Work-Life Balance

The Perception of Work-Life Imbalance and Its Impact

on the Career Progression of Women Into Leadership
Positions in Higher Education Administration
Written By Carey Schroyer – AHE 588
AHE 588 – LO PAPER 1 – 11.24.18 Written By: Carey Schroyer

Introduction

Although women have been a prominent presence in the workplace for over five decades and they
currently earn more post secondary degrees than men it has been suggested that the struggles
surrounding work-life balance still drive some women to opt out of career opportunities including
higher education administration ((National Center for Education Statistics, 2018). This is particularly
problematic in the community college sector where the anticipated retirement of senior community
college personnel has created a leadership void that is expected to grow just as the nation has placed
high expectations on community colleges to help increase the number of college graduates by 2020
(Lumina Foundation, 2009). The question of who should lead community colleges is important not
only for the sake of increasing diversity and representation but also because of the demographic
makeup of the students served by the majority of community colleges. The AACC (American
Association of Community Colleges) fact sheet indicates 56% of community college students were
female in 2017 and many believe that community college leadership ought to be more representative
of their students. Minimizing the gender gap at the highest levels of community college leadership
and accurately reflecting the student population requires supporting women in the leadership pipeline,
hiring more women into leadership positions, and creating systems and structures that support
women in the leadership pipeline and in leadership positions. It also requires a better understanding
of why women choose not to move into and/or stay in leadership positions once they arrive. This
whitepaper will define and explore issues surrounding work-life balance to better understand how it
impacts career progression and advancement for women in higher education.

The Gender Gap in Community College Leadership

Community colleges throughout the nation are and will continue to experience dramatic losses in
senior leadership due to the massive retirements of baby-boomer-generation employees. The
September 2013 issue of Data Points reported that 75% of community college presidents will retire
within the next ten years, with slightly more than 40% of those presidents retiring in the next five years
(Rice and O’Keefe, 2014). A study by the AACU indicated 56% of community college executive,
administrative, and managerial staff were women in 2011. In contrast, only 36% of today’s community
college presidents were women. This statistic begs the question, why are there so few women at the
top organizational level if more than 50% of the nations community college’s executive, administrative,
and managerial staff are women?

The nationally recognized community college leadership void continues to be a subject of research
and study. Breen (2012) identified key issues associated with the current state of the leadership
pipeline, including the lack of a plan for recruitment, selection, preparation, placement, and
professional development. Ebbers, Conover, and Samuels (2010, 59) concluded that existing leaders
need to identify, train, and “grow their own” to meet the increased need for new leadership. Perhaps
Lewis (2004, 4) best observed the void: “Not only are we losing current executives to retirement, we
are losing the leaders that know how to develop future leaders all the way through retirement.” Much
of the research that has been done regarding the leadership pipeline has suggested there is a lack of
qualified women within it. However, more recent research clearly shows there are women in the
pipeline. Women have earned over half of all baccalaureate degrees for the past 30 years and have
earned over half of all doctoral degrees for almost a decade (Johnson, 2016). Based on this
information, it appears the pipeline is full; however, the higher academic ranks and leadership
positions predominantly go to man.

Research indicates work-life balance is an important workplace issue across all sectors but it is a
particularly important factor for women in higher education. According to Ryan and Peters (2015),
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work-life balance plays an important role as both a motivator to those working in higher education and
as a potential barrier for those seeking to progress in their careers. It impacts job satisfaction,
employee motivation, and performance but moreover, it has been shown to have a direct impact on
employee perceptions of their own stress, burnout, and physical health (Ryan and Peters, 2015).
Understanding the impact of work life balance will help guide structural reforms that support women’s
progression and career advancement thus helping to minimize the gender gap at the highest levels of
community college leadership.

Work-Life Balance – A Brief History

According to Wikipedia, the term ‘Work-Life Balance' was first used in the UK and US in the late
1970s and 1980s. However, the idea that one should limit the amount of time spent at work dates
back to manufacturing laws of the late 1800s when the work hours of women and children were
restricted (Raja and Stein, 2014). In 1977, Rosabeth Moss Kanter raised the issue of work-life
balance in his book titled Work and Family in the United States: A Critical Review and Agenda for
Research and Policy. Following this, the term gained widespread use in English language research
and policy arenas, enabling a wider understanding of non-work concerns to be encompassed in
employment research (Gregory and Milner, 2009).

The concept of work-life balance continued to gain traction in the 1980s and 1990s as more women
continued to enter the workforce and more companies began offering flexible work schedules and
maternity leave (Raja and Stein, 2014). In 1993, pioneer researcher Lotte Bailyn concluded that
although there is no blueprint for work-life balance, there is a need to assist employers and
employees jointly in finding ways to accommodate the needs and personal concerns of the individual
worker, in a manner consistent with their particular circumstances (Hadden and Hede, 2009). The
term continues to remain relevant as workplace demographics continue to shift, cultural norms
change, the aging population increases, fertility rates continue to decline, and technological advances
continue to blur the boundaries between work and life outside work.

“Work-Life Balance” – A Continuously Evolving Term

A Google search for “work–life balance” brings up more than 296,000,000 results (Raja and Stein,
2014) and understanding or quantifying how work-life balance impacts the career progression of
women in higher education leadership positions (or any other sector) is challenging. The term is
broadly described and conceptualized both within and outside of the educational sphere making it
difficult to assess impact. The following descriptions of work-life balance were obtained from an
essay titled The Concept of Work Life Balance (2013). It is worth noting the consistencies as well as
the inconsistencies.

“(1) Kofodimos has defined it as ‘a satisfying, healthy and productive life that includes work,
play and love, that integrates a range of life activities with attention to self and to personal and
spiritual development, and that expresses a person’s unique wishes, interests, and values’
(Valk & Srinivasan, 2011, p. 40).
(2) Kirchmeyer has viewed Work-Life Balance as ‘achieving satisfying experiences in all life
domains, and to do so require personal resources such as energy, time, and commitment to
be well distributed across domains’ (Greenhaus et al., 2003, p. 512).
(3) Clark views work life balance as ‘satisfaction and good functioning at work and at home
with a minimum of role conflict’ (Greenhaus et al., 2003, p. 512).
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(4) ‘Work life balance is the term used to describe the organizational initiatives aimed at
enhancing employee experience of work and non-work domains’ (Darcy et al., 2012, p. 112).
(5) ‘Work life balance is experienced when demands from the domain of work are compatible
with demands from other domains, e.g. family’ (Pichler, 2008, p. 3).”

Historically, issues of work-life balance were most often associated with family life, and in particular
with childcare. However, this is changing as more women are responsible for caring for an elderly
relative and an increasing number of individuals are choosing to live outside traditional family units
(Ryan and Peters, 2015). It is not surprising that the term “work life balance” it now being contented
because it implies a trade off between work and life that some believe encourages quick fix solutions
that do not address fundamental inequities, and that therefore shift responsibility for balancing work
and home life onto individuals (Burke, 2004; Lewis et al., 2007). It is also not surprising that
alternative, more wholistic terms that better reinforce the mutuality of the work and life spheres have
been proposed as outlined below.

In the article titled “Work-Life Balance Among Community College Faculty Members: Generational
and Life Course Theory Lenses”, Latz and Retiger used generational and life course theory lenses to
examine one finding of a large-scale qualitative interview-based study focused on if and how
community college faculty members construct work–life balance. The researchers interviewed 28
faculty members at a Midwestern community college during the fall of 2011 using a semi-structured,
open-ended interview protocol. The data was divided into six major categories (axial codes) that were
used as a priori codes for the coding processes. Latz and Retiger focused their research and analysis
on the first categorical finding which they tilted: tides of life (approaches to work–life balance varied
based on generation and position within the life course) and concluded that Generation X (born
approximately between 1965 and 1980) participants had slightly different orientations to the
construction of work–life balance, and these differences were largely mediated by position within the
life course as reflected in the “tides of life” which were broken down into 3 subcategories including
roles, tenure, and gender performance.

In spring 2012, Dr. Lisa Rossbacher and Dr. Julie Newell launched a Women's Leadership Initiative
with approximately 30 women equally divided among faculty and administrators. The group met
during the semester to discuss factors affecting women leaders. They agreed that work-life balance
was an issue but countered that real issue is how people think about work-life balance. They
suggested people needed to think of work-life balance more like a river, and less like a balancing act
and advocated the use of “dynamic equilibrium” as a more useful concept than "balance" when
managing time and priorities. They suggested the geological concept describes the energy balance in
a landscape, in which landforms adjust fairly quickly to changes to form its equilibrium that is
constantly changing. The women believe this can be used as a guiding metaphor for how women
balance their own personal energy landscape. When women have more work to do, they shift their
energy to pick up the load. When family or personal demands increase, women shift their focus there
and let work slide a little. Ultimately, women must search to find their personal equilibrium which is
constantly being disturbed by outside factors all the time. However, women’s responses and how
they adapt to these influences help them to establish the dynamic equilibrium between work and the
rest of their lives. Women are constantly adapting and adjusting to the change around them. The
authors summarized with the following: “We are all dynamic in seeking equilibrium so it behooves us
to think and act like a river!”

In the article Demystifying Work-Life Balance, Kelly Baker summarized the key points presented by
Dr. Leanna Fenneberg, Lisa Isreal, and Sara Gallenberg. According to Baker, the panelists describe
themselves as women “who have consciously considered and applied strategies to integrate a
positive approach to balance”. The women identified four common myths about work-life balance and
debunked them. The panelists suggested women should seek work-life integration rather than work-
life balance. The panelists noted the importance of the principles of positive psychology and
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discussed seven principles for being happy at work and at life in general. Fenneberg, Isreal, and
Gallenberg noted that you simply cannot “do it all.” There is only a “continuum of available time in a
day/week/month/year,” which means you have to realize that work will extend beyond a 9-to-5 work
day. Therefore, effective work-life integration requires women to begin by identifying all of their values
and commitments (personal and professional) so they can then figure out ways that they can achieve
what is most important to them.

Work Life Imbalance is a Barrier to Career Progression in Higher

Education
Research confirms the perception of work-life imbalance is a barrier to career progression.
The 2014 Higher Education Leadership and Management survey (HELMs) completed in 2014
provided qualitative and quantitative data from 631 survey respondents to access the impact of work-
life balance among individuals working in higher education. Ryan and Peters (2015) analysis of the
qualitative responses related to the participants perceptions of the barriers to their career progression
revealed the following key issues directly associated with work-life balance:
 The sheer volume of work required, particularly aspects associated with teaching and
administrative tasks, was seen as an impediment to career progression.
 Issues of workload were closely associated with organizational culture, which was seen by
some as ‘workaholic’, and to reward long hours.
 Many individuals struggled to balance their work commitments and career progression with
their family lives. This involved the time demands of caring responsibilities and the fact that
family responsibilities precluded geographical mobility.

Quantitative data analysis by Ryan and Peters (2015) also revealed evidence of high workloads and
issues associated with work-life balance as outlined below:
 Workload: The majority of participants (73.2% of men and 65.4% of women) frequently worked
more than 48 hours. This was particularly true for academic women and academic leaders.
 Satisfaction with work-life balance: A significant proportion of participants were not satisfied
with their work-life balance (66.2% of men and 52.7% of women) with female academics
(36.7%) and female academic leaders (37.6%) being much less satisfied with their work-life
balance than their male counterparts.
 Availability of flexible working: The majority of participants agreed that their institution allowed
them to work flexible hours. The study results did not indicate large differences across job
roles or gender.
 Ability to cope: Overall, most participants were able to manage their workloads, although a
small but significant minority reported not being able to with the pressure and stress
associated with their jobs (13% of men and 18.3% of women). Female academics (30.6%)
and female academic leaders (23.3%) were the least able to cope.

The findings outlined in the HELMS report indicate a significant portion of employees, particularly
women in academic and leadership positions who have issues with work-life balance and this
translates to a significant number of academics and academic leaders reporting dissatisfaction with
their current work-life balance. The issues identified echo those outlined in the literature more
broadly.
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Gender Theory
Many different theoretical frameworks could be used to assess and analyze the impact of work-life
balance on women’s progression and career advancement in higher education however, I have
chosen to examine this through gender theory because organizational cultures often tend to reinforce
the traditional separation of gender roles, leading to polarization between the working experiences of
men and women (Greogory and Milner, 2009). Such organizational practices are established within
and influenced by gendered society norms about the “ideal career” and capitalism’s norm of the ‘ideal
worker’ (Cooper, 2000; Gambles et al., 2006). “Women must not be too much within or too far outside
of social constructions of femininity; the consequence of doing so can be detrimental to the perceived
competence of the woman’s leadership” (Hannum et al., 2015). “ Even today, the socialization of
boys and girls can reaffirm gender specific behaviors and characteristics that have not traditionally
been associated with leadership. Both girls and boys learn to negotiate the socially embedded gender
norms from a young age and most are well socialized to fall within the social constructions build for
them before they enter the workforce.

Consider that until recently, most of the scholarly work on leadership, both inside and outside the
academy, was conducted by men and focused on male leaders (Dunn, Gerlach & Hyle, 2014). As a
result, male behaviors and characteristics in leadership roles have been the standard against which
female leaders are assessed (Wolverton, Bower, & Hyle 2009). For example, men are sometimes
brusque and aggressively plan, negotiate, and play politics with other bosses and their subordinates
in order to get the job done — men separate and individuate the personal from the professional —
qualities that are not generally accepted of women (Block and Tietjen-Smith, 2016). Women are not
typically socialized in this manner and they are not usually honored or appreciated for behaving in
these ways (Block and Tietjen-Smith, 2016). A 2014 report, Gender and Higher Education
Leadership by the Leadership Foundation for Higher Education backs this view.

Current and past statistics confirm that women executives are less likely to be married and have
children at the same rate as men. They also suggest that women are more likely to have changed
their career pathway for family reasons than their male peers (Block and Tietjen-Smith, 2016). Some
argue that these are choices made by women but others (Block and Tietjen-Smith, 2016) suggest that
women are not so much “opting out of demanding professional careers as they are pushed out by a
combination of unrealistic workplace expectations, public policies that provide little or no support for
care-giving, and male partners who neither provide significant amounts of help with household work
nor are in a position to forego their own careers (Curtis, 2011, p. 7).

Finally, in addition to the overwhelming demands many women feel when balancing the proposition of
leadership, they must also face the reality of the gender pay gap and educational disparity of women
in senior level administrative positions. Although education is often considered a progressive
discipline, the gender wage gap exists. Female faculty members in higher education are paid on
average approximately 18% less than males per academic year. Men earn higher salaries at every
rank, in every discipline and at every type of 4-year institution (Block and Tietjen-Smith, 2016) and
many community colleges. In addition, pathways to upper level administration positions indicated
female presidents were more likely to have earned doctorates than their male peers, hold academic
rank, and have held positions through the university chain of command; whereas, males were more
likely to have never been a faculty member, have worked outside a university, or served as an
executive in a division outside of academic affairs (Block and Tietjen-Smith, 2016).

Gender theory and the disproportionately low number of women in the highest leadership position
within the community college system suggest many typical feminine characteristics/behaviors have
not been as highly prioritized or valued as masculine leadership practices thus contributing to the
challenges many women face regarding work-life balance and further highlighting the need to
understand how women perceive work-life balance and it’s impact on career progression.
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Improving Work-Life Balance

Given the importance of work–life balance for key organizational outcomes, it is important to
understand how leadership can impact and influence the perception of work-life balance among
employees. The HELMS study identified several antecedents to work-life balance that can be used
by higher education leadership teams to improve the perception of work-life balance for women
working in higher education.

1. TIme is the key factor in determining satisfaction with work-life balance and leadership can
impact work life balance by monitoring workloads, implementing fair and equitable workload
management systems, setting reasonable and clear targets, and valuing and rewarding output
as opposed to time at work.
2. Family friendly policies should be used utilized with caution and awareness that they may blur
the boundaries between work and life outside work. They should not exacerbate workload and
they should be inclusive (and available to those without families).
3. Provide adequate reward and recognition for outcomes so employees feel valued for
contributions they make.
4. Instill a supportive and positive work environment and workplace culture that does not promote
long hour cultures and that listens to employees.
5. Ensure that support for equity and diversity initiatives is visible at all levels of the organization,
particularly in top leadership teams.

However, it is also important to understand that even when work-life balance measures are
extensively available within an organization, they are not necessarily utilized (Pocock, 2005).
Participation is linked to factors including work-life culture, manager and co-worker support, career
consequences of participation, organizational time expectations and even gendered perceptions of
policy use (McDonald, et al., 2005). Research also indicates changing organizational structures,
cultures and flexible work structures have resulted in new challenges that can undermine formal work-
life balance policies, leaving those who take them up undervalued and marginalized (Gambles et al.,
2006).

More recently, researchers have begun to recognize the importance of the joint contribution of both
employers and employees to the successful management of work-life balance. Quick, Henley and
Quick (2004), have suggested that employees need to take an active role in managing their own work
responsibilities, family obligations and self-imposed expectations by understanding the source of the
demands that lead to conflict, making appropriate choices and using a range of strategies. When
employees’ needs are not met, employees are expected to experience work-life stress, although it
may be that, particularly for those without caring responsibilities, time stress is partially or wholly offset
by other factors such as material reward or job enjoyment (Gregory and Milner, 2009). When
considering work life balance it is important to remember that preferences are shaped by individual
values and predispositions as well as by the current reality and objective factors within each
individual’s life (such as the public provision of childcare and the labor market situation) (Gregory and
Milner, 2009). Thus, preferences take account of perceived constraints and ‘they are usually
compromises between what is desirable and what is feasible’ (Bielenski et al., 2002, p. 16). Pienaar
(2008) suggests individual employees need to develop problem focused coping strategies to deal with
the stress and anxiety associated with work-life imbalance.

Zheng et al (2015) used structural equation modeling to examine the effects of individual coping
strategies and organizational work-life balance programs on employee well being. The study results
indicated individual coping strategies play more important roles than organizational work-life balance
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programs in helping employees achieve overall well-being, as measured by perceived level of stress
and work-life balance. The results support previous research outcomes suggesting that individual
resources can make a difference in work engagement and well-being and that psychological
detachment and recovery strategies can make a difference to well-being (Demerouti, Bakker,
Sonnentag, & Fullagar, 2012).

A qualitative study of 22 women by Kerri Heath used phenomenological study and life-story
methodology to explore the personal narratives of women in leadership, specifically looking at the
phenomenon of work-life conflict and strategies for balance. The study revealed 96 suggestions that
were compiled into 18 themes that women leaders can implement into their own lives to achieve
better work-life balance. Although the study has a range of methodological limitations the coping
strategies identified are supported in other studies and do help to shed light on effective strategies
that contribute to work-life balance by reporting the perceptions of those who believe they have made
inroads into successfully achieving work-life balance. The top 11 themes are identified and briefly
described below.

 FInd meaningful work. Heath’s research identified this as the most effective strategy for
achieving successful work-life balance. Analysis further revealed the
 Obtain a mentor who can serve as a support system and help model the balance of work and
home life. Several types of mentoring relationships were identified; traditional mentorships,
peer mentorships, and even non-traditional “anti-mentors” who helped teach mentees about
work-life balance in a more indirect way.
 Work hard. According to the study, having a strong work ethic was the third most strategy for
balance.
 Prioritize. Women must determine their priorities and support those priorities through their
own actions. The ability to prioritize was linked to staying balanced, setting goals, saying no to
extra work, etc.
 Faith. A significant portion of women in the study referenced faith as a strategy for achieving
work-life balance.
 Participating in organizations/activities outside of work. The research indicated highly
successful women actually make it a point to be involved in other organizations in order to
remain grounded.
 Strong support system. This could be in the form of a spouse, partner, friends, family, etc.
 Work-life balance philosophy. There is not one, single consistent philosophy amongst women
striving for balance, however, many referred to some sort of philosophy or worldview used to
create frameworks or a personal philosophy that allowed them to achieve a better work-life
balance. The following concepts were mentioned when referencing work life balance
philosophies;
o Take one step at a time
o Accept challenges as constant
o Let go of perfection
o Start now, don’t wait
o Never look back
o Don’t take things personally
o Accept responsibility; apologize
o Persevere
o Bounce back; be resilient
o Think outside the box
o Rear view memories
o Learn from mistakes
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 Intentional parenting. The women in the study measured their success in the fact that their
children were being well raised. It is important to note this strategy could easily be extended
to intentional care giving for those women taking care of elderly relatives or other dependents.
 Self-care. As the researcher noted, the women in the study knew how important it is to take
care of themselves in order to remain high functioning and well balanced. Self care strategies
varied according to individual preferences and needs but many mentioned exercise, sleep,
various therapies (both medical and non-medical), vacations, travel, hobbies, etc.
 Work strategies. The most significant work strategy identified in the research was the flexible
work schedule, however, working in an institution that shares the same values, clearly
articulated employer expectations, and networking opportunities were also cited as effective
for work-life balance.

Summary and Conclusion

Work-life balance is a complex, multi-dimensional issue with chameleon like characteristics that are
defined by individual women (and men) with unique personal values, ethics, circumstances,
experiences, priorities, and constraints, etc. Consider the following quotes collected by Alan Kohll for
an article titled: 20 Inspiring Quotes On Work-Life Balance By Successful Women:

“We think, mistakenly, that success is the result of the amount of time we put in at work,
instead of the quality of time we put in.” - Arianna Huffington

“Don’t confuse having a career with having a life.” - Hillary Clinton

"The work-life balance is a harsh reality for so many women, who are forced every day to
make impossible choices. Do they take their kids to the doctor...and risk getting fired? Do they
work weekends so they can afford to send their kids to better childcare...even though it means
even less time with their families? Do they take another shift at work, so they can pay for piano
lessons for their kids...even though it means they have to stop volunteering for the PTA? It just
shouldn't be this difficult to raise healthy families." - Michelle Obama

"To have someone who never makes a mistake, never finds her personal life in disarray, never
worries about work-life balance? I think that would be unreal." - Sophie Kinsella
"When I think about work-life balance, I don't imagine it as a perfect day where I got to spend
the exact right amount of time having an impact at work and snuggling with my kids at home. I
never achieve that. But over the course of a month, or a quarter, or a year, I try to make time
for the people and experiences I value." - Jane Park

"I've learned that you can't have everything and do everything at the same time." - Oprah
Winfrey

"You have to balance your passions, not your time." - Lisa Sugar

“Happiness comes from living as you need to, as you want to. As your inner voice tells you to.
Happiness comes from being who you actually are instead of who you think you are supposed
to be.” - Shonda Rhimes

“You will never feel truly satisfied by work until you are satisfied by life.” - Heather Schuck
AHE 588 – LO PAPER 1 – 11.24.18 Written By: Carey Schroyer

“Burnout is about resentment. Preventing it is about knowing yourself well enough to know
what it is you're giving up that makes you resentful.” - Marissa Mayer

Although women have been a prominent presence in the workplace for over 5 decades and they
currently earn more college degrees than men research indicates struggles surrounding work-life
balance still drive some women to opt out of career opportunities. Minimizing the gender gap at the
highest levels of community college leadership requires awareness and consideration of the impact of
work-life balance on women in higher education. Educational attainment and graduation statistics
indicate the pipeline does not lack qualified women but the perception of work-life imbalance
continues to inhibit some women from pursuing leadership positions. The research indicates work-life
balance challenges must be addressed at both the institutional and individual level. Community
college leadership can help to better support work life balance by monitoring workloads, implementing
fair and equitable workload management systems, setting reasonable and clear targets, and valuing
and rewarding output as opposed to time at work. Community college leaders can significantly impact
the perception of work-life balance by supporting family friendly policies, providing recognition,
instilling a positive work environment and actively supporting diversity and equity at the highest levels.
However, institutional policies alone cannot address all aspects of the work-life balance challenges
faced by individual women with unique circumstances, ideas, priorities, experiences, and constraints.
Research indicates individual coping strategies may play more important roles than organizational
work-life balance programs in helping employees achieve overall well-being, as measured by
perceived level of stress and work-life balance. Therefore, work-life balance must also be considered
and addressed at the individual level as coping strategies vary from woman to woman.
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