PAKISTAN - 3: Protohistorical Investigations in the Indus Valley

Author(s): Grazia Maria Bulgarelli, Massimo Vidale and Mauro Cucarzi

Source: East and West, Vol. 36, No. 4 (December 1986), pp. 517-529
Published by: Istituto Italiano per l'Africa e l'Oriente (IsIAO)
Stable URL: https://www.jstor.org/stable/29756803
Accessed: 27-11-2018 09:08 UTC

JSTOR is a not-for-profit service that helps scholars, researchers, and students discover, use, and build upon a wide
range of content in a trusted digital archive. We use information technology and tools to increase productivity and
facilitate new forms of scholarship. For more information about JSTOR, please contact support@jstor.org.

Your use of the JSTOR archive indicates your acceptance of the Terms & Conditions of Use, available at
https://about.jstor.org/terms

Istituto Italiano per l'Africa e l'Oriente (IsIAO) is collaborating with JSTOR to digitize,
preserve and extend access to East and West

This content downloaded from 128.205.114.91 on Tue, 27 Nov 2018 09:08:34 UTC
All use subject to https://about.jstor.org/terms
 PAKISTAN - 3
Protohistorical Investigations in the Indus ValJey
Remarks on the Moenjodaro Lithic Industry
Moneer South East Area
As a result of work carried out during
the 1982-83 campaigns in Moneer South
East Area forming part of the IsMEO -
RWTH Surface Evaluation Programme, sev?
eral thousand objects were collected, showing
the various crafts practised in the area.
These included pottery, the highly specialized
ceramic produced in closed containers (Halim
& Vidale 1983), work in shells (Kenoyer
1983) and various kinds of semi-precious
stones, etc.
Thanks to methodical survey of the co?
ordinates of every single object, it was
also possible to define the precise areas
in which the various crafts were practised
and, in some cases, to detect overlapping
of these areas (Tosi, Bondioli & Vidale
1983: 24).
The lithic industry was among the cat?
egories of objects in greatest abundance:
blades, bladelets, drills, chert working
wasters, etc.
An examination, performed by the Ex?
ploration Branch, Department of Archae?
ology, Karachi in 1984, of part of the flint
materials found on the surface, confirmed
the specialized nature of activities carried
on using these tools. Among the factors
demonstrating this were the considerable
amount of working waste from semi-precious
stones and the rarity and/or absence of some
of the kinds of tools on view in the Karachi
and Moenjodaro Museums.
As time for study of the technical and
functional aspects of the finds was rather
limited, we concentrated on a set of pieces
coming from a control trench dug in 1984;
these had the advantage of costituting a
This content downloaded from 128.205.114.91 on Tue, 27 Nov 2018 09:08:34 UTC
All use subject to https://about.jstor.org/terms
sample that was both homogeneous and
plentiful.
The pieces number over a thousand and,
apart from the cylindrical drills, are all in
very good quality fine-grain flint: buff
(c. 77%), grey (c. 15%), brown (c. 6%),
zoned, dull white and red for the remain?
ing 2%.
The high percentage of buff and grey
flint agrees with the evidence offered by
Marshall (1931) and Mackay (1938) and
the more accurate observations of Kenoyer
(1984) on the lithic industry coming from
the area excavated by G.F. Dales in
1964; once again, the Rohri Hills have
been confirmed as the main source of flint
supply to Moenjodaro. Apart from buff
and grey flint, the Rohri Hills also appear
to be the source of the brown type noted
by M. Cremaschi and P. Biagi during a
visit to the site in 1986 (personal com?
munication).
The lithic sample we examined, consisted
mainly of flakes and wasters (over 400),
blades and bladelets (c. 400), micro-drills
on bladelets (c. 250), a significant number
of cylindrical drills in phthanite (over 20),
blades with rounded edges (c. 10), backed
tools (c. 10), some borers on blades (fig. 1,
no. 6) 'depassees' blades (fig. 1, no. 3) and
a little pyramidal core (fig. 1, no. 7).
The flakes and working wasters (fig. 1,
nos. 9-11) lack cortical zones, suggesting
that when the raw material was taken to
the site it had already been worked, probably
in form of ready-prepared cores. The great
quantities found, together with a number of
'depassees' blades (fig. 1, no. 8), demonstrate
that the blades and tools were produced on
the site.
Most of the blades and bladelets are in
fragments and show no sign of retouches,
517
 /-\

15 16
1 2 ?7 13 0> 14

0
17 19
O 0 O
^ 2021 22 23
24

Fig. 1 - Lithic industry from Moenjodaro, Moneer SE area: nos. 1-3 blades, no. 4 bladelet
with micro wear traces along the edges; no. 5 blade with bilateral steep retouches, rounded
and smoothed by use; no. 6 borer; no. 7 pyramidal core; no. 8 'depasseV blade; nos. 9-11
flint wasters; nos. 12-15 micro-drills on bladelets; no. 16 micro-drill on bladelet with traces
of adhesive; no. 17 fragment of phthanite flake with steep retouches; nos. 18-19 phthanite
wasters; no. 20 phthanite bar with steep retouches; nos. 21-22 fragments of handled part
of cylindrical drills; nos. 23-24 fragments of heads of phthanite cylindrical drills. Scale 1:1.
(Drawing by Patricia Smith).

This content downloaded from 128.205.114.91 on Tue, 27 Nov 2018 09:08:34 UTC
All use subject to https://about.jstor.org/terms
 the edges often appear uneven where small
scars must have been produced during their
utilization (fig. 1, nos. 1-4). Otherwise they
are extremely regular in form with parallel
edges, and are likely to have been produced
with the pressure technique (fig. 1, nos. 3-4).
This is a matter of applying strong pressure
along the edge of the striking surface of a
prepared core, and has the advantage of
allowing for a high level of standardization
and economical use of raw material (Inizan
forthcoming).
The backed micro-drills on bladelets,
mostly in fragments, have bits varying be?
tween 1 and 4 mm. in length, produced
with two deep notches and steep bilateral
retouches; the part that must have supported
the handle was given regular shape with
direct or inverse, varyingly steep, retouches
along the edges, which are usually converging
(fig. 1, nos. 12-15). Seven specimens still
showed traces of the adhesive used to attach
the handle (fig. 1, no. 16).
On the whole, the Moneer micro-drills
offer morphological variations very similar to
those already known in southern Turkmenia
(Vinogradov 1972) and Iranian Sistan (Pi
perno & Tosi 1973).
In the case of the cylindrical drills
(Mackay 1937; Piperno 1973; Jarrige 1981;
Salvatori & Vidale 1982) in phthanite, enough
evidence was collected to document all the
stages of production (fig. 1, nos. 17-24).
Small bars of quadrangular section with
steep retouches on two or more faces were
derived from flakes; these were subsequently
hewn to more regular shape and partially
smoothed down to produce the drill ready
for use. The maximum length of the frag?
ments of cylindrical bits found was 1 cm.,
diameter varying between 1 and 2.5 mm.
The blades with rounded edges (fig. 1,
no. 5), all in fragmentary condition, are
between 2.5 and 5 mm. thick, rather more
than the other blades and bladelets found
at Moneer. They show steep direct, bilateral
retouches, often totally obliterated by use.
Some also showed signs of a smoothing
down along the ridges of the dorsal face.
This content downloaded from 128.205.114.91 on Tue, 27 Nov 2018 09:08:34 UTC
All use subject to https://about.jstor.org/terms
Particular attention was paid to the func?
tional aspect of the main types of tools.
Given the limitation in time and equipment
available, extensive analysis was not possible
on the site; the remarks offered here must
therefore be considered only preliminary.
A common feature among the small backed
drills on bladelets, especially those with a
bit over 2 mm. long, was a torsion fracture
caused by rotary movement, and some of
the tips were slightly rounded.
The same kind of torsion fractures can
be seen on fragments of the cylindrical drills
in phthanite. While the tip of the bit is
flat, with the usual depression at the centre
(Piperno 1973), the fragments of the part
that was in contact with the support is
convex at the end, which is generally
smoothed down, suggesting that it was
subjected to friction during use.
It appears very likely that these two
kinds of tools were used to make the hole
in the beads of semi-precious stones and
shells many wasters of which were found
in the same area.
In the case of the blades with rounded
edges, described by E.J.H. Mackay (1938)
as wood polishers, we can only suppose
that they might have been used for work
on hide or wood. In fact, to identify the
materials worked with this kind of tool,
or with blades and bladelets also worn down
to varying degrees along the edges during
use, methodical observation with a micro?
scope of high magnification must be carried
out. This should in turn be supported with
laboratory tests, applying the techniques
devised by such specialists as Newcomer,
Keeley (1980), Keeley & Newcomer (1977),
Odell (1979), etc.
Given the difficulty of examining the
pieces at the site, in the course of our next
work programme we intend to produce a
wide selection of replicas of the various
kinds of tools in special synthetic materials
(acrylic resins) with a high level of definition.
Observation of these with a scanning micro?
scope will permit us to better define the
alterations in the tools resulting from use.
519
 Only on the basis of new data and of
testing will it be possible to attempt an
understanding concerning the use of the
lithic tools and which materials might have
produced traces on them.
Grazia Maria Bulgareiii
REFERENCES
Halim, M.A. & M. Vidale (1983) Kilns,
Bangles and Coated Vessels. Interim
Reports, I, pp. 63-98. Aachen.
Inizan, M.L. (forthcoming) Technologie lithi
que: le debitage par pression en Orient.
Perspective de recherche. Colloque franco
sovietique sur VArcheologie de VAsie Cen?
trale 1985.
Jarrige, J.F. (1981) Economy and Society
in the Early Calcholithic / Bronze Age of
Baluchistan. New Perspectives from Recent
Excavations at Mehrgarh. South Asian Ar?
chaeology 1979, pp. 93-114. Berlin.
Keeley, L.H. (1980) Experimental Determi?
nation of Stone Tool Uses. A Microwear
Analysis. Chicago University Press.
Keeley, L.H. & M.H. Newcomer (1977)
Microwear Analysis of Experimental Flint
Tools: a Test Case. Journal of Archaeo?
logical Science, 4, pp. 29-62.
Kenoyer, J.M. (1983) Shell Industries at
Moenjodaro, Pakistan. Interim Reports,
I, pp. 99-116. Aachen.
Kenoyer, J.M. (1984) Chipped Stone Tools
from Moenjodaro. University of Pennsyl?
vania Excavation 1964-65. In B.B. Lai
& S.P. Gupta, eds., Frontiers of the Indus
Civilisation, pp. 117'-32. New Delhi.
Mackay, EJ.H. (1937) Bead Making in
Ancient Sind. JAOS, 75, 1, pp. 1-15.
Mackay, EJ.H. (1938) Further Excavations
at Mohenjo-Daro. 2 vols. New Delhi.
Marshall, J. (1931) Mohenjo-daro and the
Indus Civilisation. 3 vols. London.
Odell, G.H. (1979) A New and Improved
System for the Retrieval of Functional
Information from Microscopic Obser?
vations of Chipped Stone Tools. In
520
This content downloaded from 128.205.114.91 on Tue, 27 Nov 2018 09:08:34 UTC
All use subject to https://about.jstor.org/terms
B. Hayden, ed., Lithic Use-Wear Analysis.
New York.
Piperno, M. (1973) Micro-drilling at Shahr-i
Sokhta; the Making and Use of the Lithic
Drill jHeads. South Asian Archaeology,
pp. 119-29. London.
Piperno, M. & M. Tosi (1973) Lithic Tech?
nology behind the Ancient Lapis Lazuli
Trade. Expedition, 16, 1, pp. 15-23.
Salvatori, S. & M. Vickie (1982) A Brief
Surface Survey of the Protohistorkal Site
of Shahdad. Preliminary Report. Rivista
di Archeologia, VI, pp. 5-10.
Tosi, M., L. Bondioli & M. Vidale (1983)
Craft Activity Areas and Surface Survey
at Moenjodaro. Interim Reports, I,
pp. 9-38. Aachen.
Vinogradov, A.V. (1972) Kyzylkumskie
Juveliry. Uspehi Sredneaziatskoj Arheolo
gii, 2, pp. 43-45.
Steatite Cutting on Glazing: Relational
Aspects of Two Technological Environments
in Harappan Urban Contexts
Among the various types of manufactured
products on record so far at Moenjodaro
(Bondioli et al. 1984; Pracchia et al. 1985;
Vidale forthcoming1) steatite working is
of primary interest (Vidale forthcoming1)
not only because of the strong incidence
of steatite ornaments in Harappan assem?
blages, but also because of the outstanding
position of steatite carved seals in the his?
torical image we have of the Harappan
Civilization. The steatite working areas we
were able to single out on the undisturbed
surfaces of the town are, as a rule, rather
small, with extensions ranging from scatters
of a few square metres to rare spreadings
approximating the size of a normal room
(Bondioli et al. 1984). The scanty infor?
mation provided by the excavation reports
of Moenjodaro and Chanhudaro seems to
suggest that the production of steatite
ornaments and seals was carried out within
the architectural context of the urban
 dwellings, in which small-scale workshops
or ateliers were activated (see, for example,
Marshall 1931: 184).
The archaeological evaluation of craft
activity areas is producing a very dynamic
picture, in which different types of manu?
factured products are attested in the urban
compound in the frame of different expected
modes of occupation of spaces and facilities,
with a consequent, equally wide variability
of depositional processes of the relative
archaeological record (Bondioli & Vidale
1986). In particular, preliminary evidence
would suggest that shell working and pottery
firing were often carried out across decayed',
restructured or partially abandoned portions
of the town. On the contrary (although the
available information is largely insufficient)
the impression that the production of steatite
items was a systemic variable organically
active in Harappan urban contexts is
becoming more and more convincing. At
Moenjodaro, a series of surface spreadings
with associations indicating steatite working
was located along the eastern slopes of the
'Lower Town' facing the excavated ruins
named DK-A (Marshall 1931: 233-35).
Besides the common occurrence of stone
cutting indicators, this row of activity areas
is characterized by differential distributions
of artefacts indicating that activities such
as the separation of the stone from its
calcareous gangue or some forms of pyro
technological treatments were spatially dis?
located (Vidale forthcoming1). If our
preliminary interpretations are correct, this
row of surface spreadings of industrial
indicators should be related to some indi?
vidual manufacturing units economically
connected through specific forms of tech?
nological interdependence.
The areas with indicators of pyrotech
nological transformations present the recur?
rent, highly distinctive associations of steatite
sawn chips with bone micro-splinters and
opaque, vitreous-like spongy slags (fig. 2).
The recovery of steatite fragments partially
coated by glassy drops as well as of bone
pieces melted into translucent slags confirmed
This content downloaded from 128.205.114.91 on Tue, 27 Nov 2018 09:08:34 UTC
All use subject to https://about.jstor.org/terms
the primary nature of these associations.
This indisputable evidence leads us to
question which forms of physical transform?
ations could have produced these peculiar
complexes of industrial debitage. An exhaus?
tive answer has to wait for a systematic
project of archaeometrical evaluation. None?
theless, we may preliminarily hypothesize
that bone particles containing calcium phos?
phate were employed as a flux and steatite
as a refractory material in the frame of a
single, highly controlled pyrotechnological
system possibly connected with glazing.
Steatite is an extraordinary material. In
normal conditions it is very soft, and may
be very easily cut and carved; when exposed
to fire, it becomes hard and highly resistant.
It is unfusible, and its refractory properties
may be easily realized and exploited by very
simple technologies (see, for example, Wilson
1973). In short, steatite is a stone sharing
the basic technological features of ceramic
materials (Ritchie 1973: 48-51), turning out
to be the most versatile medium for a wide
range of experiments and productive targets.
According to Lucas (1948: 179) steatite
glazed beads are the earliest glazed materials
in Egypt and were recovered in Badarian
levels. Dayton (forthcoming) remarks that
the refractory properties of steatite justify
its early use in the production of lamps,
cooking pots and moulds; again Lucas (1948:
201) reports the modern use of steatite
saggars for the glazing of ceramics. Par?
ticularly relevant, in this perspective, is
Dayton's hypothesis that the use of steatite
moulds in copper smelting, combined with
by-products of wood firing, would have
determined the formation on the stone of a
greenish-blue glaze, so costantly suggesting
to the first metallurgists the basic physical
transformation of the glazing processes.
It is therefore highly probable that the
steatite-cutters and copper-smelters of the
early state formations of the subcontinent
were actually involved in centuries of ex?
perimentation and technological improvement
ultimately resulting in the high standards of
the Indus faience and faience-related ma
521
 ?o0 <3
tig*
0$ CP "

3Q
?9
0 o,0 0
?3

C7

jO b> ?^ d*' 20 cm

Fig. 2 - Moenjodaro. Map of a small cluster of overfired terracotta and brick fragments (a), sawn steatite
chips (b), bone micro-splinters (c) and glaze-like slags (d) in A A.38 (cf. Vidale 1985). (Drawing
by M. Vidale).

This content downloaded from 128.205.114.91 on Tue, 27 Nov 2018 09:08:34 UTC
All use subject to https://about.jstor.org/terms
 terials crowding the inventories of Harappa
and Moenjodaro. It might be interesting to
observe that some traits of this historical
trajectory can be compared with evidence
available for Mesopotamia, where textual
sources are very clear in informing us that,
at least from Ur III times, lapidaries were
involved in the production of artificial ma?
terials, probably glass or glaze-related ceramics
(Loding 1981). The stone-cutters of Me?
sopotamia were therefore most probably
closely connected to the 'stone imitators'
since very early times; these interactive
dynamics debouched in the development of
glass technology in the middle of the 2nd
millennium B.C., when the written records
must distinguish between 'lapis lazuli from
the mountain' and 'lapis lazuli from the
kiln' (Oppenheim et al 1970: 9-14).
Going back to the Indus Valley, at the
close of the 3rd millennium B.C. Harappan
craftsman had fully explored and exploited
the potentialities of steatite towards a very
wide range of pyrotechnological treatments
(Vidale forthcoming1). Part of these tech?
nological achievements have been tentatively
outlined or experimentally reconstructed. In
the Moenjodaro reports, for example, the
early excavators hypothesized the existence
of a 'steatite faience', in which the powdered
stone was used for the refractory body to
be glazed (Marshall 1931: 687); a partially
analogous use of steatite powder has been
more recently demonstrated by Hegde et
al (1982).
If the above interpretations are correct,
we are dealing with two specific forms of
interdigitation between the reductive tech?
nological environment of steatite cutting
and the pyrotechnological environment of
luxury ceramic manufacture products; in
particular, Marshall's interpretation may
provide us with a direct functional connec?
tion between stone-working and glazing. A
third positive evidence of these dynamics of
interference came from a recent visit to the
excavated Harappan site of Chanhudaro
(Sher & Vidale, forthcoming). The author
had the occasion to re-examine several
This content downloaded from 128.205.114.91 on Tue, 27 Nov 2018 09:08:34 UTC
All use subject to https://about.jstor.org/terms
classes of indicators described by Mackay
in the report, among which a type of re?
fractory barret that was probably part of
small firing installations (Vidale 1986),
studded with turquoise, greenish or pale
yellow glaze-like traces. On the whole, the
visual inspection of such dropping traces
were strongly reminiscent of both the glaze?
like slags of Moenjodaro and the chromatic
range of the Harappan faience. A closer
examination of the barrets' inner temper
revealed the presence of ground particles
of white fired steatite, among which wafer?
like sheets and a single squared blank for
the disc-beads so common in Harappan sites
were easily recognizable (Vidale forth?
coming2). This evidence clearly demon?
strates the adoption of a systematic recycling
strategy for the construction of the facili?
ties probably needed for (faience?) glaze
components. The system of technological
interconnections between steatite cutting and
glazing may be summarized in fig. 3.
Besides Moenjodaro and Chanhudaro, the
steatite-glaze-bone assemblages have been
identified at Harappa by G.M. Shar during
a recent visit to the site, together with
J.M. Kenoyer and the author (probably in
a secondary, disturbed context) (L). Further?
more, we had the occasion in 1986 to visit
the large unexcavated Early-Mature Harappan
site of Judeirjo-Daro in the southern Kachi
Plains. Here the only craft activity areas
we were able to observe in the strict
schedule of our visit were rarefied spreadings
of copper prills (analogous to some minor
concentration observed at Moenjodaro) and
once more, a concentration of glaze-like
drops. In the authors limited experience,
such surface complexes of craft indicators
could so represent the most frequent, regular
occurrence of craft activity areas in Harappan
urban compounds. In these contexts, the
presence of groups of craftsmen producing
(x) I take this occasion to thank G. Dales
and J.M. Kenoyer of the American team at
Harappa for their generous and warm hos?
pitality in March 1986.
523
 STEATITE
CUTTING

RECYCLING
OF DEBITAGE
FOR RECYCLING
REFRACTORY OF DEBITAGE
BARRETS FOR FAIENCE
AND RELATED
STEATITE REFRACTORY
ORNAMENTS BODIES
AND SEALS

GLAZING

CERAMICS

Fig. 3 - Diagram summarizing the technological interconnections between steatite cutting and
glazing in Harappan urban contexts. (Drawing by M. Vidale).

elegant sophisticated ornaments in connection Processual Perspectives. In Arqueologia

with steatite-cutting activities and, possibly, Especial - 2. Coloquio sobre el Micro
metal-working, could represent a segment espacio. Teruel.
of a systematic strategy involving the exist?
Dayton, J.E. (forthcoming) The Faience of
ence of substantial economic bonds among the Indus Civilization.
different groups of craftsmen. Our future Iiedge, K.T.M., R.V. Karanth & S.P. Sy
attempts to evaluate the social structures chanthavon (1982) On the Composition
underlying the division of labour within and Technology of Harappan Microbeads.
Harappan urban contexts should take this In G. Possehl, ed., Harappan Civilization,
work hypothesis into account. pp. 239-44. New Delhi.
Massimo Vidale Loding, D. (1981) Lapidaries in the Ur III
Period. Expedition, 23, 4, pp. 6-14.
Lucas, A. (1948) Ancient Egyptian Materials
REFERENCES and Tools. London.
Marshall, J. (1931) Mohenjo-Daro and the
Bondioli, L., M. Tosi & M. Vidale (1984) Indus Civilization. London.
Craft Activity Areas and Surface Surveys Oppenheim, A.L., R.H. Brill, D. Barag &
at Moenjodaro. In M. Jansen & G. Urban, A. von Saldern (1970) Glass and Glass
eds., Interim Reports, I, pp. 9-37. Aachen. making in Ancient Mesopotamia. Corning.
Bondioli, L. & M. Vidale (1986) Architec? Pracchia, S., M. Tosi & M. Vidale (1985)
ture and Craft Production Across the On the Type, Distribution and Extent
Surface Palimpsest of Moenjodaro: Some of Craft Industries at Moenjodaro. In

524

This content downloaded from 128.205.114.91 on Tue, 27 Nov 2018 09:08:34 UTC
All use subject to https://about.jstor.org/terms
 J. Schotsmans & M. Taddei, eds., South To better follow the arguments they will
Asian Archaeology 1983. Naples. be taken sector by sector, the names of the
Ritchie, C.A.I. (1973) A Scopas Handbook. particular researchers being listed at the head
London. of each.
Sher, G.M. & M. Vidale (forthcoming)
Surface Evidence of Craft Activity at
Chanhu-Daro, March 1984. AION. Geophysical Survey
Vidale, M. (1984) Surface Evaluation of Geophysical survey continued in various
Craft Activity Areas at Moenjodaro, areas of Mohenjodaro with various aims
1982-84. In IsMEO Activities, EW, 34, according to the various measuring methods
4, pp. 516-28. applied.
Vidale, M. (forthcoming') Some Observations
and Conjectures on a Group of Steatite
Debitage Concentrations on the Surface a. Measurements of electrical conductivity
of Moenjodaro. In M. Jansen & G. Urban, The survey was carried out by Mauro
eds., Interim Reports, II. Aachen. Cucarzi and Bruno Frohlich.
Vidale, M. (forthcoming) The Paste Plaques Measurements of electrical conductivity
and Cylinders of Chanhudaro: a De were carried out at Mohenjodaro for the
scriptive Report. AION. first time using an EM 31 electromagnetic
Wilson, J.G. (1973) The Addition of Talc instrument made by Geonics, Toronto, made
and Asbestos to Pot Clay by Past and available by the Smithsonian Institution of
Present Inhabitants of Karamoja District Washington.
in Uganda and Adjoining Districts of It was decided to apply this research
Kenya. Man, 8, 2, pp. 300-2. method in substitution of the more tra
ditional system of resistivity profiles. In
previous campaigns it had in fact been
observed that the traditional resistivity pro
Geoscience Programme at Mohenjodaro files obtained with direct current instruments
15 Dec. 1985 - 15 March 1986 Campaign
failed to give satisfactory results because of
the high conductivity of the top surface
The following report concerns research layer, due to the high concentration of salt.
in the Geoscience programme carried out at
This produces the so-called 'skin effect',
Mohenjodaro from 15 Dec. 1985 - 15 March
leading all the current to run in the top,
1986 by the Italian team consisting of: highly conductive layer.
Dr Mauro Cucarzi, Geophysicist coordinator Instruments with current variable with
Dr Claudio Balista, Geologist time can, as we know, reduce the problem
Dr Luca Bondioli, Information scientist but they also have the disadvantage of lower
Dr Giulia Caneva, Geobotanist resolution, since the conductivity measure
Prof. Giovanni Demarco, Geobotanist m6nt is in practice the average of the levels
Dr Bruno Frohlich, Geophysicist in a layer reaching a depth of 6 m. from
Mr Benedetto Zapicchi, Drilling technician the point where the instrument is placed.
Dr Patrizia Zolese, Archaeologist. Since the instrument is usually kept 1 m.
The programme was conducted along the above the surface level, what is really
following research lines: measured is the average conductivity in a
1. Geophysical surveys 5-metre layer, the average point lying at
a depth of 2 m.
2. Stratigraphic soundings 26 conductivity profiles were obtained,
3. Strippings and in two areas measurements were carried
4. Geobotanical survey. out over a 1 sq.m. grid of square quadrants

525

This content downloaded from 128.205.114.91 on Tue, 27 Nov 2018 09:08:34 UTC
All use subject to https://about.jstor.org/terms
 (the positions of the profiles and areas are
measuring the difference of the vertical
listed in the annex and are shown on the
component of the field at all points, the
1:4000 map), for a total of 6,234 measure?
daily effect of variation in the field itself
ments.
is eliminated. Moreover, this instrument
Two significant points emerged with thisenables us to make a rapid collection of
method:
measurements since it is directly linked up
1. The conductivity profiles yield remark? with an EPSON HX20 personal computer
ably precise localization of clay or mud-brick which records value and position simul?
platforms indicated by a low conductivity taneously, thus making available and admit?
value (80-100 mS/metre). tedly approximate field value.
2. The result in point 1 was unexpected, The disadvantage of using this type of *
since clay and mud bricks normally have instrument is that, since it measures only
a high conductivity value due to their the vertical component of the field, it can
tendency to retain water. only be used at magnetic latitudes where
In the particular case of Mohenjodaro, the vertical component is sufficiently large.
the low conductivity value was due to the Unfortunately, since Mohenjodaro is at
low concentration of salt compared with about 45? of magnetic latitude, the results
other areas.
are by no means as satisfactory as those
Therefore, in the equation greater resis? obtained with the traditional differential
tivity is equated with a lesser amount of magnetometre which measures the difference
water and a greater presence of salt, and of the total field component.
the quantity of salt has a more decisive These conclusions emerged from the com?
influence than porousness in terms of water parison of measurements carried out in two
retaining capacity. 30 X 30 m. squares and taken at each
It follows from this statement that the metre with both the gradient meter and the
construction of clay and mud-brick platforms differential magnetometer in the HR southern
was performed for protection against the depression.
recurrent flooding of the Indus but also, in We therefore conclude that the proton
our opinion, as protection against en? magnetometer with differential measurements
croaching salt. This problem was probably is to be preferred to the gradient meter
solved by the high civil engineering tech? system in the case of Mohenjodaro.
nology applied by the Harappans in the
last stage. c. Vertical Electrical Soundings
The surveys were conducted by Mauro
b. Measurements of magnetic gradient Cucarzi.
Research continued to obtain the optimum
The surveys were carried out by Mauro parameters for the application of this ex?
Cucarzi.
ploration system.
A method of measuring the intensity of
To this end vertical electrical soundings
the magnetic field by means of a Philpot
(VES) were performed at all the points
Electronics Fluxgate gradient meter was
where mechanical stratigraphic soundings
experimeted at Mohenjodaro for the first
time. were obtained and compared with the latter.
The instrument is used to measure the It was thus possible to assign certain
parameters to the limits and obtain ranges
gradient of the magnetic field in relation
of values of resistivity that could be related
to a fixed height of 70 cm., which represents
the distance between the two sensors. to certain archaeologically significant sedi
mentological situations.
The advantage of using this type of We thus established intervals of values
instrument derives from the fact that, by relating to: alluvial levels, brick structures,

526

This content downloaded from 128.205.114.91 on Tue, 27 Nov 2018 09:08:34 UTC
All use subject to https://about.jstor.org/terms
 anthropic deposits due to washing away,
anthropic deposits with high values of vitri?
fied nodules, base sands.
We carried out 40 vertical electrical sound?
ings (VES); the coordinates are shown in
fig. 4.
Comparison with the stratigraphic sound?
ings revealed a sufficiently high degree of
correlation, suggesting that the system was
reliable enough to obtain an initial stra?
tigraphy which could indicate the presence
of levels of the types listed above, provided
they were no less that 1 m. thick and did
not lie at a depth of more than 20 m.
Stratigraphic Soundings
These soundings were performed by Clau?
dio Balista, Luca Bondioli, Benedetto Za
picchi and Patrizia Zolese.
We carried out 11 stratigraphic soundings
by means of core extraction using NENZI
equipment ? a 90 mm. core barrel ? at
various depths as described in the attached
list, and 5 soundings with equipment hired
on the spot, normally used for the installation
of hand pumps to draw drinking water.
Fig. 4 shows the positions of the drills
and the borings performed.
The results of the stratigraphic soundings
were recorded in a programme prepared for
the purpose and an appropriate type of
representation devised to cover the strati?
fication lithology and the natural and an?
thropic structures.
We thus obtained representation in three
columns, giving a reasonably complete picture
of the stratigraphic situation encountered.
No little importance attaches to the fact
that, for the first time in the history of
research at Mohenjodaro, data free of the
stratigraphic disturbances of the site and open
to archaeological interpretation were collected
at depths exceeding 7 m. from the present
surface.
In fact, although the NEDECO (1966),
Dales (1965) and WAPDA (1973-80) drills
yielded some useful information, they were
This content downloaded from 128.205.114.91 on Tue, 27 Nov 2018 09:08:34 UTC
All use subject to https://about.jstor.org/terms
performed with a sounding method that
did not provide samples open to archaeo?
logical interpretation, since the great quantity
of water under pressure used caused alter?
ations that made it impossible to distinguish,
among the layers in situ, between those
resulting from the products of washing
away and layers produced by other causes.
The results of the stratigraphic soundings
can be summed up as follows:
1. The Citadel and the Lower Town were
built on huge mud-brick platforms, the
first level of which lies at 43 m. a.s.l. and
therefore at an average of 6 m. below the
present surface.
2. The platform rests on a level con?
sisting of fine to medium sands containing
some anthropic material (potsherds, bricks,
etc.) which attest to the devastation wreaked
by the Indus on a settlement previous to
the known monumental Mohenjodaro site.
3. Below this destructive alluvial level
lies a level of about 6 m. in which the fine
sand-silt matrix attests to a calmer period
of the Indus, very much like the present
state.
4. In areas not occupied by anthropic
structures, from the levels 'at the base
of the platform to the present levels there
is a stratigraphic sequence of silt which
attests to a silting effect very similar to the
one observable today in the great alluvial
plains caused by regular or seasonal flooding,
e.g. the Ganges and Nile plains.
5. Evidence of anthropic presence was
found to a depth of 15 m., but always as
the product of lateral weathering, never in
primary positions.
The presence of anthropic structures can
be ascertained to a depth of 15 m. (in
different points). The final stages of these
periods were marked by the construction
of the platforms in mud-brick on which
the last stages of Harappan civilization
developed. Since then the normal silting
processes have raised the level of the area
with an average aggradation of less than
2 m. per millennium.
527
 \\ \ " -z^^' MOENJGDARD j jj \ ^/^^ TOPOGRAPHICAL ?

Fig. 4

This content downloaded from 128.205.114.91 on Tue, 27 Nov 2018 09:08:34 UTC
All use subject to https://about.jstor.org/terms
 The levels of medium sand found near
present levels (0-2 m. b.g.l., attest to ex?
ceptional floods that took place in historical
times, probably subsequent to the building
of the Sukkur and Hyderabad dams.
Stripping
This type of research was performed by
Patrizia Zolese, Giovanni Leodardi and Clau?
dio Balista.
Strippings were performed for the first
time down to a depth of 50 cm. to verify
some hypotheses based on data deriving
from geophysical exploration. The Strippings
were carried out in the southern HR de?
pression.
As the reader will probably remember, the
hypothesis that a clay or mud-brick platform
existed in the area south of the Lower
Town, in the south HR depression, was
formulated subsequent to the 1983/84 season.
This conclusion was prompted by the fact
that a very clear, regular magnetic anomaly
had been found running approximately along
an east-west line.
The Strippings confirmed the existence of
This content downloaded from 128.205.114.91 on Tue, 27 Nov 2018 09:08:34 UTC
All use subject to https://about.jstor.org/terms
the mud-brick platform and revealed a re?
vetment in the form of a baked-brick wall.
Micro-strippings of lXl m. showed that
the platform continues both to the east and
west of the trench for 30 m. from the
points of coordinates 2625, 1075, as does
the covering.
Geobotanical Survey
Geobotanical research was carried out by
Prof. Giovanni Demarco and Dr Giulia
Caneva.
The geobotanical survey proved extremely
revealing since it yielded a great deal of
information on the environmental equilibrium
or lack of equilibrium and on past and
present anthropic influences.
We were, in fact, able to deepen our
knowledge of plant life, not only at the
flora level but also at the level of plant
communities. Moreover, we were able to
trace links between vegetation and the
environment as a whole (soil, salinity, degree
of moisture, climate, archaeological struc?
tures, etc.).
Mauro Cucarzi
529