WRITING RESULTS

EFFECTIVELY
How to Write a Research Paper: An Editage Series

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 Abstract 1
The Function of the Results Section 1
Types of Data 2
Tips for Writing the Text in the Results Section 2
Tips for Effectively Illustrating the Results 4
Tips for Presenting Statistics 5
Checklist 5
Conclusion 6

The Results section of a research paper, often the shortest part of the paper, can be
ABSTRACT
very difficult to write. The data obtained after research should be presented as
objectively, logically, and concisely as possible. Raw data should be avoided while
presenting the research findings. The researcher needs to remember to refrain from
interpreting the data or drawing inferences from it—both these are better carried
out in the Discussion. A well-written Results section contains text, illustrations in
the form of tables and figures (including photographs), and statistics. These 3
components should be written to complement each other, in order to maximize
readability and comprehension for the reader.

This e-book provides tips for writing text, presenting tables and figures, and
presenting statistics to enable you to write the Results section of your paper in the
most effective way.

THE FUNCTION OF The function of the Results section of a research paper is to present research
THE RESULTS findings along with illustrations in the form of tables and figures. It should,
SECTION theoretically, be the easiest section to write. All that the Results section has to do is
to inform the reader, preferably in a chronological and orderly sequence, about the
results of the research. It does not have to interpret, explain, or analyze the research
results. The Results section, therefore, is often the shortest section of a research
paper.

Unfortunately, researchers often find it difficult to restrain themselves from

interpreting their research results, providing background or raw data, or drawing
conclusions. The Results section becomes wordy and at times confusing, and the
reader finds it difficult to understand which results were the most significant. It is
therefore important to write this section in an objective manner by concentrating
on answering the question "What was found?" and saving the interpretation for the
Discussion section.

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 TYPES OF DATA For the sake of clarity, the 2 broad categories into which the data collected during
an experiment or procedure can be classified are mentioned below:
i. Raw Data: This is the data that is actually collected as the experiments or
procedures are conducted. It consists of all the readings from all the runs
of each experiment, individual observations, and all the other data
collected by the researcher.
ii. Converted Data: This refers to raw data that has been analyzed and then
presented to the reader (either as text or illustrations) in a way that is
relevant to the objectives of the study as mentioned in the Introduction.

Please note: "Converted" data does not mean the data has been changed to fit in
with the stated objectives. It only means that instead of presenting repetitive sets of
data, the data is analyzed and the results of that analysis are presented for better
comprehension of the results by the reader. For example, if 5 weight loss regimens
are being compared using 5 groups of volunteers, then instead of stating the weekly
weight loss in each volunteer in each group over the study period, it would be
better to combine the results within each group and show that volunteers following
plan A lost 20% more weight over the study period than volunteers following the
other plans.

TIPS FOR WRITING • Remember 3 rules for writing results effectively

THE TEXT IN THE i. Be objective: Do not interpret, give your opinion, or justify your results.
RESULTS SECTION Just state the facts.
ii. Be concise: Give only the bare results. Confine yourself to stating the
facts or data; do not elaborate on them or make inferences.
iii. Be logical: Try and present your results in a step-wise and chronological
manner, as this will make it easier for the readers to understand them.
• The most important factor to remember is that the Results section should
contain only the results of the research conducted and nothing else. The text of
this section should guide the reader through the research results, with references
as required to the appropriate tables or figures for illustration.
• Take pains to present the results in a factual manner without any analysis or
interpretation. Keep in mind that some readers of the paper may prefer to
make their own interpretation of your results before moving on to the
Discussion section.
Consider the following examples of a result written in 2 different ways:
Example 1. Carbohydrate restriction had a significant effect on weight loss.
Group A which restricted carbohydrate intake to 30 grams a day showed a 30%
greater reduction in weight than the other 4 groups.
Example 2. Carbohydrate restriction had a significant effect on weight loss.
Results suggest that restriction of carbohydrate intake to 30 grams a day, as was
done for Group A, is optimal for significant weight loss. The group which
followed this restriction (Group A) had a 30% greater weight loss than the other
4 groups.

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 Example 1 above confines itself to a factual statement of the results (converted
data) of the experiment. Example 2, however, offers an interpretation of the
result and concludes that 30 grams of carbohydrates a day is the optimal intake
for significant weight loss. Example 1 should be the preferred format for
writing results, with all interpretations and conclusions being saved for the
Discussion section.
• State the most important results first and then the others, in decreasing order
of importance.
• If the experiments/procedures carried out were listed in a certain order in the
Materials and Methods section, try to state the results of each experiment or
procedure in the same chronological order as listed.
• As far as possible, the results of the control group/experiments should be
stated in the beginning. These will serve as the basis for comparison of the
results obtained from the experimental group.
• For different experiments in your protocol, or when different aspects of a
problem have been studied, organize the text using subheadings to improve the
clarity of presentation and increase reader comprehension.
• Give a brief description of each experiment or rationale at the beginning of
each subsection so that the reader knows which experiment's results you are
describing. For example, in a study on weight loss, the changes in serum
cholesterol levels may also have been assessed. The subsection on this
assessment could start by saying "We also recorded changes in serum cholesterol
levels using technique X and technique Y as described in Materials and
Methods. We found that... (see Table 2)."
• Do not provide all the raw data that has been collected over the course of the
research. Data should be collected, analyzed, and then presented as converted
data in the form of text or illustrations (figures or tables) to make it easy for the
reader to comprehend the research findings.
• Raw data may be provided separately as an annexure if specifically requested.
• Remember to use the correct units for the data.
• Avoid repetition in the text. Do not repeat the entire content of the tables or
figures in the text. The text should only highlight the data, or patterns in the
data, you particularly wish to bring to the reader's attention.
• Remember to write using the past tense and active voice. For example, "Weight
gain was 20% greater in Group A than Group B." The exception to this rule is
in legends for figures and tables, where the present tense is used. In-text
references to figures and tables also use the present tense, e.g., "Fig. 2 shows the
seasonal variation in malaria rates in the population of country A."
• It is important to remember to include any negative results you may have
obtained. What you consider a negative result or failure may prove to be very
helpful to a colleague who is studying the same problem or may even point
toward an entirely new direction for research in that subject.
• Remember to check the "Instructions to Authors" of the particular journal to
which you are planning to send your paper. Different journals have different
requirements for writing numbers, units of measurement, the order in which

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 tables and figures should be numbered (usually consecutively), whether tables
and figures should be inserted in the main body of the research paper or at the
very end, and whether the raw data needs to be provided as an annexure to the
main paper.

TIPS FOR
Remember that a picture is worth a thousand words; therefore, always illustrate
EFFECTIVELY your results. Graphs/tables and other figures improve the reader's understanding
ILLUSTRATING THE of the results and their significance. Here are a few tips to help you illustrate your
RESULTS work effectively:
• Check Instructions to Authors to determine where to place the tables and
figures; they should be placed either within the text or at the end of the paper.
Do not do both!
• Figures include graphs, pie charts, histograms, photographs, flow charts, etc.;
tables are not figures.
• Check the Instructions to Authors to determine how to number the tables and
figures; usually they are numbered consecutively. Keep in mind the previous
tip, and number the figures separately from the tables. For example, a paper
with 2 tables, a pie chart, and 2 graphs will be numbered in the following way:
Tables 1 and 2 for the 2 tables and Figures 1, 2, and 3 for the pie chart and
both graphs.
• Always provide a caption or legend for each figure. Remember that the space
for legends is restricted, so make them as clear and precise as possible. Please do
not forget that legends and captions are included when determining the word
count of your manuscript. You can make legends and captions shorter by being
very precise and by omitting articles like a/an/the. This will help reduce the
word count. Unlike the text, legends are written in the present tense. For
example, "Fig 2: Angiogram, 3 months after angioplasty. Blood flows freely
through the right coronary artery." There is usually no title for a figure. The
legend conveys all the information required and is placed below the figure.
• Table legends should be short and precise and placed above the table (see the
previous point).
• Each figure or table along with its legend or caption should be able to stand
alone. In other words, even if taken out of the paper, the table or figure should
make sense to someone viewing it for the first time.
• Do not present the same data in both a table and a figure. This is a waste of
valuable space (remember, most journals have a page or word count limit) as
well as time and effort.
• Avoid repetition—all the information you have provided in a table or figure
does not have to be itemized in the text. Mention the direction the results
appear to be taking, rather than the actual results. For example, saying "Serum
cholesterol levels were 20% lower in Group A than in the other 4 groups (see
Table 1)" is better than saying "The mean serum cholesterol in Group A was x,
in Group B was y, in Group C was z, etc." The reader can always refer to the
illustrations to confirm the statements made in the text.
• Be as concise in the tables as you are in the text. If a table becomes too big or
unwieldy, it will be difficult for the reader to comprehend. Instead, try dividing

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 the data into 2 or more tables or using a combination of tables and graphs.
• Always double check the tables and figures to make sure the numbers add up
correctly.
• If using color for the figures (i.e., color in the graphs or photographs), always
check the Instructions to Authors to make sure there are no charges for color
plates.

TIPS FOR There are many very sophisticated packages available for the analysis of raw data.
PRESENTING However, it is important to also find out if the results are statistically significant.
STATISTICS "Statistically significant" refers to results where the differences noted between the
control group and the experimental group are larger than could be explained by
chance alone.

When presenting statistics, remember the following points:

• The statistical value (e.g., p-value) should be mentioned where required in
parentheses in the text and in the relevant legend in figures/tables.
• It is redundant to use the words "statistically significant" in the sentence if the p-
value in parentheses is statistically significant. The reader would know from the
Materials and Methods section which p-value is considered significant.

CHECKLIST Now you are ready to start writing your own effective Results section. Here is a
checklist to help you keep the most important points in mind:
þ Have you stated your results objectively and refrained from interpretation or
analysis?
þ Have you been concise, presenting mainly your converted data and providing
only as much raw data as is required for clarity?
þ Have you stated the important results first?
þ Have you stated all other results in a chronological order?
þ Have you presented the results of the control group?
þ Have you organized the text into smaller units using subheadings?
þ Have you included even the negative results?
þ Have you used the correct units?
þ Have you placed the tables and figures as requested in Instructions to Authors?
þ Have you numbered tables separately from figures?
þ Have you numbered both tables and figures as requested in Instructions to
Authors (usually consecutively)?
þ Have you provided a precise legend for each table and figure?
þ Have you confirmed that you have not presented the same data both in a table
and in a figure?

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 þ Have you divided very large tables into multiple tables?
þ Do the numbers in your tables and figures add up correctly?
þ Will the journal levy plate charges if you use color photographs or figures? Will
black and white photographs or figures be just as effective?
þ Have you mentioned the p-value where required?

CONCLUSION
Writing Results effectively means presenting the research data in a manner that is
clear, precise, and logical. The Results section should only summarize the most
important findings, illustrated with graphs, tables, and other figures to increase
reader comprehension. Statistics must be clearly presented, with the p-value
mentioned in parentheses.

Effectively written Results help readers understand the research results and come to
their own conclusions. This paves the way for the Discussion section, where the
data is interpreted with reference to previous work on the subject, inferences and
conclusions are drawn, and pathways for future research are identified.

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