford revolutionized

mass production industry. According to Henry Ford’s biography, “My Life and Work”, Henry Ford seeks

to brought down the price of car so more American could afford to buy one. Edward H. Berman wrote in

his book about Henry Ford, The influence of the Carnegie, Ford, and Rockefeller Foundations on

American foreign policy: The ideology of philanthropy; the idea of mass production was abstracted from

Taylorism, also known as scientific management. Cars were built on assembly lines and parts are

assemble throughout the line. This also means that worker did not need professional skills to build cars,

they only have to know how to put one part into the car. This effectively brought down the average

price from $850 in 1908 to $250 in 1925. This method of building cars was also adopted by the

Europeans car makers when Ford enters the European market (Berman, 1983) (Crowther & Ford, 2005).

But for American cars to compete in the overly crowded market of Europe, American cars maker has to

make adjustment for what cars they sell in the region. Michael Rawlinson and Peter Wells wrote in their

journal article “New Procurement Regimes and the Spatial Distribution of Suppliers: The Case of Ford in

Europe”, Ford has many research facilities in Europe to develop cars that Europeans would meet the

regulation and consumers would want to buy over the already crowded competitors such as French car

makers Renault and the second largest car makers in the world, Volkswagen (Wells & Rawlinson, 1992).

Most American would be surprised to know that a lot of Ford’s vehicles are not developed in the US.

Cars like Ford Focus, Fiesta and Fusion… etc. were developed and first sold in Europe and came to the

United States at a later date. This is because the bestselling American automobiles in the US is pick-up

trucks and other bigger vehicle. According to the sales figure of 2016, Ford sold 820,799 F-series truck

inside the United States in 2016, that’s average 1 trucks sold every 38.46 seconds, combined with other

brands, the total of pick-up trucks sold in 2016 was 2,692,540 trucks. However, Europeans do not want

to buy a pick-up truck, instead Europeans favor smaller vehicle like small 4 doors sedans or 5 doors
hatchback for practicality. Therefore, American automobile makers have sell their car differently in

other countries. But American car makers are not the only car makers that needed to change their cars

to enable them to sell in foreign countries. In fact, all car makers do. For example, Toyota in Japan has a

very different line-up compare to the Toyota in America. This is because Japanese consumers don’t need

a big pick-up truck in their already crowded cities, according to Professor Ben M Bensaou and N

Venkatraman, what the Japanese want is a new segment called Kei-cars, small cars with little emissions.

In the automotive industry, global business has drastically changed the way car makers develop and sell

cars, including Europe (M Bensaou, 1995).

Europe has the most diverse car makers around the globe, after all, automobile was invented in

Europe. Most distinctive car makers of all the European countries are German, British, Italian, Swedish

and French. According to Andrew May and Chris Carter’s A case study of virtual team working in the

European automotive industry and Julian Happian-Smith wrote in his book, An Introduction to Modern

Vehicle Design; each auto maker has different mission in mind, influenced by their culture each have

their own unique design. For example, German cars such as Volkswagen, BMW and Mercedez-Benz are

known for their order, engineering, and built quality. British cars such as Aston Martin, Jaguar, Land

Rover, Bentley and Rolls Royce are known for their classy and luxury craftsmanship. Italian cars such as

Fiat, Ferrari and Alfa Romeo are known for their uniquely designed sports car. French cars such as

Renault, Peugeot and Citreon are known for their overall practicality and value. Swedish cars such as

Volvo and Saab are known for their safety for the occupants. There are also many other so called exotic

car makers all around Europe. The combine European car heritage to the other continents translate to

luxury, refined (Carter & May, 2001) (Happian-Smith, 2001). Frank Verboven written in his article

International Price Discrimination in the European Car Market and Pinelopi Koujianou Goldberg

mentioned in his article The Evolution of Price Dispersion in the European Car Market For foreign
automobile makers to set foot in Europe, they would have to be distinctive and special to enter the

already crowded market. But Japan succeeded (Verboven, 1996) (Goldberg & Verboven, 1998).

The most famous Asian automobile makers in Asia are those from Japan. After Japan lost the

World War II, they move their focus to develop technology. One of the most successful of those

technology is automobiles. According to Ryan McElroy’s research on why Japanese cars are so successful,

before Japanese car came to Europe and United State, people thought that it’s common that cars break

down, until they met a Japanese car. But how did Japanese make cars that are not only reliable, but also

as good, if not, better than American and European, is another story. After World War II, Japan could

not make mass production model like Henry Ford did, so they had to change their strategy, car makers

have to work smarter, not harder. Japan is the home of car makers like Datsun also known as Nissan,

Mazda, Mitsubishi, Subaru, Honda and the most famous and the largest car maker in the world, Toyota.

According to McElroy, unlike Europe and America who adopted Henry Ford’s mass production process,

Japan did not have the resources and there was little room for error. Workers would stop the

production if they find a mistake before it is too late and to reduce the waste to a minimum. This

strategy later developed in to the Toyota Production System. The system was developed to improve the

efficiency of Japan’s production and reduce wastage (McElroy, 2016). However, the system was actually

pioneered by an American. W. Edwards Deming went to Japan after his idea was rejected by American

car maker. He written in all of his books that he believed sustainable growth is better by improving

quality constantly, compare to the mass produced, high-volume vehicles. This system led Japanese cars

stormed the world. The result was Japanese cars are very good, reliable, and good value. When

European would charge consumers extra for radio, heater, air conditioner, Japanese cars have all of

those as standard equipment and cost less, and the best part, they don’t break down (Deming, 1981)

(Deming, 1975) (Deming, 1982). Frank Verboven also mentioned that at one point, Japanese car became

so popular that European Union restricted the import of the Japanese cars. But even that couldn’t stop
the Japanese, because Japanese car makers allied themselves with European car makers and later

created manufacturing plant inside Europe to avoid import fees (Verboven, 1996). According to Timothy

Cain’s 2016 US car sales figures, in 2016, more than 40 percent of cars sold in America were Japanese

(Cain, 2017).

What encourages the development of the automobiles industry however, is motor racing.

According to Figurational Studies in the Development of Modern Sports, people have been racing

throughout history, such as horses and boats. When the cars are invented, it is inevitable that humans

would race cars. There are many different type of racing. There are motor sports such as the famous

Formula 1, Rally cross, endurance race and the exclusive to America, NASCAR (Dunning, Malcolm, &

Waddington, 2004). Nick Henry stated in his book Paul Krugman's Geographical Economics, Industrial

Clustering and the British Motor Sport Industry, to be faster or the fastest, car manufacturers innovate

and improve their cars. Automobiles achievement in the racing drastically affect their cars. For example,

endurance races are competing whom could last the longest, the most famous and the oldest endurance

race is 24 Hours of Le Mans. This is also the race event that led Henry Ford to became a legend in the

automotive industry. The race is to test whose cars could survive and endure a long harsh environment.

To win the race, car makers have to make their car very durable so it could sustain a 24 hours’ drive. Car

makers often put their innovation and achievement from the races into their production road cars,

which make their cars to be better. For example, endurance race make car maker’s production car to be

durable, Formula 1 and other fast pace racing makes cars faster and more efficient (Pinch & Henry,

2010).

In the world of global business, automobile industry is very developed and competitive. But

even then, the industry has to adapt to evolution of technology and consumer’s needs. The appearance

and technologies of a car are very important to most consumers. Everything else such as driving
dynamic has little to no impact to the market. “They don’t make cars like they used to”. This phrase is

common to hear from car enthusiasts even today. According to Julian Happian-Smith about car design,

the phrase could mean the already bloated car technologies fitted into the car or car’s exterior design

that had changed drastically over the years. Vehicles from the 1950s and 1960s are very different to

their counterpart in the present, influenced by the pop culture at the time of origin, and very striking to

look at. Some may have considered it as arts. For example, Chevrolet Impala in the 1950s has one of the

wildest design from that era, in the 60s, the Impala is just as wild with a very distinctive rear end, in the

70s and 80s, Impala starting to have a boxy yet elegant design, however, their counterparts from 90s

and 2000s, Impala looks just like every other car on the road. It is not until mid-2010s that cars are

starting to have more stylish and distinctive design, and easier to differentiate cars by the exterior

(Happian-Smith, 2001).

Before government interfered with the way cars are built, car designers had the freedom to

design cars the way they see fits, designers do not have to worry about any safety regulation. Happian-

Smith stated that as the result, cars do not have places to be fitted any seat belts and airbags, the only

two safety technology at the time and were only found in luxury brand. But the cars would have a very

distinctive design, average consumers could tell what car from what brand by just looking at the cars.

When airbags law was deployed, to be fitted into the car, designers had to leave out space in the dash

board, A and B pillars and the roof of the cars so airbags could be fitted, which is why cars from the 90s

and 2000s have a very boxy and a very similar design to every other car on the road. As technology

advances, safety technology so called “electrical nannies” such as Anti-lock Braking System (ABS),

Traction Control (TCL), Advanced Emergency Braking System (AEBS), Blind Spot Monitoring (BSM) and

Lane Keeping Assist System (LKAS) were starting to appear. Though these features were only fitted in

luxury cars in the 2000s, in 2010s, however, these features are starting to be standards on most cars as

the market started to become very competitive (Happian-Smith, 2001).

 One of the reason caused the changed was occupant’s safety. According to the vehicles collision

test study from Japan, Akihiro Uenishi stated in Advanced Technologies of Materials and Structure

Optimization for Design of Car Body with Enhanced Crash Safety; a fatal collision in the cars from the

1950s, would only cause minor to no injuries to the driver and passengers in the cars from 2010s. The

cause of the change was beside the strength and quality of the chassis and frame of the car had very

much improved since then. Study shows that seat belts and airbag have been proven that it is effective

for protecting drivers and passengers against vehicle collision. According to Insurance Institute for

Highway Safety (IIHS), modern age seat belt that strap the occupant’s shoulder and waist, plus the

combination of front and side airbags is currently the most effective safety system available (Uenishi, et

al., 2013). And according to National Highway Traffic Safety Administration (NHTSA) With both safety

system, they reduced the possibility of serious head injuries by 75 percent and reduced the possibility of

serious chest injuries by 66 percent. According to NHTSA’s study by Mizuno and Ishikawa, the death rate

of car accident in 1952 was 7.2 percent, considering personal vehicle back then were not as common as

the modern age, the death rate in 2010s is 1.11 percent (Mizuno & Ishikawa, 2001).

What reinforce the change to happen is, however, the government. According to James

Hedlund’s article Risky business: safety regulations, risk compensation, and individual behavior and Jerry

Mashaw’s Regulation and Legal Culture: The Case of Motor; In 1961, state like Wisconsin require seat

belt to be installed on front seats for all cars. In 1968, federal government passed the law to have all

new cars sold nationwide to be fitted seat belts, even though the law to reinforce the requirement of

wearing seat belts comes much later in 1980s. Since the law came out, designers were frustrated that

where to put the seat belts to meet the requirements, cars were starting to designed differently though

not too much of a change until the law to require airbags to be fitted were deployed. On September 1st,

1998, the Intermodal Surface Transportation Efficiency Act of 1991 went into effect. This law required all

cars to be fitted with airbags in both front driver and passenger side. The law had since then further
developed to require new cars to be fitted at least 6 airbags throughout the cabins. These airbags are

usually installed in the steering wheel, passenger side dash board, both A pillars, and depends on the

manufacturers, C pillars, or the roof. For the airbags to be deployed properly in an accident, there are

small explosives fitted together which took a lot more spaces. For the deployment to be safe, there can

only be minimum components cover up the air bags. All of the requirements let the cars to have thicker

pillars and bland dash. The technologies limited what the designers could do at the time, which led the

cars to have boring exterior and interior (Hedlund, 2000) (Mashaw, 1986).

To add insult to injuries, just when car designers were starting to figure out and the car structure

technologies are starting to catch up, a new regulation appeared. Because of the tighter city and limited

space in Europe and Asia, the car and pedestrian collisions are often fatal or catastrophic. Therefore,

according to Tarak Gandhi’s study on pedestrian Safety, both Europe and Japan, where most of the

automotive makers are located in, deployed a law for pedestrian protection in early 2000s. This law

requires car makers to develop a way to reduce pedestrian fatalities in a head-on collision. What

manufacturers figured out was horrific. To prevent pedestrian’s head from hitting the top of the engine,

car makers raised the hood to have enough space to prevent the circumstance. To increase the impact

area to spread the impact force, car makers increase the surface of the front of the car. To increase the

visibility of the driver, car makers raise the chassis and the hood of the car. To prevent pedestrian’s head

from stuck between car’s body and the wheel, the wheel size increased. All of the solutions led cars

looks bloated, bigger than before. To reconcile the regulation so their cars could sell in Asia and Europe,

American car makers started to do the same design so they could meet the regulations. To a lot of car

enthusiasts, the late 90s and the 2000s even the early 2010s were the catastrophic eras for car designs

(Gandhi & Trivedi, 2007).

 However, the cars had since then improved due to these regulation, far better than their

counterparts from many years ago. Beside the safety technologies fitted into the cars, scientists also

found out that an indestructible frame and chassis is not necessary the best for safety. In fact, according

to various crash test studies’ results from Bastian Witte and Akihiro Uenishi, the front and the back of

the car could absorb a lot of the impact force while the center frame that is holding the center of the

cars along with airbags, could protect occupants from most serious injuries. A head on or the side

collision of two cars, one from current generation and their counterpart from where the entire car

frame is strong, the current generation would most likely to survive even minor injuries compare to their

counterpart where occupants’ body have to absorb most of the impact. But beside safety, there are

other issues car makers are facing and are still currently in development (Witte, 1994) (Uenishi, et al.,

2013).

The trouble that every automobile manufacturer faces is global warming and limited resources.

Automobile is one of the primary causes of global warming because internal combustion engines like

gasoline and diesel emit a lot of Carbon Dioxide. Even then gasoline which is abstracted from Petroleum

is a limited resource that will run out one day. To save the environment, every continent has regulations

to require car makers to develop ways to reduce emission and finding new ways to power the car.

According to Joeri Van Mierlo’s article Which energy source for road transport in the future? A

comparison of battery, hybrid and fuel cell vehicles; the European Union has agreed to require car

makers to reduce the average CO2 passenger car emissions to 95g/km before the year 2020 . This

regulation not only effect European car makers but also every other car makers that want to sell in the

Europe such as Japanese and American automobile makers (Mierlo, Maggetto, & Lataire, 2006).

The regulation causes car makers turns to hybrid cars or electric vehicles. Hybrid car segment is

dominated by Toyota with their Prius family. There are other hybrid vehicles such as Honda Insight but
never really caught on until car makers finds out that hybrid is a highly effective system. According to M.

Ehsani, K.M. Rahman and H.A Toliyat’s study Propulsion system design of electric and hybrid vehicles;

Giorgio Rizzoni's article Unified Modeling of Hybrid Electric Vehicle Drivetrains and Kamil Çag˘atay

Bayindir’s article A comprehensive overview of hybrid electric vehicle: Powertrain configurations; Hybrid

vehicle means that there are two motors inside a car. A gasoline engine and an electric motor. When the

gasoline engine operates, the extra power is stored inside many batteries and electric motors generate

additional power for the car. It is highly effective because unlike gasoline engine relies on gasoline and

air to be sucked into the engine chamber to generate power, electric motor can generate a lot of torque

instantly when electrical power comes into the motor. But at high speed, electric motors drain a lot of

energy this is when gasoline engine comes in to help vehicle maintain higher speed without draining too

much energy from the batteries. By working together, the car would only require minimum gasoline to

power the car. The technology let cars to be very efficient and powerful, exotic sports car makers like

Porsche, McLaren and Ferrari have developed three very different but equally powerful hybrid hyper

cars known as the modern age Holy Trinity of hyper cars. Just about every other manufacture are

progressively developing hybrid systems even the American car makers. Some took it further, to fully

electric vehicle (Ehsani, Rahman, & Toliyat, 1997) (Bayindir, Gözüküçük, & Teke, 2011).

Electric vehicle has been around for quite some time, however, they all face the same issues,

range. According to the article, Which energy source for road transport in the future? A comparison of

battery, hybrid and fuel cell vehicles and Willingness to pay for electric vehicles and their attributes, most

electrical vehicles could not sustain a long-range drive, because technologies are limited to let electric

vehicle to be power by batteries. Tesla motor has since then pioneer a long rang electrical vehicle, the

success of Tesla motor has encouraged many automobile makers to develop long range electrical

vehicles, but it is still in development and there are only few long range electric vehicle on the market
they also have a significant obstacle yet to conquer, it is that long range EV is not as convenient as petrol

vehicles (Mierlo, Maggetto, & Lataire, 2006) (Hidruea, Parsonsb, Kemptonc, & Gardner, 2011).

Conclusion

In the modern world, the automotive industry is very competitive. And since it’s a global

business, car companies would want to sell more cars enable to earn more profits in every continent

they sell in. Each car makers have their own mission statement. Enable to stay competitive, however, car

makers have to change. There are many examples. Such as Volvo, the Swedish car makers prioritize

safety above everything else. However, other car makers have since figured out how to make their cars

safe. Enable to stay competitive, Volvo fitted every safety technology possible and redesign their car’s

interior to truly becomes a luxury brand. Honda has always been competitive, but to increase their sales,

they fitted technologies that are often founded in luxury brand into their economic model such as Civic.

This forced other competitors across the continent to adjust their line-up.

Automotive industry is one of the most important and competitive markets around the globe.

People wanted to have better travel, so they invented automobiles such as car. The invention quickly

became the most popular way for individual to travel, for people to be passionate about and to compete

in a motor racing. The development of the industry has been dramatic, from a three-wheels steam

power cart to the modern age super car, the industry has come a long way. The in between is a long,

and bumpy journey for car makers from every continent. America revolutionized the mass production

market to make cars affordable. Europe’s competitive market forces manufactures to innovates.

Japanese makes cars that does not break down. From a golden age of car to being pull-back from the

regulations and raise up again and then back down again due to global warming. Although there is still a

long way to go in a globally competitive market, the automobile makers have improved a lot. It is the

competitive market encourages all of the car makers to become better. Global business has forced all
automotive manufacturers to change, to improve, to enable to compete in a very competitive and

diverse market.

Suggestion For Future Research

Based upon my detailed review of the literature I believe that future research should be

performed which would examine the future development of the automotive industry as an international

business. The petroleum industry is dominated by only a selected few countries. Enable to battling the

ever-raising gasoline price and saving the environment from global warming, countries around the world

are regulating automotive makers to have stricter emission standard and develop alternative power

method of automotive. Here are some examples.

Long range electrical vehicles were pioneered by Tesla. They have developed two fully electric

vehicles which are the Model S and Model X. At fully charged, these two vehicles could last up to 270

miles of range. While pricy, it opened a new market of automotive as Tesla is expanding exceptionally.

Tesla has pushed many automotive makers to developed long range electric vehicle.

Ethanol fuel is a type of fuel that can be manmade from corn and sugar cane. United States

make the most ethanol than rest of the countries in the world combined. One main reason is corn is the

largest agricultural product that the United States produce. Most motor vehicle’s engine could run

directly with ethanol, therefore many gasoline companies in the United States add ethanol to their

gasoline to bring down the price. However, there are many issues and drawbacks with this type of fuels

such as efficiency is not as good as regular gasoline, it cost more to make because the technology is not

yet sufficient and the corn resources is limited it. The pollution for the atmosphere for producing

ethanol is still yet to be determined if it is better than gasoline. But at the raise of gasoline price around

the globe for those countries that don’t have petroleum within their continent, ethanol has a significant

advantage over gasoline.

 While there are electric vehicles and manmade fuels could be solutions for the industry, Japan

has an alternative solution that they have developed. Toyota and Honda both developed engines that

could run on hydrogen fuels. The idea is very much like a hybrid vehicle while the car is not run by petrol.

There are few drawbacks and challenges such as the hydrogen station is not as common as gasoline

station and to produce hydrogen fuel, it cost a lot of power and money to compress air and to convert it

into fuel. However, the current price of hydrogen fuel is competitive against gasoline price, if gasoline

price increase and for those countries where gasoline is expensive, hydrogen will have a significant

advantage.

These new developments are currently storming the automotive industry. Enable to stay

competitive or meet the regulation of the officials, automotive makers around the globe are very

motivated to develop and improving these new technologies. The industry is facing changes yet again

within the next few years. Therefore, the future research should be examining the future development

as the new regulations and new technologies that were introduced to the automotive industry.

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