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LOAD FLOW ANALYSIS 4
Voltage Drop
• As per National Electrical Code, clause
215.2(4) FPN no. 2 states that “Conductors
for feeders as defined in Article 1.0, sized to
prevent a voltage drop exceeding 3 percent
at the farthest outlet of power, heating, and
lighting loads, or combinations of such
loads, and where the maximum total
voltage drop on both feeders and branch
circuits to the farthest outlet does not
exceed 5 percent, will provide reasonable
efficiency of operation.” (clause 2.10.2.2 (A)
FPN No.4 - PEC 1, 2017 edition)
Other factors:
• Current being carried by the conductor (Ampere Load)
• Voltage drop increases on a conductor with an increase in the current flowing
through the conductor.
• Connections in the circuit
• Poor connections in splices or when connecting conductors to terminals
contribute to voltage drop.
T-1
225kVA, 13.8/0.23 kV
Z = 2.0%, X/R = 2.6
0.23 kV 02: T-2 Sec
LD1
110 kVA, 3 x 5.5mm2 THWN Cu in steel conduit
80%pf, 3, 30.5m
230V
LD2
50 kVA, 80%pf, 3, 230V
LOAD FLOW ANALYSIS 18
System Data BUS DATA
Load Bus
Bus No. Base kV
kVA pf Name
01 - - T-1 Prim 13.8
02 - - T-1 Sec 0.23
03 110 80% FDR1 0.23
04 50 80% FDR2 0.23
CABLE DATA
From To R X Length Iamp* Rating
Circuit Conductor/Phase and Size Raceway kV
Bus Bus (/305m) (/305m) (m) (Amps) (kVA)
02 03 1 0.021 0.048 1 - 3 x 400mm2 THWN Cu Steel 15.2 0.23 480 191.22
TRANSFORMER DATA
From Transformer kVA
To Bus Circuit Identifier Rating
Type Primary Secondary %Z X/R
Bus
01 02 1 T-1 225 Liquid Oil-filled 55/65 13.8kV 230V 2 2.6
𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑢𝑎𝑙 𝑐𝑢𝑟𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑡
𝐼𝑝𝑢 =
𝑏𝑎𝑠𝑒 𝑐𝑢𝑟𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑡, 𝐼𝐵
𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑢𝑎𝑙 𝑖𝑚𝑝𝑒𝑑𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒
𝑍𝑝𝑢 =
𝑏𝑎𝑠𝑒 𝑖𝑚𝑝𝑒𝑑𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒, 𝑍𝐵
b. 0.23 kV system
𝑏𝑎𝑠𝑒 𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑡𝑎𝑔𝑒,𝑘𝑉𝐿−𝐿 2 𝑥 1000 0.23 2 𝑥 1000
𝑍𝐵 = = =0.3527
𝑏𝑎𝑠𝑒 𝑘𝑉𝐴
3 225
LOAD FLOW ANALYSIS 24
Base Values
4. Calculate the base currents:
a. 13.8 kV system
𝑏𝑎𝑠𝑒 𝑘𝑉𝐴
3 225
𝐼𝐵 = = =9.4133 A
3 𝑏𝑎𝑠𝑒 𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑡𝑎𝑔𝑒,𝑘𝑉𝐿−𝐿 3 13.8
b. 0.23 kV system
𝑏𝑎𝑠𝑒 𝑘𝑉𝐴
3 225
𝐼𝐵 = = =564.7992 A
3 𝑏𝑎𝑠𝑒 𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑡𝑎𝑔𝑒,𝑘𝑉𝐿−𝐿 3 0.23
T-1
IEEE 141 – 1993, page 125
225kVA, 13.8/0.23 kV
Z = 2%, X/R = 2.6
0.23 kV 02: T-2 Sec
𝑘𝑉𝐴𝑏𝑎𝑠𝑒 225
𝑍𝑇−1𝑝𝑢 = %𝑍 = 2.0 = 0.02 𝑝𝑢
𝑘𝑉𝐴𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑛𝑔 100 225 100
Since:
0.23 kV 03: FDR1 𝑍 2 = 𝑅2 + 𝑋 2 (1)
Let:
𝑋
𝑎 = 𝑅; X = a R (2)
Subs. (2) in (1),
𝑍 2 = 𝑅2 + 𝑎 𝑅 2
𝑍 2 = 𝑅2 1 + 𝑎2
𝑍2 0.022
𝑅𝑇−1𝑝𝑢 = = = 0.0072𝑝𝑢
1+𝑎2 1+2.62
0.23 kV 04: FDR2
From (2),
XT-1pu = (2.6) (0.0072 pu) = 0.0187 pu Therefore: ZT-1pu = 0.0072 + j0.0187 pu
Since %𝑍 = %𝑅 2 + %𝑋 2 𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑛, %𝑋 = %𝑍 2 − %𝑅 2
𝑋 %𝑋
𝑅 𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜 = %𝑅
𝑅
%𝑅 = 𝑘𝑉2
∗ 100
𝑀𝑉𝐴
Line 3-4:
𝑍𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑢𝑎𝑙 𝑘𝑉𝐴𝑏𝑎𝑠𝑒
0.23 kV 02: T-2 Sec 𝑍𝑝𝑢 =
𝑘𝑉𝑏𝑎𝑠𝑒 2 1000
but:
𝑅 + 𝑗𝑋
𝑙 𝑅 + 𝑗𝑋
𝑍𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑢𝑎𝑙 = 𝐿= 𝐿
0.23 kV 03: FDR1 𝑁 𝑙 𝑁
then:
𝑅+𝑗𝑋 𝑘𝑉𝐴𝑏𝑎𝑠𝑒
𝑍𝑝𝑢 = 𝐿 ; N – no. of conductors/cables per phase
𝑙 𝑁 𝑘𝑉𝑏𝑎𝑠𝑒 2 1000
3 x 60 mm2 THWN Cu in steel So,
conduit 0.10+𝑗0.054 225
R3 = 0.10 per l=305m 𝑍34𝑝𝑢 = 30.5 = 0.0425 + j0.0230 pu
X3 = 0.054 per l=305m 305 1 0.23 2 1000
L = 30.5m
LD1
110 kVA,
80%pf, 3,
230V
LD2
50 kVA, 80%pf, 3, 230V
LOAD FLOW ANALYSIS 32
Network Model for LFA 01: T-1 Prim
0.0072 + j0.0187 pu
0.0045 + j0.0102 pu
03: FDR1
0.3911 + j0.2933 pu
0.0425 + j0.0230 pu
04: FDR2
0.1778 + j0.1333 pu
LOAD FLOW ANALYSIS 33
LOAD FLOW SOLUTION METHOD
I 3 y13
y23 ( y30 y13 y23 y34 ) y34 V
3
Y24 = Y42 = -y24
I 4 0 y24 y34 ( y40 y24 y34 ) V
4
Y34 = Y43 = -y34
Types V P Q
Generator buses
Known Unknown Known Unknown
(P – V)
Load buses
Unknown Unknown Known Known
(P – Q)
𝐼𝑖 = 𝑌𝑖𝑖 𝑉𝑖 + 𝑌𝑖𝑘 𝑉𝑘 𝒏
∗
𝑘=1 𝟏 𝑺𝒊
𝑘𝑖 𝑽𝒊 = − 𝒀𝒊𝒌 𝑽𝒌
but, 𝒀𝒊𝒊 𝑽∗𝒊
𝑆𝑖 = 𝑉𝑖 𝐼𝑖∗ 𝒌=𝟏
𝒌𝒊
𝑆𝑖∗ Note:
𝐼𝑖 = ∗
𝑉𝑖 Generator bus: Si = Pi + jQi (external power injected at bus i)
Load bus: Si = - (Pi + jQi) (external power withdrawn at bus i)
Final result:
𝑥1 = 0.1861 𝑥2 =0.3312 𝑥3 = 0.4227
LOAD FLOW ANALYSIS 58
Network Model
(Base Case) Swing/slack bus 01: T-1 Prim
0.0072 + j0.0187 pu
0.0045 + j0.0102 pu
03: FDR1
0.3911 + j0.2933 pu
0.0425 + j0.0230 pu
04: FDR2
0.1778 + j0.1333 pu
LOAD FLOW ANALYSIS 59
LFA Solution
Swing/slack bus 01: T-1 Prim Admittances:
1 1
𝑦12𝑝𝑢 = = = 17.9490 − 𝑗46.6673 𝑝𝑢
Z12pu 0.0072 + j0.0187 pu 𝑍12𝑝𝑢 0.0072 + 𝑗0.0187
Sequence of Iteration:
V2 V3 V4
𝟏 𝑺∗𝟒
𝑽𝟒 = ∗ − 𝒀𝟒𝟑 𝑽𝟑
𝒀𝟒𝟒 𝑽𝟒
𝟏 𝑺𝟑∗
Voltage at bus 03: 𝑽𝟑 = − 𝒀𝟑𝟐 𝑽𝟐 − 𝒀𝟑𝟒 𝑽𝟒
𝒀𝟑𝟑 𝑽∗𝟑
𝟏 − 𝟎.𝟑𝟗𝟏𝟏 − 𝒋𝟎.𝟐𝟗𝟑𝟑 ∗
𝑽𝟑 = − (−𝟑𝟔. 𝟎𝟗𝟏𝟔 + 𝒋𝟖𝟐. 𝟒𝟗𝟓𝟏)(10°) − −𝟏𝟖. 𝟐𝟎𝟑𝟏 + 𝒋𝟗. 𝟖𝟐𝟗𝟕 (𝟏𝟎°) = 𝟎. 𝟗𝟗𝟓𝟖-0.1012° pu
𝟓𝟒.𝟐𝟗𝟒𝟕 −𝒋𝟗𝟐.𝟑𝟐𝟒𝟖 𝟏 𝟎° ∗
𝟏 𝑺𝟒∗
Voltage at bus 04: 𝑽𝟒 = − 𝒀𝟒𝟑 𝑽𝟑
𝒀𝟒𝟒 𝑽∗𝟒
𝟏 − 𝟎.𝟏𝟕𝟕𝟖 − 𝒋𝟎.𝟏𝟑𝟑𝟑 ∗
𝑽𝟒 = − (−𝟏𝟖. 𝟐𝟎𝟑𝟏 + 𝒋𝟗. 𝟖𝟐𝟗𝟕) (𝟎. 𝟗𝟗𝟓𝟖 − 𝟎. 𝟏𝟎𝟏𝟐°) =0.9852-0.0100° pu
𝟏𝟖.𝟐𝟎𝟑𝟏 − 𝒋𝟗.𝟖𝟐𝟗𝟕 𝟏 𝟎°
kVbase = 13.8
Line 3-4:
I34pu = Y34pu (V3pu-V4pu) = 0.1820 - j0.1393 pu 04: FDR2
I34 = I34pu x Ibase(0.23) = 129.4442 -37.4459° A
𝑰𝟑𝟒
%Loading of Line 3-4 = 𝐱𝟏𝟎𝟎= 83.5124%
𝑰𝒂𝒎𝒑𝟐𝟑
𝑺𝟏 = 𝑷𝟐𝟏 + 𝑸𝟐𝟏 𝑷𝟏
𝒑𝒇𝟏 =
𝑺𝟏
S1pu = 0.7278 pu
pf1 = 0.7932
S1 = 163.7463 kVA
LOAD FLOW ANALYSIS 68
Sik’(withdrawn at bus i) = Vi Iik* = (Pik + jQik)’
Sik’’(injected at bus j) = Vk Iik* = (Pik + jQik)’’
Power Flows:
Power withdrawn from bus 1: Power injected at bus 3 from bus 2:
S12pu = V1pu I12pu* = 0.5773 + j0.4431 pu S32pu = V3pu I23pu* = 0.5711 + j0.4279 pu
S12 = S12pu x Sbase = 129.89 + j99.708 kVA S32 = S32pu x Sbase = 128.50 + j96.271 kVA
= 163.7463 37.5115° kVA = 160.565 36.8398° kVA
Power Losses:
Power loss between bus 01 and bus 02: To check:
PL12 = P12 – P21 = 0.8556 kW PLT = P1 – P3 – P4 = 1.8887 kW
359.9012 A
02: T-2 Sec
359.9012 A
74.9794% Line Loading
03: FDR1
128.7792 A
83.0833% Line Loading
04: FDR2
143.374525.3581° kVA
j37.500 kVAr
359.4007 A
02: T-2 Sec
359.4007 A
74.8751% Line Loading
03: FDR1
104.3942 A
67.3511% Line Loading
04: FDR2
143.175125.3591° kVA
128.33 + j58.677kVA
141.1054 24.5719° kVA 03: FDR1