DEFINITION OF ECONOMICS (https://notes.tyrocity.

com/nature-of-economics/)

The term economics is derived from the word “oeconomicus” by Xenophon in 431 B.C. It is
derived from two words economy and science. Economy means proper utilization of resources. It means
economics is the science of economy or science of proper utilization of resources. It is comprised of
theories, laws, principle related to utilization of resources so as to solve the economic problems, satisfy
the human wants or need and so on. However, the economics is defined in different ways by different
economists. There are mainly three definitions of economics:-

a. classical or wealth definition (Adam Smith)-1776 A.D

b. neo-classical or welfare definition (Alfred Marshall )-1890 A.D

c. modern or scarcity and choice definition (Lionel Robbins)-1932 A.D

Classical or wealth definition (Adam Smith)-1776 A.D

The famous classical economist Adam smith for the firs time defined economics as
“science of wealth”. The definition was given in the book “an enquiry to the nature and the causes of
wealth of nations” published in 1776 A.D. the book is popularly known as “wealth of nations”. According
to smith, labor is the main source of income or wealth. More wealth is accumulated only if more labor is
used. Economics explains the human behavior and activities they do for wealth. This definition was
based upon the assumptions of full employment, perfect competition, no governmental interventions,
money just as a medium of exchange and so on.

This definition has following main proposition:-

i. economics is science of wealth

ii. labor is the only source of income

iii. there is perfect competition in product as well as labor market

iv. the government should not interfere the activities of people and business organizations

v. this definition is influenced by physiocracy and mercantilism.

Criticism:-

Wealth definition has over emphasized wealth. Economics is science of human activities rather
than only wealth. Adam smith considers only material things or wealth as subject matter of economics
but human beings require some immaterial things like self esteem or dignity, social prestige, national
identity and so on too. The immaterial things are called essential things for human satisfaction. Wealth
definition is based upon the theory of subsistence wage which is known as iron law of wage. The law
was against the workers and in favor of employers. Adam smith doesn’t explain about scarcity

of resource and choice of best alternative for the use of resources. The problem of scarcity and choice is
burning issue in the modern economics but he fails to explain about the problems of scarcity and choice.
The wealth definition is based upon assumptions of full employment and perfect competition but none
of these two is in existence. This definition is based upon the assumption of no intervention of
government in economic activities of people and business organization but we find in every country
more or less governmental intervention.

b. Neo-classical or welfare definition (Alfred Marshall )-1890 A.D

 In 1890, Alfred Marshall, a famous neo-classical economist and a great contributor to
micro economics defined economics as the science of material welfare. Here, the material welfare
means the quantities of physical goods consumed by people. if the people are consuming large
quantities of goods, they are said to have high level of welfare into two types

1. material welfare

2. immaterial welfare

According to him, only the material welfare is the subject matter of economics. He assumes every
person is rational and s/he uses the resources in his/her possession very properly so as to maximize
their own welfare. Economics is therefore the science that studies the rational behavior revealed by the
people. Major propositions of Marshall’s welfare definition are:-

1. Economics is science of material welfare

2. Economics is social science i.e. science of mankind

3. Economics is the study of rational behavior of people revealed for maximization of material welfare.

Criticisms:-

This definition of economics a science of material welfare was assumed correct until the arrival of Lionel
Robbins. He criticized the definition under the following aspects:-

1. Classificatory activities of Marshallinto material non material welfare, economics and non
economic goods is only classificatory not analytical because single human cannot be material as well as
non material according to the nature and purpose of work.

2. Non material activities like feeling of social service, human desire also satisfy human needs. This
idea has not been prioritized

3. Non welfare consumption like harmful drugs, tobacco, and alcohol don’t promote social welfare
but still are in the study of economics

4. Economics should study about total human beings but wealth definition doesn’t study about
isolated people like saints, nuns, monks etc.

c. Modern or scarcity and choice definition (Lionel Robbins)-1932 A.D

According to Lionel Robbins, economics is the science of scarcity of the resources and
the choice of best alternative for their utilization. The resources are limited in supply. Each resource is
usable for different purposes. The wants or need of people are unlimited. The wants differ in
importance. They differ from place to place, from time to time and from person to person. Some wants
are more important whereas some are not. All wants cannot be fulfilled because of insufficiency of
resources. Therefore, we have to go on utilizing the resources in such a way, so that, our more wants
can be fulfilled leaving no one in most important wants unfulfilled. For it, we must select best ways for
the utilization of the resources. We should have the complete information of resources available, needs
of the country and their importance and ways for the utilization of resources. This definition is given in
1930 A.D after WWI. During third decade of the twentieth century, the European countries were badly
in need of large quantities of resources for rehabilitation, construction of infrastructures, renovation etc.
they were destructed in war. This definition is both normative and positive in nature. The major
propositions are:-

1. there is unlimited human needs or wants

2. there is scarce means of resources

3. there are alternative use of resources

4. there is need of choice

Criticisms:

The definition is criticized in the following ways:-

1. economic problems arises not only due to scarcity but due to under, mis or over utilization of
resources

2. economic problems arises due to inequality too

3. there is political consideration

4. needs and resources may vary

Superiority of Robbins definition over Marshall’s definition :-

1. the definition is scientific

2. the definition is universally accepted

3. the definition has wide scope

4. the definition has science of choice

CLASSIFICATION
a. Applied

b. Theoretical
1. Welfare
2. Postive
2.1 Microeconomics:-

The term microeconomics is derived from the word micro economy and science. The term micro is
also derived from the greek word micros which means small or tiny. Microeconomics is defined as the
science of small or tiny part of the economy. It provides us the detail information of microeconomics
units. The units are single consumer or consumer of a firm or an industry. A single firm or firms
belonging to an industry is called worm’s eye view of an economy. In microeconomics we study about
the relationships between microeconomic variables like utility, cost of purchasing, demand, supply,
price, cost of production, and revenue from sale, profit or loss and so on, it is the study of behavior of
consumers and firms.

Scope of microeconomics:-

The scope of microeconomics means its subject matter. it means area of application too. The scope are
:-

1. study of consumers behavior

-cardinal utility theory

– ordinal theory

-revealed preference theory

-cardinal behavior theory

2. Study of production and cost function

Mathematically.

Q=output (quantity)

C=cost of production

K=capital

Q=f(K and other inputs)

C=f(Q)

Therefore, C α input

3. Study of price and output determination

Profit=revenue-cost

Markets = monopoly, duopoly, oligopoly, monopolistic competition and perfect competition

4. Study of microeconomic distribution

Factors of production-land, labor, capital and organization

Factor wages-rent, wage, interest, profit

Macroeconomics

Macroeconomics is derived from the word macro, economy and science. The term “macro” is also
derived from Greek word “macros” which means large or big. Therefore, macroeconomics can be
defined as the science of large segment of the economy or economy as a whole. It provides bird’s eye
view of the economy. It gives general features of the economy. It is study of features of economic
problems, causes and remedies of the problems in different sectors. The sectors are divided into
household sectors, government sector, foreign trade sector, business sector. In macroeconomics we
study about the relationship between macro economic variables, the variables are:

a) Aggregate consumption

b) Aggregate income

c) Aggregate saving

d) Aggregate investment

e) Aggregate demand

f) Aggregate supply

g) Price level

In macroeconomics we study about the causes and remedies of trade and payment, price instability,
Inequality etc

Scope or subject matter of macroeconomics:

Scope means the subject matter. It means the area of application…

1. Study of wage level and employment level

The macroeconomics deals with wage level and employment level. The level of employment depends
upon demand for labor and supply of labor. Both of these factors depend upon wage level. There are
different theories of employment like classical theory, Keynesian theory, Kaltorian theory and other
modern theory

2. The study of price level and output level

Macroeconomics is concerned with determination of equilibrium price level and output level. The price
level means average of the prices of goods and services bought and sold in the country in a year. The
level of output depends upon aggregate demand and price level. There are different theories of
determination of price level and output level. Among them, Keynesian theory of effective demand is
very popular. The theories are the subject matter of macroeconomics.

3. The study of trade cycle

Macroeconomics is concerned with trade cycle too. It explains how the economics ups and downs
occur, what are their causes, how the country can overcome fluctuation. There are different theories of
trade cycle. Some of them are Schumpeter theory, Hessian theory, Calder’s theory etc.

4) Study of macroeconomic distribution

The macroeconomics is the study of distribution of income, wealth or resources in the country among
the people. It is the study of different theories, laws and principles of distribution of income in the form
of wage, interest, profit and rent. It gives us knowledge of effects of high inequality in the distribution of
income and wealth. It gives us remedies of unequal distribution and the economic problems due to the
inequality.

NATURE OF ECONOMICS: as Art and Science

Economics is a science or an art

Economics is both art and science. It is called a science because it is the scientific study of relationships
between economic variables, behavior of consumers and firms, nature of market and economy, effect of
change in one or more economic variables on the others and so on. The different theories, laws and
principles are studied in economics. All of them are generalized and simplified on the basis of facts so as
to make them easily understandable. Therefore, economics is said to be science.

Economics is an art. The different theories, laws are explained with the help of graphs, figures, tables,
charts, equations etc simplifying and generalizing them. Simplification is to make them easily
understandable and generalization is to make them applicable to all economies. In order to explain
theories, laws and relationships between economic variables we make some assumptions. The
assumptions define the conditions for the application of theories, laws and\d the relationships. That’s
why economics is an art.

If it is a science, then either positive science or normative science.

Normative or positive economics

Economics is both positive and normative science. It is the study of facts as well as ideal theories and
principles too. It can be explained as following:

a) Positive economics

Economics is positive science. It is the study of facts or things in reality or existence. In economics the
large number of economic problems or questions like what are produced, how goods are priced and
distributed, how much profit is earned by firms, what different type of resources are available, hoe the
resources are utilized, who are performing different economic activities, why the economic problems
are occurring, why is the country suffering from unemployment, price instability, economic instability,
import dependency and so on are put and answered. There are different theories laws and principles
based upon facts we study in economics. That’s why economics is called positive science

b) Normative economics

Economics is normative science. It is the study of things ought to be. In economics, we study different
ideal theories and principles. They are concerned with different economic problems. They give us ideas
for overcoming of different economic problems. They are helpful to formulate proper policies and plans.
They are helpful to solve the problems of unemployment, import dependency, improper allocation of
resources, price and economic instability, unequal distribution of income and wealth and so on.
Economics helps us to decide how much goods should be produced, hoe much they should be priced,
hoe the government should control money supply, interest rate, public debt, government expenditure
etc , how the consumer should allocate the money to get maximum satisfaction from the expenditure,
how the firms should combine the inputs to earn maximum profit and so on. This all have ethical
importance. That’s why economics is call normative science.
ZOOLOGY
Zoology, branch of biology that studies the members of the animal kingdom and animal life in general. It
includes both the inquiry into individual animals and their constituent parts, even to the molecular level,
and the inquiry into animal populations, entire faunas, and the relationships of animals to each other, to
plants, and to the nonliving environment. Though this wide range of studies results in some isolation of
specialties within zoology, the conceptual integration in the contemporary study of living things that has
occurred in recent years emphasizes the structural and functional unity of life rather than its diversity.

IMPORTANCE

1. Zoology and our Food - Many of us take eggs and meat of different animals and almost all
of us use the milk of cows and buffaloes. The study of zoology helps us to increase the
number and improve the quality of animals that give us eggs, meat and milk.

2. Zoology and industry - From animals, we get many things of daily use e.g. leather, horn,
shells, honey, wax, pearls etc. many industries are based on these products and the study of
zoology helps in their useful utilization.

3. Zoology and Agriculture - A study of Zoology helps us to understands properly the life of
many insect that harm our crops and enables us to control them to a large extent. An
agriculturist is thus benefited.

4. Zoology and Human diseases - Many diseases are due to animals which cause and
transmit them the drugs are tested on animals before using them on human beings.
Similarly, much of our knowledge of human physiology and surgery has come from
experiments and dissections of other animals. The study of zoology is therefore, very helpful
to a medical man in curing the therefore, very helpful to a medical man in curing the
diseases and performing life saving surgical operations.

5. Zoology and Improvement of Humans Race - With the study of genetics and eugenics
human race can be improved a lot. It gives us an insight into our heredity and betterment.

6. Zoology and Aesthetics - Many animals give us aesthetic, pleasure, Fishes birds and
butter flies are kept for entertainment and hobby.

7. Zoology and mental Improvement - Many people believe that the bite of all snakes is
deadly and lizards are poisonous but the study of zoology tells us that only a few snakes are
poisonous and lizards are non-poisonous. Zoology helps to clear several such
misconceptions.

THEORY OF EVOLUTION

Darwin's Theory of Evolution - The Premise

Darwin's Theory of Evolution is the widely held notion that all life is related and has
descended from a common ancestor: the birds and the bananas, the fishes and the
flowers -- all related. Darwin's general theory presumes the development of life from
non-life and stresses a purely naturalistic (undirected) "descent with modification". That
is, complex creatures evolve from more simplistic ancestors naturally over time. In a
nutshell, as random genetic mutations occur within an organism's genetic code, the
beneficial mutations are preserved because they aid survival -- a process known as
"natural selection." These beneficial mutations are passed on to the next generation.
Over time, beneficial mutations accumulate and the result is an entirely different
organism (not just a variation of the original, but an entirely different creature).

Darwin's Theory of Evolution - Natural Selection

While Darwin's Theory of Evolution is a relatively young archetype, the evolutionary
worldview itself is as old as antiquity. Ancient Greek philosophers such as Anaximander
postulated the development of life from non-life and the evolutionary descent of man
from animal. Charles Darwin simply brought something new to the old philosophy -- a
plausible mechanism called "natural selection." Natural selection acts to preserve and
accumulate minor advantageous genetic mutations. Suppose a member of a species
developed a functional advantage (it grew wings and learned to fly). Its offspring would
inherit that advantage and pass it on to their offspring. The inferior (disadvantaged)
members of the same species would gradually die out, leaving only the superior
(advantaged) members of the species. Natural selection is the preservation of a
functional advantage that enables a species to compete better in the wild. Natural
selection is the naturalistic equivalent to domestic breeding. Over the centuries, human
breeders have produced dramatic changes in domestic animal populations by selecting
individuals to breed. Breeders eliminate undesirable traits gradually over time. Similarly,
natural selection eliminates inferior species gradually over time.

Darwin's Theory of Evolution - Slowly But Surely...

Darwin's Theory of Evolution is a slow gradual process. Darwin wrote, "…Natural
selection acts only by taking advantage of slight successive variations; she can never
take a great and sudden leap, but must advance by short and sure, though slow steps."
[1] Thus, Darwin conceded that, "If it could be demonstrated that any complex organ
existed, which could not possibly have been formed by numerous, successive, slight
modifications, my theory would absolutely break down." [2] Such a complex organ
would be known as an "irreducibly complex system". An irreducibly complex system is
one composed of multiple parts, all of which are necessary for the system to function. If
even one part is missing, the entire system will fail to function. Every individual part is
integral. [3] Thus, such a system could not have evolved slowly, piece by piece. The
common mousetrap is an everyday non-biological example of irreducible complexity. It
is composed of five basic parts: a catch (to hold the bait), a powerful spring, a thin rod
called "the hammer," a holding bar to secure the hammer in place, and a platform to
mount the trap. If any one of these parts is missing, the mechanism will not work. Each
individual part is integral. The mousetrap is irreducibly complex. [4]

Darwin's Theory of Evolution - A Theory In Crisis

Darwin's Theory of Evolution is a theory in crisis in light of the tremendous advances
we've made in molecular biology, biochemistry and genetics over the past fifty years.
We now know that there are in fact tens of thousands of irreducibly complex systems on
the cellular level. Specified complexity pervades the microscopic biological world.
Molecular biologist Michael Denton wrote, "Although the tiniest bacterial cells are
incredibly small, weighing less than 10-12 grams, each is in effect a veritable micro-
miniaturized factory containing thousands of exquisitely designed pieces of intricate
molecular machinery, made up altogether of one hundred thousand million atoms, far
more complicated than any machinery built by man and absolutely without parallel in the
non-living world." [5]

And we don't need a microscope to observe irreducible complexity. The eye, the ear
and the heart are all examples of irreducible complexity, though they were not
recognized as such in Darwin's day. Nevertheless, Darwin confessed, "To suppose that
the eye with all its inimitable contrivances for adjusting the focus to different distances,
for admitting different amounts of light, and for the correction of spherical and chromatic
aberration, could have been formed by natural selection, seems, I freely confess,
absurd in the highest degree." [6]

The theory of evolution by natural selection, first formulated in Darwin's book "On
the Origin of Species" in 1859, is the process by which organisms change over time as
a result of changes in heritable physical or behavioral traits. Changes that allow an
organism to better adapt to its environment will help it survive and have more
offspring.

Evolution by natural selection is one of the best substantiated theories in the history of
science, supported by evidence from a wide variety of scientific disciplines, including
paleontology, geology, genetics and developmental biology.

The theory has two main points, said Brian Richmond, curator of human origins at the
American Museum of Natural History in New York City. "All life on Earth is
connected and related to each other," and this diversity of life is a product of
"modifications of populations by natural selection, where some traits were favored in
and environment over others," he said.

More simply put, the theory can be described as "descent with modification," said
Briana Pobiner, an anthropologist and educator at the Smithsonian Institution National
Museum of Natural History in Washington, D.C., who specializes in the study of
human origins.

The theory is sometimes described as "survival of the fittest," but that can be
misleading, Pobiner said. Here, "fitness" refers not to an organism's strength or
athletic ability, but rather the ability to survive and reproduce.
For example, a study on human evolution on 1,900 students, published online in the
journal Personality and Individual Differences in October 2017, found that many
people may have trouble finding a mate because of rapidly changing social
technological advances that are evolving faster than humans. "Nearly 1 in 2
individuals faces considerable difficulties in the domain of mating," said lead study
author Menelaos Apostolou, an associate professor of social sciences at the University
of Nicosia in Cyprus. "In most cases, these difficulties are not due to something
wrong or broken, but due to people living in an environment which is very different
from the environment they evolved to function in." [If You Suck at Dating, It's Not
You — It's Evolution]

Origin of whales
In the first edition of "On the Origin of Species" in 1859, Charles Darwin speculated
about how natural selection could cause a land mammal to turn into a whale. As a
hypothetical example, Darwin used North American black bears, which were known
to catch insects by swimming in the water with their mouths open:

"I can see no difficulty in a race of bears being rendered, by natural selection, more
aquatic in their structure and habits, with larger and larger mouths, till a creature was
produced as monstrous as a whale," he speculated.

The idea didn't go over very well with the public. Darwin was so embarrassed by the
ridicule he received that the swimming-bear passage was removed from later editions
of the book.

Scientists now know that Darwin had the right idea but the wrong animal. Instead of
looking at bears, he should have instead been looking at cows and hippopotamuses.

The story of the origin of whales is one of evolution's most fascinating tales and one
of the best examples scientists have of natural selection.
The last shore-dwelling ancestor of modern whales was Sinonyx, top left, a hyena-like animal.
Over 60 million years, several transitional forms evolved: from top to bottom, Indohyus,
Ambulocetus, Rodhocetus, Basilosaurus, Dorudon, and finally, the modern humpback whale.
Credit: NOAA

Natural selection
To understand the origin of whales, it's necessary to have a basic understanding of
how natural selection works. Natural selection can change a species in small ways,
causing a population to change color or size over the course of several generations.
This is called "microevolution."

But natural selection is also capable of much more. Given enough time and enough
accumulated changes, natural selection can create entirely new species, known as
"macroevolution." It can turn dinosaurs into birds, amphibious mammals into whales
and the ancestors of apes into humans.

Take the example of whales — using evolution as their guide and knowing how
natural selection works, biologists knew that the transition of early whales from land
to water occurred in a series of predictable steps. The evolution of the blowhole, for
example, might have happened in the following way:

Random genetic changes resulted in at least one whale having its nostrils placed
farther back on its head. Those animals with this adaptation would have been better
suited to a marine lifestyle, since they would not have had to completely surface to
breathe. Such animals would have been more successful and had more offspring. In
later generations, more genetic changes occurred, moving the nose farther back on the
head.

Other body parts of early whales also changed. Front legs became flippers. Back legs
disappeared. Their bodies became more streamlined and they developed tail flukes to
better propel themselves through water.

Darwin also described a form of natural selection that depends on an organism's

success at attracting a mate, a process known as sexual selection. The colorful
plumage of peacocks and the antlers of male deer are both examples of traits that
evolved under this type of selection.

But Darwin wasn't the first or only scientist to develop a theory of evolution.
The French biologist Jean-Baptiste Lamarck came up with the idea that an organism
could pass on traits to its offspring, though he was wrong about some of the details.
Around the same time as Darwin, British biologist Alfred Russel Wallace
independently came up with the theory of evolution by natural selection.

Modern understanding
Darwin didn't know anything about genetics, Pobiner said. "He observed the pattern
of evolution, but he didn't really know about the mechanism." That came later, with
the discovery of how genes encode different biological or behavioral traits, and how
genes are passed down from parents to offspring. The incorporation of genetics and
Darwin's theory is known as "modern evolutionary synthesis."

The physical and behavioral changes that make natural selection possible happen at
the level of DNA and genes. Such changes are called mutations. "Mutations are
basically the raw material on which evolution acts," Pobiner said.
Mutations can be caused by random errors in DNA replication or repair, or by
chemical or radiation damage. Most times, mutations are either harmful or neutral, but
in rare instances, a mutation might prove beneficial to the organism. If so, it will
become more prevalent in the next generation and spread throughout the population.

In this way, natural selection guides the evolutionary process, preserving and adding
up the beneficial mutations and rejecting the bad ones. "Mutations are random, but
selection for them is not random," Pobiner said.

But natural selection isn't the only mechanism by which organisms evolve, she said.
For example, genes can be transferred from one population to another when
organisms migrate or immigrate, a process known as gene flow. And the frequency of
certain genes can also change at random, which is called genetic drift.

A wealth of evidence
Even though scientists could predict what early whales should look like, they lacked
the fossil evidence to back up their claim. Creationists took this absence as proof that
evolution didn't occur. They mocked the idea that there could have ever been such a
thing as a walking whale. But since the early 1990s, that's exactly what scientists have
been finding.

The critical piece of evidence came in 1994, when paleontologists found the fossilized
remains of Ambulocetus natans, an animal whose name literally means "swimming-
walking whale." Its forelimbs had fingers and small hooves but its hind feet were
enormous given its size. It was clearly adapted for swimming, but it was also capable
of moving clumsily on land, much like a seal.

When it swam, the ancient creature moved like an otter, pushing back with its hind
feet and undulating its spine and tail.

Modern whales propel themselves through the water with powerful beats of their
horizontal tail flukes, but Ambulocetus still had a whip-like tail and had to use its legs
to provide most of the propulsive force needed to move through water.

In recent years, more and more of these transitional species, or "missing links," have
been discovered, lending further support to Darwin's theory, Richmond said.

Fossil "links" have also been found to support human evolution. In early 2018, a
fossilized jaw and teeth found that are estimated to be up to 194,000 years old,
making them at least 50,000 years older than modern human fossils previously found
outside Africa. This finding provides another clue to how humans have evolved.

Controversy
Despite the wealth of evidence from the fossil record, genetics and other fields of
science, some people still question its validity. Some politicians and religious leaders
denounce the theory of evolution, invoking a higher being as a designer to explain the
complex world of living things, especially humans.
School boards debate whether the theory of evolution should be taught alongside other
ideas, such as intelligent design or creationism.

Mainstream scientists see no controversy. "A lot of people have deep religious beliefs
and also accept evolution," Pobiner said, adding, "there can be real reconciliation."
Evolution is well supported by many examples of changes in various species leading
to the diversity of life seen today. "If someone could really demonstrate a better
explanation than evolution and natural selection, [that person] would be the new
Darwin," Richmond said.

Ecological Perspective - https://classroom.synonym.com/ecological-perspective-6638441.html

The term ecological perspective is a concept from the science of ecology that refers the study
of organisms and how they interact with their environments. In 1973, Carel Germain borrowed the term
and used it to explain the way sociologists and social workers should study the interactions of people
and groups within social and cultural environments. Researchers use many categories to collect social
data, including habitat, niche, adaptation, goodness-of-fit, self-esteem and self-direction.

Habitat and Niche

Habitat is the social and physical environment where people live, work, shop or spend time. These
individuals often share similar values and perspectives. Niche is a person’s or ethnic group’s place in
society as determined by their immediate environment. People have similar influences and shared
relationships when they belong to the same habitat or niche. For example, people who live in rural
environments or public housing have specific types of influences from the spaces they inhabit, and also
share certain types of influences and relationships depending on how they earn a living.

Adaptation

The ecological perspective studies how adaptation occurs by looking at environmental, social and
cultural factors that lead to changes. New technologies provide more comfortable and effective ways of
functioning in certain environments. For instance, many people now use the Internet to shop and work,
to save money and resources. Social researchers use what they learn about these changes to identify,
understand and provide solutions to social issues through social services: for example, if someone needs
help learning new technology skills to find a job.

Goodness-of-Fit

Goodness-of-fit refers to how well a person fits into a historical, social and cultural context. Social
workers call this the life model approach and use it to help them determine factors that keep people
from fitting into a context. For example, social workers use this category to develop sensitivity to diverse
backgrounds and issues of bias and social prejudice. Thus, instead of blaming the individual, they can
recognize when clients' needs are not met by the resources available.

Self-Esteem and Self-Direction

Social researchers also study psychological factors that make it difficult for someone to adapt or fit into
a social or cultural environment. Low self-esteem causes a person to feel unloved, unworthy or inferior.
Self-direction refers to how much control a person feels he has over what happens in life, and the ability
to take responsibility for decisions. The ecological perspective studies how these emotional
skills develop in early childhood and evolve in adulthood.