PURSE Proceedings 2007 Part II

UNIVERSITY OF PERADENIYA
SRI LANKA
PROCEEDINGS OF THE
PERADENIYA UNIVERSITY RESEARCH SESSIONS
PURSE 2007
Volume 12
Part II - Engineering, Physical Sciences, Humanities and Social Sciences
Editorial Board
Prof. K.D.W. Nandalal

Faculty of Engineering
Chief Editor
Prof. C. Sivayoganathan
Faculty of Agriculture
Prof. V. Thevanesam
Faculty of Allied Health Sciences
Dr. D.K. Jayaratne

Faculty of Arts
Dr. M.A.M. Sitheeque

Faculty of Dental Sciences
Dr. S.D. Dewasurendra

Faculty of Engineering
Prof. R. Sivakanesan
Faculty of Medicine
Prof. A.D.L.C. Perera

Faculty of Science
Dr. H.B.S. Ariyaratne

Faculty of Veterinary Medicine and Animal Science
30th November 2007

UNIVERSITY OF PERADENIYA
PROCEEDINGS OF THE
PERADENIYA UNIVERSITY RESEARCH SESSIONS
PURSE – 2007
All rights reserved. No part

of this publication may be
reproduced, stored in a
retrieval system, transmitted
in any form or by any
means, electronic,
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without prior permission of
the publisher.
ISSN-1391-4111
ISBN-978-955-589-101-1
PUBLISHED BY
THE UNIVERSITY OF PERADENIYA
PERADENIYA, SRI LANKA
Printed at the Printing Unit, Faculty of Science, University of Peradeniya

TABLE OF CONTENTS
Page
Message from the Vice Chancellor xv
Message from the Chairperson, Organizing Committee xvii
Organizing Committee xix
Panel of Co-Editors xxi
Guest Lecture xxiii
Part I : Agricultural, Biological and Medical Sciences
SECTION 1: Faculty of Agriculture
Genomic Variations of Colletotrichum musae Morphotypes Infecting Banana 1

Varieties of Sri Lanka
N.F. Nazriya, D.M. De Costa and A.S. Azhaar
Use of Tn5 Transposon Mutagenesis to Screen Burkholderia spinosa Mutants 3

Deficient in Antagonism against Colletotrichum musae
M.A.D. Wijerathne and D.M. De Costa
Development of Fancy Meat Loaves Using Natural Colorants 6

H.A.A. Dilrukshi, N. Lalantha, J.K. Vidanarachchi and H.W. Cyril
Effect of Curry Leaf (Murraya koenigii) in Beef Sausage on Blood Cholesterol Level 9
of Mice
N.S.P. Malmuthuge, J.K. Vidanarachchi, S.M.C. Himali, R. Sivakanesan and H.W. Cyril
Molecular Characterisation of Lactobacilli Isolated from Digesta of Broilers Fed 12

Prebiotic Plant Extracts
J.K. Vidanarachchi, L.L. Mikkelsen, P.A. Iji and M. Choct
Occurrence of Agamospermy in Artocarpus heterophyllus Lam. (Jak Fruit) 15

D.K.N.G. Pushpakumara
Gibberellin Repsonse of Phytochrome B Deficient Mutants of Lotus japonicus 18

L.D.B. Suriyagoda, S. Arima and A. Suzuki
Determinants of Potato Farmers’ Choices in Adopting Soil Conservation Practices in 20

Nuwara Eliya District
D.G.V.L. Bandara and S. Thiruchelvam
Changes in Rice Consumption with Increasing Income 22

L.H.P. Gunaratne and D. Wickramaarachchi
Factors Influencing the Student Decision Making in Relation to University 24

Admission
S.D.S Hemachandra and K.A.S.S. Kodithuwakku
iii
Organizational Design Features and Its Influence on Purchasing Performance: The 27
Case of Garment Manufacturing Firms
D.N. Tirimanne and A. Ariyawardana
Regional Trade Integration Options for South Asia: A Welfare Analysis 29

J. Weerahewa
A Seismic Wave Detector with a Digital Display 31

P.M.K. Alahakoon
Contribution of Flavour Ingredients to Sensory Properties and Total Antioxidant 33

Activity of Black Tea
S.P. Nissanka, U.K.S. Rodrigo, D.C.K. Illeperuma and A. Chandrasekara
Effective Teaching Strategies for Teaching Science in Lower Secondary Classes: A 35

Study from the Central Province
J.A.J. Hanee and D.C. Bandara
The Effect of Student-Centered Learning and Criterion-Based Assessment on Student 37

Performance: A Study in Kandy and Matale Districts
Y.M.C.D. Yaparatna and D.C. Bandara
Socio–Economic and Institutional Factors affecting Community Participation in 39

Conservation of the Knuckles Forest Range
A.K.C.J. Amarasekara, H.V.A. Wickramasuriya and H.M.S.K. Hennayake
Customer Resistance for Innovative Products: A Case Study on an Adhesive Tape 42

M. Senavirathne and S. De Silva
An Assessment of Special Programme for Food Security Project Interventions as 44

Perceived by Farmers of Havandana
A.R.A.S. Wijesinghe and C. Sivayoganathan
SECTION 2: Faculty of Science and Postgraduate Institute of Science

Biological Sciences
A Preliminary Study on the Assessment of Limnological Changes of Kalu Ganga in 47

the Knuckles Region using Biological Indicators
M.H. Perera and S.K. Yatigammana
Microbiological Quality of Bottled Water in Sri Lanka: A Preliminary Survey 49

C.L. Abayasekara, W.H.M.A.T. Herath, N.K.B. Adikaram, R. Chandrajith, S.C. Illapperuma,
A.D. Sirisena and S.G. Rajapura
Effect of Caffeine and Epigallocatechin Gallate (Egcg) on Sporulation, Spore 51

Germination and Mycelial Growth of Monacrosporium ambrosium, Ectosymbiote of
the Shot-Hole Borer Beetle of Tea
N.B. Jayaratna, D.N. Karunaratne and N.S. Kumar
Thermally Stable Deoxyribonucleases from Nepenthes distillatoria (Bandura) 53

D. Chin, S. Rajapakse and S.B.P. Athauda
iv
Antibiotic Activity of Tephrosia purpurea (Fabaceae) and Mimusops elengi 55
(Sapotaceae) against Some Clinical Bacterial Isolates
B.N.L.D. Rangama, C.L. Abayasekara and G.J. Panagoda
Screening of Antioxidant Activity of Some Endemic Annonaceae Plant Extracts 57

S. Puvanendran, A. Wickramasinghe, D.N. Karunaratne, D.S.A. Wijesundara and
V. Karunaratne
Anzia (Lichenized Ascomycetes, Parmeliaceae) A New Record from the Horton 60

Plains National Park, Sri Lanka
R.G.U. Jayalal, P. Wolseley, L.G. Pathberiya, D.S.A. Wijesundara and V. Karunaratne
Does Mosquito Larvicide, Temephos Affect the Health of Local Amphibian 62

Populations?
H.K.S.P. Harischandra, R.S. Rajakaruna and S.H.P.P. Karunaratne
Species Composition of the Family Chironomidae and their Relationship to 65

Limnological Variables in Kandy Lake
L. Warusawithana and S.K. Yatigammana
Resource Partitioning and Competitive Interactions of a Tadpole Community in a 67

Pond Complex in Gannoruwa Hills, Sri Lanka
K.D.B. Ukuwela and K.B. Ranawna
Phenetic Relationships of Wild and Cultivated Accessions of Cinnamon in Sri Lanka 70

M.M.K.G. Saumyasiri, D.M.D.Yakandawala, K.G.G. Wijesinghe and P. Samaraweera
Biosensor Approach for Monitoring Polyphenol Oxidase (PPO) Activity of Selected 72

Local Fruits with Blanching Time (Steam Blanching)
A.N. Navaratne, D. Gunawardena, L. Kadawathaarachi and C. Ileperuma
Appearance and Recruitment of Trigona iridipennis Nests in a Selected Area in 74

Peradeniya University Park
W.M.K.K. Karunaratne and J.P. Edirisinghe
Diversity of Wasps at Meewathura Agriculture Farm 77

S.R. Munasinghe and J.P. Edirisinghe
Identification and Prevalence of Eimeria Spp. causing Coccidiosis in Goats in 80

Selected Sites from Kandy and Nuwara Eliya Districts
N.W.R.V.N. Bandara, R.S. Rajakaruna and R.P.V.J. Rajapakse
Antibacterial Activity of Oxacillin against Methicillin Resistant Staphylococcus 82

aureus (MRSA) Pre-Incubated with Tea Catechins
W.W. Kumbukgolla, V. Thevanesam, N.S. Kumar and B.M.R. Bandara
Diversity of Dung Beetles in Dung of Cattle and Buffalo 84

M.H.V. Nawodinee and J.P. Edirisinghe
Ecto and Endo Parasites of Rodents from Two Selected Sites in Kandy District 86
K. Sumangali, R.S. Rajakaruna and R.P.V.J. Rajapakse
v
Screening for Antibiotic Activity of Tea Catechins Against Pseudomonas aeruginosa 89
and Enterococci
A.A.K. Karunathilake, W.W. Kumbukgolla, E.W.M.A. Ekanayake, V. Thevanesam, N.S. Kumar
and B.M.R. Bandara
Chemotaxanomic Significance of the Fruit Constituents of Artocarpus altilis 92

N.R. Amarasinghe and U.L.B. Jayasinghe
Antifungal, Antioxidant and Cytotoxic Activity of Acronychia pedunculata and 94

Adenanthera pavonina
S.K. Rodrigo, U.L.B. Jayasinghe and B.M.R. Bandara
Phytotoxic Constituents from the Fruit Juice of Averrhoa carambola 96

D.C. Gunawardena and U.L.B. Jayasinghe
Potential of Some Selected Larvivorous Fish Species in Aedes Mosquito Control 98

D.H. Ekanayake, T.C. Weeraratne, W.A.P.P. De Silva and S.H.P.P. Karunaratne
Chemistry and Mosquito Larvicidal Activity of Gnidia glauca 101

B.W.R.C. Amarajeewa, A.P. Mudalige and V. Kumar
Antioxidant Phenolic Constituents from the Fruits of Careya arborea 103

R.A.Y.K. Ariyaratna, N.R. Amarasinghe, D.C. Gunawardena and U.L.B. Jayasinghe
Histopathological Changes Induced by Venom of Bungarus ceylonicus on Laboratory 105

Mice
D.P. Nanayakkara, P.G.L. Gunathilake, R.M.P. Ratnayake and J.G.S. Ranasinghe
Comparison of Antifungal, Phytotoxicity and Cytotoxicity of Seeds of Dolichos 107

biflorus with some Edible Seeds
D.S. Jayaweera and U.L.B. Jayasinghe
Section 3: Faculty of Dental Sciences
Emotional Effects of Wearing Complete Dentures 109

T. Anandamoorthy
Preliminary Study on Deregulation of cyclin D1 Protein Expression in Oral 111

Squamous Cell Carcinomas with Reference to Different Histopahological Grades of
Tumors
C. Abeysuriya, U.B. Dissanayake, A.K. Suraweera, S.A. Rajaratne and E.A.P. Amarathunge
Prognostic Significance of the Over Expression of Type I Growth Factor Receptor 113
Family Proteins on the Survival of Patients with Oral Squamous Cell Carcinomas
U.B. Dissanayake
Matrix Metalloproteinase-9 (MMP-9) and Tissue Inhibitor of Metalloproteinase –2 116

(TIMP-2) Expression in Oral Verrucous and Squamous Cell Carcinoma
P.R Jayasooriya, A.K. Suraweera and N. Bandoh
Filling of Simulated Lateral Canals with Different Obturation Techniques 118

W.M.G.I.K. Wimaladharma, R.W. Pallegama, K.A. Wettasinghe and K.M. Wijerathne
vi
Changes in Periodontal Tissues and Gingival Crevicular Fluid with Friction and Non- 120
friction Methods of Orthodontic Treatment
N.C. Wellappuli, J.K.C. Amarasena, A. Chandrasekera, N. Amarasena, K.A. Kalyanaratne and
S.M.P.M. Ruwanpura
Development of an Antenatal Growth Chart using Maternal BMI in the Second Half 122
of Pregnancy for Sri-Lankan Mothers
S.B.A. Dissanayake, U.B. Dissanayake and W.I Amarasinghe
IL-1α, IL-1ra are Differentially Induced by Candida in Experimental Human Oral 124
Candidiasis
J.A.M.S. Jayatilake, L.P. Samaranayake and L.J. Jin
Influence of Personality Traits on the Attitudes Towards the Teaching Program and 126
the Academic Performance of Dental Undergraduates
R.W. Pallegama, S. Ariyasinghe and H.A.E.D. Perera
SECTION 4: Faculty of Medicine
The Prevalence of Known Risk Factors for Road Traffic Accidents (RTA) in Kandy 129
Police Administrative Area
I.L. Wickramanayake, G.G.A. Gunasena, H.B.P.W. Wickramanayake and C.D.A. Goonasekera
Assessment of Toxicity of Bungarus ceylonicus (Ceylon Krait) Venom: 131

Determination of Median Lethal Dose (LD50)
D.P. Nanayakkara, R.M.P. Ratnayake, R. Sivakanesan and S. Ranasinghe
Screening for Congenital Hypothyroidism in Government Hospitals in Sri Lanka 133

D. Nanayakkara, A. Wijekoon, N. Jiffry, R. Mudiyanse, J. Nilam, K. Perera, S. Herath and
K. Solanki
Effectiveness of Laboratory Training of Undergraduates in Surgical Knot Tying and 135

Skin Suturing Skills
M.D. Lamawansa and A.P. Perera
HHV-6A-Induced Phenotypic and Functional Alterations of Dendritic Cells 137

S.B. Adikari, M. Svensson and A. Fogdell-Hann
The Effect of Training on Some Physiological Parameters Related to Physical Fitness 139
in a Population of Sri Lankan School Boys
K.C. Ratnatunga, K.I. Karunaratne, B.K. Dassanayake, I. Silva, A.A.J. Rajaratne and
A.S.P. Mallawarachchi
Vital Functions During and Outcome Following Filtration Based Continuous Plasma 141
Exchange in Guillain Barre Syndrome
S.P. Mudalige, Y.A.A. Jayasena, , G.S.M. Manchanayake, P.K.A.P. Kanankearachchi,
P.V.R. Kumarasiri, H.L.P.S. Dharmapala, S.P.Ekanayaka and C.D.A. Goonasekara
Knowledge on Basic Trauma Care Among the Final Year Medical Students Gained 144
from Clinical Work
M.D. Lamawansa and R.N.R. Arachchi
vii
The Effect of Occupational Exposure to Paddy Husk Dust on the Respiratory Health 146
of Paddy Mill Workers in Sri Lanka
B.K. Dassanayake, K.C. Ratnatunga, K.I. Karunaratne, D. Nandadeva, S.D.I. Nanayakkara
and A.A.J. Rajaratne
Factors Influencing Time of Death in Hospital 148

S.P. Mudalige, W.A.S.S.K Wijesuriya, C.R. Wanniarachchi, H.L.P.S.Dharmapala,
B.M.P.K.D. Basnayake, S.D. Dharmaratne and C.D.A. Goonasekera
Laboratory Diagnosis of Trichomonas vaginalis Infection in Patients Attending the 151

STD/Aids Programme Clinic in Kandy
D.R. Iddawela, G. Pathirana, N.L.S. Wijesundera and M. De S. Wijesundera
SECTION 5: Faculty of Veterinary Medicine and Animal Science
Correction of an Acquired Oesophageal Stricture in a Dog: A Case Report 153

A.A.A.W.K. Amarasinghe, D.D.S. Wijetunge, M.N. Kularathne and D.D.N. De Silva
Brain Scoop: A Simple Post-Mortem Instrument to Collect Brain Samples for 155
Diagnosis of Rabies
G.S.P. de S. Gunawardena
A Comparison of Clove Oil and Lidocain as Short-term Anaesthetics in Black Ruby 157
Barb (Puntius nigrofaciatus)
S.K.N. Priyangika, S.R.D. Fernandopulle, B.G.S.J. Abeyrathne, M.D. Munasinghe and
H.B.S. Ariyaratne
Poultry Offal Meal as a Substitute for Fish Meal in Feeding Tilapia Cultured in 160
Cages
A.P. Jayasooriya, B. Samarasinghe, S.P. Gunaratne, E.R.R. Wimalasinghe,
N.K. Weerasundera, N. Kudagama and G.S.P. de S. Gunawardena
The Effect of Different Doses of Cobra Venom on Mice as a Model for Investigation 162
of the Tissue Damage
S. Halpage, K.B.J. Kumara, D.P. Nanayakkara, A. Dangolla and J.G.S. Ranasinghe
Identification of Androgen Induced Pigments in Guppies (Poecilia reticulata) 164

R.S. Devasurendra, A. Wanigasekera, A. Arulkanthan and A.P. Jayasooriya
Occurrence of Temperature Sensitive Haemagglutinin (TSH), Increase Serum 166

Survival (ISS) and Col V Plasmid (CVA C) Genes in Chicken E. Coli in Relation to
Serum Resistance
D.R.A. Dissanayake, T.G. Wijewardana, G.A. Gunawardena and I.R. Poxton
Immunohistochemical Detection of Rabies Virus Antigen in the Brainstem and 168

Spinal Cord of Rabid Dogs in Sri Lanka
G.S.P. de S. Gunawardena and W.F. Blakemore
A Preliminary Study on the Proteins found in the Epididymal Fluid of the Goat 170
J.K.A. Deepanee, R. Subramanium, V.K. Gunawardana, H.B.S. Ariyaratne,
R.P.V.J. Rajapakse, N.A.N.D. Perera, D.C.A. Gunawardana and D.M.S. Munasinghe
viii
Seasonal Variation in the Occurrence of Acanthamoebae Species in the Eyes of a 172
Group of Captive Elephants in Sri Lanka
P.N.K. Wijesekara, K.A.P.A. Bandara, A. Dangolla, J.S. Edirisinghe and I.D. Silva
Analysis of Urine Obtained from Captive Elephants in Sri Lanka 174

A.T.M. Gamage, K.A.P.A. Bandara, A.A.J. Rajarathne and A. Dangolla
Intoxication of a Police Working Dog following Ingestion of Explosives (Tnt, C-4 175
and Plastic Explosives)
S.J. Wijesinghe, W.P.T.T. Weerasinghe and I.D. Silva
Successful Correction of Mandibular Fractures with Dynamic Compression Plates in 177

a Pregnant Bitch
M.N. Kularatna, M.G.C.M. Jayasinghe, W.R.B. Kumara, A.A.A.W.K. Amarasinghe,
S.J. Wijesinghe, D.D.N. De Silva, I.D. Silva, I.S. Hewapathirana and H.S. Ranasinghe
Part II : Engineering, Physical Sciences, Humanities and Social Sciences
SECTION 6: Faculty of Engineering
Computation of Bed Shear Stress in Unsteady Open Channel Flows 179

K.P.P. Pathirana, P.C. Ranasinghe and U.R. Ratnayake
Experimental Investigation of Rainfall Induced Soil Erosion 181

H.M.R.M. Aberathna, W.T.D. Nandasiri, S.N.K. Sandamalika and K.P.P. Pathirana
A Non-Dimensional Approach to Predict Bed Load Transport in Unsteady Flow 183

P.C. Ranasinghe, K.P.P. Pathirana and U.R. Ratnayake
Entrance Zone Effect on the Sediment Trapping Efficiency in Desilting Tanks of 186
Run-of- River Type Mini-Hydropower Plants
U. Rathnayake, M.R.T.S. Harishchandra and S.B. Weerakoon
Flow Modeling of the Maha Oya at Peradeniya 188

D.M.A.G.B. Dissanayaka, U.J. Dissanayaka, D.A. Sachindra and S.B. Weerakoon
Issues Arising from Water Encroachments along Hurulu Wewa Feeder Canal 190
A. Abeynayaka, D.R.I.B. Werellagama and G.N. Paranavitana
Study of Cassava Starch Hydrolysis by α-Amylase and an Airborne Mould Culture 193
W.A.L.D. Wickramasinghe, S. Sotheeswaran, U.S.K. Weliwegamage, S. Rajapakse and
C.S. Kalpage
Cross-Sectional Assessment of Chlorpyrifos in a Small Stream Running Through a 196

Densely Cultivated Area in Kandy District
A.M.W. Menike, C.S. Kalpage and. R. Shanthini
ix
Design of a Paddy Husk Charcoal Adsorption Unit for the Treatment of Parboiled 199
Rice Processing Wastewater
S.M.W.T.P.K. Ariyarathna, C.S. Kalpage and R. Shanthini
Effect of Process Parameters on the Quality of Instant Tea 202

I.R. Samarathunga and D.G.G.P. Karunaratne
Use of Light Absorption in the Fabrication of a Device for Measuring Ambient Black 205
Carbon Concentration
N.M.N.V. Bandara, P.S. Palugaswawa and M.A. Elangasinghe
Application of Electro-Coagulation for the Treatment of Wastewater from Vehicle 208

Service Stations
I.R. Samarathunga and D.G.G.P. Karunaratne
Strength and Ductility Evaluation of Rigid-Frames Using Finite Element Analysis 211
K. A. S. Susantha and T. Aoki
Initiation of Thermal Cracks in a Weir 214

M.M.G.V. Shyamalee, C.K. Pathirana, H. Abeyruwan and K.R.B. Herath
Application of Multiaxial Sequential Law to Estimate Secondary Stress Based- 217

Fatigue Life of Riveted Connections
P.B.R. Dissanayake and S.A.S.C. Siriwardane
Reliability Based Resource Allocation in Bridge Maintenance 219

P.B.R. Dissanayake and P.A.K. Karunananda
Seismic Review Sheet for Evaluation of Earthquake Risk of Bridges 221

H.M.K.G.G.H.B. Herath, L.G.A. Liyanage, M.G.B.S. Manangoda and P.B.R. Dissanayake
Equivalent Electric Network Model for Ionic Polymer Metal Composite Dynamics 224
B.G.L.T. Samaranayake and A.M.U.S.K. Alahakoon
Implementation of an Electronic Tuner in J2ME using Fast Fourier Transform 227

I. Herath and R.G. Ragel
Full Instruction Encoding for Heterogeneous Multi Pipeline Application Specific 230
Instruction-Set Processors
S. Radhakrishnan and R.G. Ragel
An Algorithm for Automatic Playlist Generation in Radio Stations 233

I.M.K. Kahanda and U.G. Kanewela
User Dependant Speech Based Lip Synchronization 236

S.M.I. Wickrama and J.V. Wijayakulasuooriya
Design of an All-In-One Billing Meter for Three Wheelers in Sri Lanka 238
B.G.L.T. Samaranayake
x
Memory Efficient Algorithm and Closed Form Formulas for Computing Odd Magic 241
Squares of Higher Order
P.C. Perera
An Efficient Algorithm to Compute the Square of a Binary Number 244

M.G. Arlis and P.C. Perera
Modified Stepping Stone Algorithm for Solving Large-Scale Balanced 246

Transportation Problems
B.M.R.K. Basnayake and P.C. Perera
Controller Design and Implementation for Cost Effective Mobile Robots 249
I.B. Wijayasinghe and B.G.L.T. Samaranayake
An Efficient Algorithm to Compute the Reciprocal of a Binary Number 252

P.C. Perera
Error Correction Model for Predicting the Carbon Dioxide Emissions of a Coal-based 255
High-income Economy
R. Shanthini and K. Perera
Experimental Investigation of Condensation Heat Transfer Coefficient of 258

Refrigerants during in Tube Condensation
L. Rajapaksha and Y.M.C.E.K. Abeykoon
Analysis of the Effect of Excessive Temperature and Humidity in a Production 261

Environment
L.U. Bakmeedeniya
Limitation on Connecting Mini Hydro Power Plants to the Sri Lankan Power System 263
Network: A Case Study at Balangoda Grid Substation
A.I. Weerasekera, A. Arulampalam and J.B. Ekanayake
Microgrid Operations: Case Study at Nilambe Mini Hydro Grid 266

D.N. Navaratne, J.B. Ekanayake and A. Arulampalam
Power Factor Correction and Harmonics Effect to an Industrial Load 269

S.K. Abeygunawardane, K.I.R. Prasanna, A. Arulampalam and J.B. Ekanayake
Modelling Sri Lankan Power System to Study the Effect on Dynamic Stability with 272
Large Scale Wind Power Integration
R.H.B. Ekanayake, A. Arulampalam and J.B. Ekanayake
SECTION 7: Faculty of Science and Postgraduate Institute of Science:

Physical Science
Structural Studies of Plant Pigments Used in Dye Sensitized Solar Cells 275
F.M. Hussain, V. Sivakumar and K. Tennakone
Layers – An Abstract Extension of Fields for Higher Dimensions 278

H.M. Nasir and M.S.M. Waasim
xi
Deriving Shrunken Estimators for the Variance in One-Parameter Natural 281
Exponential Families
A. Laheetharan and P. Wijekoon
Major and Trace Element Composition of Bottom Sediments of the Malagane Tank: 284
Relationship with Sources
K. Mahatantila, R. Chandrajith and H.A.H. Jayasena
An Econometric Model for Hyper Inflation 286

H.G.K. Dineshanrathna and U.N.B. Dissanayake
Integer Solutions of Non - Linear Diophantine Equations Using Continued Fractions 288
A.G.K.N. Alupotha and A.A.I. Perera
Geochemical Characterization of Surface Water and Groundwater in Some Areas of 290

Northcentral and Northwestern Sri Lanka
S.M. Young, A. Pitawala and J. Gunatilake
High-Speed Counter-Current Chromatography for the Isolation of Proanthocyanidins 292

from Tea Flush
W.M.A.M.B. Wijekoon, N.S. Kumar and P.A.N. Punyasiri
Combined Catalytic Activity of Cation-Exchanged Montmorillonite and 294

Camphorsulfonic Acid in the Preparation of Cumene from Benzene and 2-Propanol
S. Wijeratne, R.M.G. Rajapakse, D.T.B. Tennakoon, H.M.N. Bandara and B.M.R. Bandara
Adsorption of Chromium(III) on Fired Brick Particles 296

N. Priyantha and C. Seneviratne
Chemical Reactivity of Mica, K-Feldspar and Apatite in Organic Acids and Water 298
T.H.N.G. Amaraweera, A. Pitawala and G.W.A.R. Fernando
Deterioration of Groundwater Quality in Tsunami Affected Coastal Aquifers in Sri 301

Lanka and Complexities in Natural Recovery
H.A. Dharmagunawardana, A. Welagedara, A. Pitawala and M.N.A. Mubarak
Synthesis of a Novel Copper (II) Complex Capable of Trapping Hazardous Cations 304
Present in Water
A.M.K.S.P. Adhikari and M.Y. Udugala-Ganehenege
Learning Chemistry Using Analogies 307

M.M. Jamila and S. Karunaratne
Determining the Optimal Order Quantity Using a Simulation Model 309

T.H.K.R. De Silva and W.B. Daundasekara
Synthesis and Characterization of Layered Double Hydroxide (LDH)/Sugar 312

Nanocomposites for Pharmaceutical Applications
S. Indrasekara, V. Karunaratne and N. Kottegoda
Computational Efficiency of Weakly Orthogonal Spherical Harmonics in Cubed 315

Sphere
M.A.A.M. Faham, H.M. Nasir and T. Kaneshalingam
xii
Preliminary Investigation of the Liquid Crystal Behaviour of β-sitosteryl-β-D- 318
glucopyranoside
G.L.A.D. Liyanage, A.D.L.C. Perera and D.N. Karunaratne
Equilibrium Studies on Cadmium (II) Interactions with Aspirin and Vitamin C in 320
Aqueous Medium
H.H.M.C.U. Herath and C.V. Hettiarachchi
Attempted Synthesis of a Glucofuranose Derived Carbohydrate Liquid Crystal 322

L.S. Widanapathirana, A.D.L.C. Perera and D.N. Karunaratne
SECTION 8: Faculty of Arts
Geography in Practice: ‘Conceptualizing Space’ in Print Media in Sri Lanka 325

S.K. Hennayake and N. Hennayake
Preparation of a Zoning Plan for the Madu Ganga Special Management Area 327
E. Vidanapathirana, P. Wickramagamage and S.P. Nishshanka
Virtual Peradeniya :A GIS System for the University of Peradeniya 329

R. Alagan, D. Weragodetenne, U. Jeyaraman and C. Premaratne
Farmers` Perceptions Towards Climate Change and Farm Management Practices 332
K.W.G.R. Nianthi
Changing Landscape of Kandy 334

A.S.M. Nawfhal
Vessagiriya: Epigraphy and Palaeography 336

A.M.P. Senanayake
Characterization of Soils at the Vessagiriya Archaeological Site in Relation to Past 337

Settlement Sites
A.M.C.P.K. Attanayake, R.B. Mapa and S. Seneviratne
Functional Uses of Stone Outcrops at Anuradhapura Vessagiriya: An Environmental 339

Archaeological Study
T. Wagalawatte
The Ecological Values Reflected in the Buddhist Vinaya (Discipline) 340

M. Gnanananda
Is ‚HA a Cluster in Pali Language ? 341

M. Wijitadhamma
The Frankfurt School of Social Research and Critical Theory, with Special Reference 342
to Max Horkheimer
M. Rajaratnam
Children’s Posttraumatic Emotional Distress and Coping After a Natural Disaster: 344
The 2004 Tsunami
G.R.K. Dissanayake and V. Ganepola
xiii
Philosophical and Systematic Analysis of Diotima's Definition of Love and Its 346
Relation to Plato's Theory of Forms in the Symposium
A. Samaratunge
Euripides’ Alkestis “A Drama of a Devoted Wife?” Translation from the Original 348
Greek into Sinhala with an Introduction and Commentary
C.S.M. Wickramasinghe
Issues in Translating 'Sexuality' into Sinhala: Inadequacy of the Terms Used in the 350
Sinhala Translation of Lady Chatterley's Lover By D.H. Lawrence
D.M. Kumarasinghe
‘Observer’s Paradox’ in Linguistic Research 352

A. Velmurugu
Economic Growth and Human Capital Investment in Sri Lanka 353

K.M.G.A. Kasturi and A.S.P. Abhayaratne
Foreign Direct Investment and Economic Growth in Sri Lanka: A Causality 355
Approach
N. Balamurali
The Causes of Domestic Violence and Its Impact on Rural Women Victims 357
J.A.P.S. Perera
External Intervention and Conflict Outcome: Analyzing the Effects of Intervention 359
Strategies in Sri Lanka
M.M. Ihjas
Classroom Realities 361

S.K. Embakke
A Study on Gender Differences in Food Habits and Sport Performance among 363
Secondary School Boys and Girls in Sri Lanka
W. Senevirathne and P. Sethunge
A Study of Western Musical Techniques Used in Sinhala Light Songs During the 365
20th Century
M. Alawathukotuwa
The Original Concept of Sound Material in Chinese Music 367

Sheng ) and Yin
L. Seneheweera
Masculinity in Kandyan Dance 368

S. Mantillake
Identification of Mule (Equus Hemionus) as Aśvataraya in Ancient Sri Lanka by 370

Unearthed Bones and Literature
R.M.M. Chandraratne
Author Index 373
xiv
Message from the Vice Chancellor
Peradeniya University Research Sessions 2007
Peradeniya University Research Sessions (PURSE) is an annually held event and this year it is
scheduled to be held on the 30th November, 2007. This has become an important academic event of
the University calendar.
Generation of new knowledge through research into important problem areas by both university
teachers and students is part of the higher education process. In order to facilitate the teachers and
students to take up this challenge, the University of Peradeniya conducts over two hundred
internationally and locally funded research projects, annually. The PURSE provides an ideal
forum for staff and student researchers to present their research findings to a wider audience
enabling their work to be reviewed evaluated by a learned panel of judges. The experience gained
during PURSE generates confidence amongst the researchers and help them to perform better in
their future endeavours. Therefore, continuation of PURSE in a sustainable manner is of utmost
importance to the University of Peradeniya.
I wish to express my deepest gratitude on behalf of the University of Peradeniya for Honourable
Minister Dr. Sarath Amunugama for accepting our invitation to be the chief guest of the PURSE,
2007. Organizing the PURSE is not an easy task and the members of the Organizing Committee
have taken up the responsibilities assigned to them. The request of papers from all faculties and the
review and publication procedures take a substantial time of all members, referees and editors.
This year’s Chairperson, Dr. S.D. Dewasurendra, took up the challenge of coordinating the
activities of the research sessions with dedication to complete the task assigned to him. I take this
opportunity to compliment him on this occasion. I am also very grateful to the members of the
organizing committee comprising of academic and non- academic staff and students of all faculties
for their invaluable support and assistance in organizing the annual research Sessions 2007. I take
this opportunity to wish all the paper presenters and participants a rewarding day.
Prof. Harischandra Abeygunawardena

VICE-CHANCELLOR
xv
xvi
Message from the Chairperson, Organizing Committee
Peradeniya University Research Sessions 2007
Peradeniya University Annual Research Sessions are being held for the 12th time when the
university completes its 65th year. Being the most comprehensive university with the oldest
tradition in the country, these sessions must certainly mean something special. The line-up of
academics and their credentials are impressive by regional standards and, one would expect to find
a hive of research and development activity in the midst of an enlightened group as ours. Certainly
such activity has to reflect amply on the research outputs as presented in its annual research
sessions.
We have some 160 peer-reviewed papers being presented, covering most of the disciplines in the
eight academic faculties. However, we must not hesitate to confront the reality that a large
proportion of what is being presented report work carried out in basic undergraduate
laboratories/facilities.
Research is an inspirational activity which explores the limits of possibility, exercising the creative
faculties to the limit. When economies operate at below subsistence levels, like in the case of ours,
there are overwhelming needs of a very basic nature in every sphere of human activity. This
coupled with the fact that there is a continuum of levels of development visible in different
countries, which have suddenly come to our very door-step through hyper-quick communication
media, open up almost limitless possibilities to those who seek some activity to keep occupied.
Therein, the craftsman, very justifiably, finds a fertile activity field and the versatile student too,
simple, real-life applications to sharpen newly acquired knowledge and skills. However, it is very
unlikely that such activity would reach the threshold of breakthroughs that form the back-bone of
any nation in the vanguard.
It is not possible to force creativity out of people, and all those who have the grasp of fundamentals
and the tools to manipulate them cannot necessarily be expected to use such knowledge to generate
inspirational levels of research activity. Most seem to content themselves in rejoicing exploits,
worthy though, of the versatile student in his act of sharpening teeth. No wonder then, that we are
where we are and we see the horizons that we see. Let us not fool ourselves. How many really
come looking for advanced learning to our shores? How many times has the country been able to
take advantage of its own research findings to create a difference to its own lot?
Then how, one would ask, does it happen where it really does? Arguably, when those who can and
are willing get what they need to exercise their inspired activity. And, what exactly is this that they
need? They need their domain, the domain that contains the facilities for their activity and the
freedom to explore and create. And how would they get this domain? In nations at advanced
degrees of development in the respective spheres, the domains are being created, either through the
needs of private enterprise or through the planned research & development programmes of the
state. The necessary funds come through regeneration. In a country where resources are scarce in
both these forms, the only possibility remains the tapping of resources of outside domains:
basically, bringing in work that can be carried out locally and delivered to the overseas domain,
securing precious funds for local capacity building. This could continue till local capacity builds up
to sufficient levels. Otherwise it would be inevitable to stay within the vicious circle of ignorant
bliss.
The task is not easy by any means, because gaining visibility in overseas domains and developing
the requisite level of confidence would be an immense barrier to break through. However, there are
xvii
things that we could do to improve our chances in this venture. To start with, let us not despise the
enterprising academic for building his own domain. Let us facilitate the networking of such
enterprising academics into functional research groups. Let us identify the difference between
research and resulting creation of new knowledge and the activities of teaching and forming young
graduates and undergraduate project work which is meant to sharpen their skills in the use of newly
acquired knowledge. Let us understand clearly that at any given moment of time, there are these
two focuses and that correspondingly there are two distinct groups of adepts. Let us also understand
that the former group could potentially perform better than the latter in its own task. Let us not
permit the majority power of mediocrity stifle the efforts of the researcher to kindle the little flame
of inspiration that could light up the lot of the majority too.
Having said that, we must place on record our deep appreciation of all those who toiled hard to
make PURSE-2007 another significant landmark in our pursuit of excellence. The researchers
presenting papers, the editor and the editorial committee are to be commended first. The unfailing
support and guidance of the Vice Chancellor have been a source of strength. The commitment
shown by the different committees and their chairpersons, personnel from the Council & Academic
Unit and University administration in general once again demonstrated the hidden strengths we can
draw upon. We also note with gratitude, the donations by the National Science Foundation and the
Postgraduate Institute of Science towards the printing of conference proceedings. We are grateful
to Honourable Minister Dr. Sarath Amunugama for accepting our invitation to be the Chief Guest
and our Chancellor, Dr. Premadasa Udagama for accepting to grace the occasion as Guest of
Honour. We record our gratitude to Professor G. P. Karunaratne for accepting our invitation to
deliver the Guest Lecture.
Dr. Shirley Devapriya Dewasurendra

Chairperson of the Organising Committee
PURSE 2007
xviii
PERADENIYA UNIVERSITY RESEARCH SESSIONS PURSE – 2007
ORGANIZING COMMITTEE
Chairperson of the Organizing Committee Dr. S.D. Dewasurendra

Director, Research & International Affairs Prof. R.O. Thattil
Director, Postgraduate Institute of Science Prof. M.A.K.I. Dissanayake
Director, Postgraduate Institute of Agriculture Prof. A.L.T. Perera
Chairpersons of the Faculty Research Committees
Faculty of Agriculture Prof. C. Sivayoganathan
Faculty of Allied Health Sciences Prof. V. Thevanesam
Faculty of Arts Dr. D.K. Jayaratne
Faculty of Dental Sciences Dr. M.A.M. Sitheeque
Faculty of Engineering Dr. S.D. Dewasurendra
Faculty of Medicine Prof. R. Sivakanesan
Faculty of Science Prof. A.D.L.C. Perera
Faculty of Veterinary Medicine and Animal Science Dr. H.B.S. Ariyaratne
Faculty Representatives
Faculty of Agriculture Dr. D.N. De Costa
Mr. B.M.L.D.B. Suriyagoda
Faculty of Allied Health Science Mrs. H.M.D.R. Herath

Mrs. P. Saravanakumar
Faculty of Arts Dr. K.M.G. Rekha Nianthi

Ms. Careema Jayaweera
Faculty of Dental Sciences Dr. J.K.C. Amarasena
Dr. M. Attygalla
Faculty of Engineering Dr. U.R. Ratnayake
Dr. K.R.M.N. Ratnayake
Faculty of Medicine Prof. M. Sabanayagam
Prof. S. Rosairo
Faculty of Science Dr. V.A. Seneviratne
Dr. H.A. Dharmagunawardena
Faculty of Veterinary Medicine and Animal Science Dr. A.W. Kalupahana
Dr. L.J.P.A.P. Jayasoorira
xix
xx
PANEL OF CO-EDITORS
Faculty of Agriculture Prof. D.C.K. Ileperuma

Dr. W.P.R.P. de Silva
Faculty of Arts Prof. A. Parakrama

Dr. D.N.B. Gunawardena
Faculty of Dental Sciences Dr. H.D.N. Amarasena

Dr. R.W. Pallegama
Faculty of Engineering Dr. R.G. Ragel

Dr. D.G.G.P. Karunaratne
Faculty of Medicine Dr. K. Pethiyagoda

Dr. W.I.T. Fernando
Faculty of Science Prof. H.M.D.N. Priyantha

Dr. K.U. Tennakoon
Faculty of Veterinary Medicine and Animal Science Prof. T.G. Wijewardena

Dr. A.R. Mohomed
xxi
xxii
Guest Lecture
Is Research Needed?
G.P. Karunaratna
International Consultant to Southern Transport Development Project, Sri Lanka
Adjunct Professor, National University of Singapore
In a research community such as a university, the answer to the above is generally clear. Many
university professors undertake post-graduate training and research as part of their profession. But
should this be limited only to the beginning of the career?
If the meaning of research is to ‘search’ for knowledge then there is always something different to
look for. Should the ‘knowledge’ be limited to theory? Is the acquired knowledge useful only for
the researcher who raised the level of knowledge? Should he be complacent that his knowledge is
expanded? Will his results lead to knowledge being shared among the community? Should the
shared knowledge lead to welfare of and to uplift the society? Taking a more humanistic approach
it would be ideal to focus one's energy for searching and advancing knowledge for the benefit of all
species, far and near.
Following the perception expressed above the research finding should advance the intangible
knowledge and/or tangible applications stemming there from. The former eventually may lead to
‘tangible’ applications such as spiritual emancipation. The latter provides a seeding ground for
development work in all spheres.
Much of the effort devoted for research is based on the human mind. Certainly sharper the mind
better would be the analytical assessment and the grasping power of the work. Those who need
equipment and associated material for research have to depend on funding which may not be
available readily. Funding agencies are sought after by the researchers at this stage. These may
constitute public or private organizations and institutions, based on the need for a solution
(knowledge that is necessary) for a given problem. Private organizations thrive in the West as
funding agencies through reasonable assessment of the potential commercialization of research
finding.
Public organizations, such as government institutions, provide little to large-scale support in the
West, whereas only a handful of governments in the East encourage research. Such applications on
a large scale include US space program and defense. Private sector dominates in pharmaceutical,
biological and electronic industries among thousands of different research areas. Thus it would not
be easy to imagine how this world would be without the research conducted by all the humans
since the inception of the world, be they ancestors or not. Therefore, whether the finding is
stoneware in the prehistoric time or Edison’s electric bulb or nanotechnology or space structures, to
take a minuscule of examples, research has yielded knowledge in a practical sense for the benefit of
the mankind. Occasional use of such findings towards destruction is disheartening for many.
Choice of a viable topic is researcher’s option, and sometimes the funding agency that needs results
for an unresolved issue. Funded research should produce achievable targets. They should
preferably be completed within the stipulated time frame and budget. However it would be more
enjoyable to witness the application of one’s research findings if the opportunity arises.
xxiii
At the time the speaker accepted an offer to become a professor at the University of Singapore
funding for research was an attractive thought. No sooner he arrived with his young family he was
requested to provide advisory services to the panel of engineers for the construction of the Changi
International Airport in Singapore replacing the much congested smaller airport in the island of
525 km2. The natural sand available in the sea bed was dredged for reclaiming a 750 ha of new land
upon which the new airport facilities were to be built. Sand was placed on 40 m deep marine clay
in the sea bed which was to compress about 3 m under 10 m thick new land. Since it takes more
than 30 years to accomplish this settlement if left untreated, it became obvious that the soft clay
must be pretreated so as to preclude future settlement. The only available band drain to reduce time
of treatment at that time was made with a plastic core and a paper filter. During installation it was
observed that the paper filter tended to tear off in the air when gusty wind blew at 40 km/hour. The
speaker was able to assemble a completely natural band drain composed of coconut coir and jute
fibre that surpassed the tensile strength of all band drains.
Being a third world country, in mid seventies, Singapore University had to seek the services of a
London Solicitor for patenting the product which became the first patent of the Singapore
University. Subsequently the product was tested in the same marine clay with identical
performance of the other band drain. The patent has expired after 20 years and stands to benefit the
community of civil engineers. It has been used in Singapore, Malaysia, Japan and Sri Lanka on
commercial projects for soft ground improvement.
Enjoyment and monetary return from such patented innovation are benefits of the research. When
the patent expired the development becomes people’s inheritance. Benefits accrued by the
community gives an additional enjoyment which is in the realm of sharing knowledge. Hence
research is to advance knowledge in all fields, be they intellectual or practical. The community
should be able to share the benefits as part of the research effort.
xxiv
Part II
Engineering, Physical Sciences,

Humanities and Social Sciences
FACULTY OF ENGINEERING
Proceedings of the Peradeniya University Research Sessions, Sri Lanka, Vol.12, Part II, 30thNovember 2007
Computation of Bed Shear Stress in Unsteady Open Channel Flows
K.P.P. Pathirana*, P.C. Ranasinghe and U.R. Ratnayake

Department of Civil Engineering, Faculty of Engineering, University of Peradeniya
Introduction second term in Eq.(2) for estimating u* can be

assumed to be very small. Therefore, shear
An accurate computation of bed shear stress is velocity in unsteady flows can be expressed by
important in estimating sediment transport rates the following simplified equation,
in open channels, rivers and streams. The
computation of bed shear stress in steady,
uniform flow has been extensively investigated ⎡ 1 ∂y ⎤
u*un = ⎢ gRS + gR ⎥ (3)
by many researchers. Very few studies have ⎣ C ∂t ⎦
been reported in the past investigating the bed Experimental set-up and procedure
shear stress in unsteady flows and most of the
studies do not provide conclusive results. In The experiments were carried out in a 10 m
general, the flow in rivers and streams is long, 0.4 m wide, 0.5 m deep rectangular, re-
unsteady and non-uniform. The computation of circulating, tilting flume. The size of natural
bed shear stress in this type of flows is still river sand used for the experiments is between
based on the formulations that are developed 2 mm and 8 mm. The fixed bed was prepared
for steady, uniform flow conditions. The by gluing a single layer of sand on the channel
present study is aimed at investigating the bed with cement slurry. The base flow of a
estimation of bed shear stress in unsteady open known quantity was first allowed to flow over
channel flow over rough bed using extensive the fixed bed. Using an additional pump in
laboratory experiments (Tu and Graf, 1993). addition to those used in the re-circulating
system and with preset valve opening and
Methodology timing the pump running durations, six
hydrographs were passed over the steady base
Using the partial differential equations flow. Each hydrograph was repeated several
developed by de Saint Venant for unsteady times to ensure repeatability. The experiments
flows, shear velocity of unsteady flow is were repeated for four different channel slopes
written as (Henderson, 1996); and four different base flow discharges, with
six hydrographs each, leading to a total of 96
⎡ ∂y U ∂U 1 ∂U ⎤ (1) test runs. The water depths were measured
u*un = gy ⎢ S − − − ⎥ continuously during the tests using pressure
⎣ ∂x g ∂x g ∂t ⎦
sensors and all observations were logged into a
computer using an Analogue-Digital converter.
where, U is the depth-averaged velocity, y is
the water depth and S is the channel bottom
slope, The unsteady flow considered in the Results and discussion
proposed study is generated by passing Unsteadiness of flows was quantified using a
hydrographs in an open channel and hence, the hydrograph parameter (HYDP), which is
derivatives ∂y / ∂x and ∂U / ∂x in the above defined as;
equation are changed to time derivatives ∂y / ∂t
and ∂U / ∂t using the wave velocity concept and
u* is presented as; 2( y p − y b ) y p
HYDP = (4)
⎡ ⎛ 1 ∂y ⎞⎤ ⎡ ∂U ⎛ U ⎞⎤
(u b* DT )2
u*un = ⎢ Rg ⎜⎜ + S ⎟⎟⎥ − ⎢ R ⎜1 − ⎟ ⎥ (2)
⎢⎣ ⎝ C ∂t ⎠⎥⎦ ⎣ ∂t ⎝ C ⎠⎦
Where, C = U + gy and R is hydraulic radius. Where, yb is the water depth in the base flow,
yp is the water depth at peak, u*b is the shear
When passing a hydrograph in the channel, it velocity in the base flow and DT is the duration
has been shown that the rate of change of water of hydrograph. The HYDP of test cases varied
level is more significant than that of mean between 3.17×10-4 (most unsteady) and
velocity and, as a result, the contribution of the 1.52×10-5 (least unsteady). As a typical result
179
of the unsteady flow runs, the time variation of 40%
water depth and shear velocities during the rising limb
passage of a hydrograph is shown in Figure 1. 30%

falling limb
m a x ( Δ u * /u *4 )
base flow
Figure 2 compares the u* values based on the
20%
10%
8.0 6.0
HYDP= 1.25E-04
y 0%
7.0 u*steady (u*s) 5.0 0.0E+00 5.0E-05 1.0E-04 1.5E-04 2.0E-04 2.5E-04 3.0E-04 3.5E-04
u* (cm/s)
u* unsteady HYDP
y (cm)
6.0 4.0
Figure 3. Variation of maximum (Δu * /u *s )

5.0 3.0 with HYDP in the rising and falling
branches of the hydrographs
4.0 2.0
1 11 21 31 41 51 61 71 81 91 101 than 3% in the base flow. The maximum value
Time (s)
of (Δu * /u *s ) increases with HYDP indicating
that the error can be as high as nearly as 30%
Figure 1. Variation of water depth and shear and 20% in the rising and falling limbs,
respectively when HYDP is high. The
velocity in an unsteady flow run difference in shear velocities computed by
steady and unsteady formulae during the steady and unsteady formulae was derived as,
passage of a hydrograph with a HYDP of Δu* ⎛⎜ u*un − u*s ⎞
3.17×10-4. The difference in shear velocities = ⎟ = 1 + 1 ⎡ Fr ⎤ ∂y − 1 (5)
derived from the steady and unsteady flow u*s ⎜⎝ u*s ⎟
⎠ US ⎢⎣1 + Fr ⎥⎦ ∂t
equations seems to increase significantly for Where, Fr is the Froude number and u*s is the
the rising and falling limbs of the hydrograph shear velocity in steady uniform flow, which is
as illustrated in Figure 2. It clearly shows that given by u*st = (τ 0 / ρ) 0.5 .
the shear velocities in the rising limb are higher
than that in the falling limb. Conclusions
The behaviour of bed shear stress in unsteady
flow was studied using extensive laboratory
6.0
S4Q4 data -
experiments over a rough bed. The shear
HYDP = 3.17E-04 velocity in unsteady flow derived from de Saint
5.5 Venant equations was compared with the
steady state formula. The shear velocity is
5.0 usually larger in accelerating flow than that in
u* (unsteady)
decelerating flow. The difference in shear

4.5 velocities computed by the steady and unsteady
flow equations was quantified and compared
4.0
with the experimental results. A relationship
between steady and unsteady shear velocities
3.5
Rising limb has been derived in terms of hydraulic
Falling limb parameters of the problem, which can be used
3.0
3.0 4.0 5.0 6.0
to quantify the error in using steady state
u*4 (steady)
formula of u* for unsteady flows.
References
Figure 2. Comparison of shear velocities
computed by steady and unsteady Henderson, F.M. (1996) Flood waves in
prismatic channels, Journal of Hydraulic
state formula Engineering, ASCE, 89(4), 39–67.
Tu, H. and Graf, W.H. (1993) Friction in
It can be seen from Figure 3 that the maximum unsteady open-channel flow over gravel
difference in u* computed by the two methods beds, Journal of Hydraulic Research, 31(1),
is generally larger in the rising limb than that in 99–110.
the falling limb and that it always remains less
180
Experimental Investigation of Rainfall Induced Soil Erosion
H.M.R.M. Aberathna, W.T.D. Nandasiri, S.N.K. Sandamalika and K.P.P. Pathirana*

Introduction natural rain, a frame mounted with the

perforated pipes and the nozzle was moved
It is widely recognized that rainfall induced soil back and forth with a span of about 10 cm
erosion is a serious global problem with using a wiper motor. The height of the moving
significant financial and environmental set-up above the ground level was determined
consequences. Soil erosion is particularly after carrying out several preliminary tests. The
important in agricultural lands, where it results drop size distribution was tested using a tray
in a reduction of the cultivable soil depth and filled with flour, which was briefly exposed to
fertility. In addition, the problem of a rain and covered it back within a fraction of a
sedimentation on riverbeds and drainage second. The number of drops with different
networks, which reduces their capacity, diameters was then counted. The drop size
increases flooding risk, blocks irrigation canals distribution simulated by the rainfall simulator
and shortens the design life of water reservoirs. is compared with actual rain in Figure 2. A soil
Soil erosion is a two-phase process consisting bed with dimensions 600 x 600 x 100 mm was
of the detachment of individual soil particles used for the tests, which consists of 70 mm
from the soil mass and their transport by thick soil sample placed on a layer of 30 mm
erosive agents such as running water and wind. thick porous bed to remove infiltrated water.
Finding an analytical solution to soil erosion The experimental set-up is as shown in
problems is impossible; therefore most studies Figure 3. The soil erosion rates were measured
are mainly based on laboratory experiments for five different soil bed slopes, four different
and the field investigations. The main objective soil types and four different simulated rainfall
of this research was to carry out an intensities.
experimentally investigate the rainfall driven
erosion process and to develop a functional Results and discussion
relationship to quantify soil erosion rates.
The soil erosion rate (q) depends on many
Experimental set-up and procedure parameters, such as rainfall intensity (I), mean
diameter of raindrops ( d r ), mean diameter of
Based on preliminary tests carried out in the soil particles ( d s ), dry density of soil (ρ), bed
field to find out actual characteristics of natural slope (S), acceleration of gravity (g), impact
rainfall, a laboratory-scale rainfall simulator
Figure 2. Comparison of drop size

Figure 1. Two types of arrangements used to set-
distribution generated by the rain
up the rainfall simulator
simulator with a typical rain
was designed and fabricated using perforated velocity of rain drops (V), soil characteristics
PVC pipes and a nozzle as shown in Figure 1. (K), support factor to represent any erosion
To generate raindrop distribution similar to
181
control measures (Po). The above parameters

can be correlated by an equation of the form;
f ( I , d r , d s , ρ, S , g , P, K , P0 , q) = 0 … (1)
……… (6)
Figure 4. Variation of X7 Vs X6
− 1 . 46
⎡ d g ⎤ ⎡ Iρ d s ⎤
q = 4 . 4 E 9 ⎢ 2s 2 ⎥ ⎢ ⎥
⎣S I ⎦ ⎣ drc ⎦
250
200
q experimental
Figure 3. Experimental set-up 150

2
R = 0.7624
A few of the listed parameters, which were 100
kept as constants during the experiments, can
be excluded from the analyses. The raindrop 50
velocity was not taken into account here as it is

0
difficult to measure and control during the 0 100 200 300 400
tests. The clay content (c) was taken as the soil q calculated
characteristic in the experiments. Hence, the Figure 5. Comparison of erosion rates

Eq. (1) simplifies to:; measured with that of computed
values
f ( I , d r , d s , ρ, S , g , c, q) = 0 ……………… (2)
The comparison of erosion rates computed
The following non-dimensional groups were using the above equation is compared with the
derived using non-dimensional analysis. experimental values in Figure 5. The deviation
of results from the actual could be partly
dr gd attributed to the factors that are difficult to
; X 4 = 2s
X1 = S ; X 5 = c ; X 3 =
ds I control during the tests such as, initial moisture
content and compaction of soil layers.
X5 = c ………………………………….. (3)
Conclusions
No direct correlation was found among the
above groups. However, the non-dimensional Based on the extensive laboratory experiments,
groups, X6 and X7 derived below appear to a new equation was proposed to estimate
showed a reasonable correlation. rainfall induced soil erosion. The equation
derived here can only be applicable for clayey
X4 soils without plant cover. However, to verify
X 6 = X 2 .X 3 .X 5 ; X7 = ……….. (4) the applicability of this equation, more
X 12 experiments are needed with additional
The variation of X7 with X6 is shown in parameters used such as, soil types, bed slopes
Figure 4. Although the data points show a and rainfall intensities. Also, the effect of other
significant scatter, a clear trend a clear trend is parameters on soil erosion, which were not
noticeable. Using this relationship, a new considered in this study, should also be studied.
equation to calculate the rate of soil erosion In addition, the proposed equation needs to be
was derived. tested using field data.
182
A Non-Dimensional Approach to Predict Bed Load Transport in Unsteady Flow
P.C. Ranasinghe, K.P.P. Pathirana* and U.R. Ratnayake

Introduction gravel with a size distribution of 2 to 8 mm.

The flume consists of a sediment trap that
Knowledge of sediment transport is important collects the transported sediment to a container.
as it influences many commonly encountered The container is suspended through a load cell.
problems in rivers, streams and reservoirs etc. The accumulated weight of sediment given by
In this study, a series of laboratory experiments the load cell was continuously recorded in a
were carried out to measure hydraulic computer through an A/D converter.
parameters and bed load transport rates in
unsteady flows. Although there are several Sediment transport rates were measured for 96
formulae available to predict bed load transport different unsteady flows. These unsteady flow
under steady uniform flow conditions, so far no generated by passing six different hydrographs
reliable method has been developed to estimate over each of 16 steady base flows. The base
bed load transport due to unsteady flows, flows were established by passing four
which is generally the case in alluvial channels different water discharges obtained by different
(Chang, 1988). positions of the valve V1, in four different
channel slopes. The six different hydrographs
The objective of this study is to relate the bed were generated by controlling the valve V2. At
load transport rates due to the governing the upstream end of the channel, sediment was
hydraulic parameters in unsteady open channel fed at a suitable rate to match with the
flow. entraining rate, using a sediment feeder. Water
depth variations were recorded at a section
Experimental procedure and set-up 5.5 m downstream of the channel.
The experiments were carried out in a 10 m
long, 0.4 m wide, and 0.5 m deep, rectangular Results and discussion
flume in the Hydraulics Laboratory of the The bed load transport due to unsteady flow
University of Peradeniya. Figure 1 shows a can be expressed by the non-dimensional
schematic diagram of the experimental set-up. relationship;
The fixed and the movable beds of the flume
were prepared with natural sand grains and fine
Main V3
V2 Supply CT – Collection tank
DG – Depth Gauge
FGB – Fixed gravel bed
V1 LA SF MGB – Movable gravel bed
DG LC LA – Lifting arrangement
LC – Load cell
P2
P1 SF – Sediment feeder
ST
ST – Sediment trap
UT UT – Upstream tank
MGB FGB
CT P1, P2 –Pumps
V1, V2, V3 –Valves
Figure 1: Experimental set-up
183
⎡ δy ⎤
yp
( DT)g 2
1
Quns ⎢ yb y p y ρ δt ⎥ (1)
= F⎢ , , , , S, , ⎥
ρs gd ( 3
) 1
2
⎢ d50 d50 yb ρs g(DT) yb 1
d50 2 ⎥
⎣⎢ ⎦⎥
50
where, Quns = bed load transport rate due to ⎡ ρs − ρ ⎤

⎢ d 50
ρ ⎥⎦
unsteady flow, yp = peak flow depth, yb = base
flow depth, ρ = fluid density, ρs = sediment ψb = ⎣ (3)
density, S = channel slope, DT = total time yb S
period of hydrographs, d50 = mean grain
diameter, and g = gravitational acceleration. Quns
φ= 1
(4)
⎡⎛ ρ − ρ ⎞ 3 ⎤ 2
The above relationship can be simplified by ρ s ⎢⎜⎜ s ⎟⎟ gd 50 ⎥
⎢⎣⎝ ρ ⎠ ⎥⎦
incorporating Einstein’s bed load parameter φ ,
flow intensity parameter ψb , unsteady flow Y
parameter Y* and hydrograph parameter HYDP
Y* = (5)
Yb
(Kabir, 1993) in the following form,
(
2 y p − yb y p )
φ = F [ψ b , Y* , HYDP] (2) HYDP = (6)
(u* b DT )2
where,
Run No. M B 28 Run No. M B 31

200 200
Bed load transport / (g/m/s)
K a b ir ( 1 9 9 3 ) K a b ir ( 1 9 9 3 )
150 N e w F o r m u la 150 N e w F o r m u la
100 100
50 50
0 0
0 20 40 60 80 100 0 20 40 60 80 100
T im e / (s ) T im e / (s )
Run No. M B 56 R un N o . M B 70
250 200
K a b ir ( 1 9 9 3 ) K a b ir ( 1 9 9 3 )
200
N e w F o r m u la 150 N e w F o r m u la
150
100
100
50
50
0 0
0 20 40 60 80 100 120 0 20 40 60 80 100
T i m e / (s ) T i m e / (s )
Figure 2. Verification of derived formula with experimental data
184
The relationship was verified using four sets of

Here, u *b = gy b S and y denote experimental data collected from previous
instantaneous water depth. The derivative studies (Kabir,1993) as shown in Figure 2. It
can be observed that the transport rates
∂y predicted by the newly developed formula are
represented in formulating one of the non-
∂t in good agreement with the actual transport
dimensional parameters in Eq.(1) has been rates.
incorporated into the HYDP specified in Eq.(6).
Conclusions
In the present study, an approximate linear By analyzing the observed bed load transport
relationship is proposed based on the analysis data, through non-dimensional parameters, it
of the observed unsteady flow bed load can be concluded that the bed load transport
transport rates for all 96 hydrographs. due to unsteady flow has a linear relationship
with Einstein’s bed load parameter φ , flow
φ = c1 (ψ b ) + c 2 (Y* ) + c3 (7) intensity parameter ψ b and unsteady flow
parameter Y*, in which the coefficients are
The coefficients c1, c2 and c3 were obtained as related to the hydrograph parameter HYDP.
functions of the HYDP parameter, as given References
below;
Chang, H.H. (1988) Fluvial Processes in River
c1 = - 0.00237 / ( HYDP×104 ) 2.34 (8) Engineering, John Wiley and Sons, Inc.,
133-141.
c2 = 0.05160 / ( HYDP×104 ) 1.85 (9) Kabir, M.R. (1993) Bed load transport in
unsteady flow, PhD thesis No. UDC
c3 = - 0.00789 / ( HYDP×104 ) 2.28 (10) 532:551.31, Katholieke University of
Leuven, Belgium.
185
Entrance Zone Effect on the Sediment Trapping Efficiency in Desilting Tanks of

Run-of-River Type Mini-Hydropower Plants
U. Rathnayake, M.R.T.S. Harishchandra and S.B. Weerakoon*

Introduction efficiency of sediment removal has not been

given attention. This paper presents the results
Development of run-of-river type mini- of a series of laboratory experiments carried
hydropower plants is receiving increased out using scale model of a de-silting tank to
attention in Sri Lanka at present owing to the investigate the effect of the flare angle of the
incentives announced for developers of entrance zone on the sand trapping efficiency
renewable power generation projects during the of de-silting tanks.
last decade by the Sri Lankan government. The
sources for most of the run-of- river type mini Methodology
hydropower plants are mountainous streams
where the discharges experience significant Parameters of the mini-hydropower plant were
seasonal variation with frequent flash floods. selected to represent the plants installed in the
The catchments of these streams are generally country: discharge = 3 m3/s, headrace canal
steep and face an increasing trend of soil width =1.5 m, slope = 1:1000, flow velocity =
erosion due to cultivation and other human 1.5 m/s and Manning’s coefficient = 0.012,
activities. Therefore, the stream flows carry target size of settling particles = 0.3 mm, de-
high sediment loads during seasonal floods. silting tank size 15m×6m×2m. The laboratory
This sediment-laden flow enters the headrace model test was carried out based on Froude
canals feeding water to the turbines of the min- similarity using a 1: 6 scale model and sand in
hydropower plants. Sediment in the water 90 - 125 μm range was used as scaled sediment
passing through the turbines with high velocity size (65 μm), which falls into the silt region.
erode the contact surfaces of turbine The particle Reynolds number was in the
components. The erosion of turbine laminar region. The model was built of
components leads to a drop in hydraulic plywood in the outdoor modeling yard of the
efficiency and to a high maintenance cost of Hydraulics Laboratory, University of
the turbines. Peradeniya and the de-silting tank comprised a
tapered entrance zone followed by a
Removal of sand carried with the flow in the rectangular tank as shown in Figure 1. Tests
headrace canals of run-of-river mini were conducted by changing the expansion
hydropower plants is therefore an important angle of the entrance zone to 7, 10, 20, 30 and
issue for the developers to reduce the 90 degrees while keeping the length of the tank
maintenance cost of the turbines (Singal and constant. Tests were repeated for three
Ranendra, 2006). Introduction of a de-silting discharge rates, 15, 20 and 25 l/s,
tank in series with the headrace canal is one of corresponding to different admission ratios of
the commonly used techniques for this the prototype. Sand was fed to the upstream of
purpose. De-silting tanks are designed as the canal to maintain dynamic equilibrium in
settling basins to settle sediment greater than a the canal bed. Sand trapping efficiency was
targeted size (Janssen, 2004).The shape and the calculated by measuring the sand trapped
size of the de-silting tank are major factors inside the tank and sand supplied to the tank.
affecting the sand trapping efficiency of the de-
silting tank. Several empirical and semi- Results
empirical relations for the efficiency of
sediment removal of de-silting tanks have been Figure 2 presents the variation of sediment
obtained (Ranga Raju et al., 1999). Ranga Raju removal efficiencies with the expanding angle
and Kothyari (2004) provide an empirical for three discharges of the canal. The figure
relation for efficiency based on analysis of all shows that the sediment trapping efficiency of
the available data where efficiency is related to the de-silting tank depends strongly on the
the cross sectional areas of the de-silting tank expanding angle at the entrance. As the angle
and the approach channel and the shear decreases in the range of 7 to 90 degrees, the
velocity in the de-silting tank. However, the trapping efficiency increases from 60% to 80%.
effect of the shape of the de-silting tank on the
186
90
Q=15 l/s
85 Q=20 l/s
Trapping Efficiency (%)

80 Q=25 l/s
75
70
65
60
55
50
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90
Expanding Angle (Deg)
Figure 2. Variation of sediment trapping efficiency

Figure 1. Part of testing set up with flaring angle
However, as the flow entrance angle is covering different sediment sizes are
decreased, the construction cost of the de- recommended.
silting tank increases and therefore the
optimum entrance angle can be decided only References
after a cost analysis. When the discharge
through the tank is below the design value the Janssen, R.H.A. (2004) Analysis and design of
sediment removal efficiency increases.tank sediment basins, 8th National Conf. in
increases and therefore the optimum entrance Hydraulics and Water Engineering,
angle has to be decided only after a cost Institution of Engineers, Australia.
analysis. When the discharges through the tank Ranga Raju, K.G., Kothyari, U.C, Srivastav, S.
is below the design discharge, the sediment and Saxena, M. (1999) Sediment removal
removal efficiency increases. efficiency of settling basins, J. Irrigation
and Drainage Engineering, ASCE, 125(5).
Conclusions Ranga Raju, K.G. and Kothyari, U.C. (2004)
Sediment management in hydroelectric
The entrance zone of the de-silting tanks has a projects, Impact of silt on hydro turbines,
considerable impact on the trapping efficiency Himalayan Small Hydropower Summit,
of the sediment in the de-silting tanks. The Dehradun, India.
trapping efficiency of the tank increases with Singhal, S.K. and Ratnendra, S. (2006) Impact
the reduction of the expansion angle of the of silt on hydro turbines, Himalayan Small
entrance zone in the de-silting tanks. The Hydropower Summit, Dehradun, India.
optimum expansion angle is found to be about
10 degrees. Nevertheless, further investigations
187
Flow Modeling of the Maha Oya at Peradeniya
D.M.A.G.B. Dissanayaka, U.J. Dissanayaka, D.A. Sachindra and S.B. Weerakoon*

Introduction and daily rainfall were obtained from

01/11/2006 to 15/06/2007.
The Maha Oya, which is a water way through
the University of Peradeniya, originates from The set of data from 01/11/2006 to 30/04/2007
the Hanthana mountain range and discharges to was used for the model calibration and the data
the Mahaweli River near the university from 30/04/2007 to 15/06/2007 for model
gymnasium. The catchment of Maha Oya verification. The model parameters were
covers about 5.2 km2. Understanding the flows optimized so that the simulated hydrograph
in the Maha Oya is important as it supplies matched the observed hydrograph during the
water to the Peradeniya Botanical Gardens and calibration. The optimized parameters so
to many cultivations including nurseries and obtained were used for model verification.
contributes to the pleasing environment of the
main campus, and also, to plan mitigatory Results and discussion
measures against possible damages to
university infrastructure due to seasonal floods Calibration of the model was done by running
and poor water quality in it during seasonal low the HEC-HMS model employing the constant
flows. monthly base flow method and the Clark unit
hydrograph method with an initial loss of
This study is focuses on the setting up of a 20.32 mm, a constant loss rate of 25 mm/h, a
rainfall- runoff model to estimate the discharge storage coefficient of 0.8 h, and with a
of the Maha Oya. It includes the calibration and catchment imperviousness of 20% and time of
verification of the HEC–HMS (Hydrologic concentration of 2.3 h. Figures 1 and 2
Engineering Centre of US Army Corps compare the simulated and observed stream
Engineers Hydrological Modeling System) for flows of the Maha Oya close to the University
the catchment. mosque.
The HEC-HMS hydrological modeling The model can be used for the simulation of
software has been used for the study of Maha Oya flow for rainfall data after the month
hydropower optimization in Sri Lanka. As an of June, since the calibration has been done for
example, for the flood-rainfall analysis of the relatively rainy months such as November
Broadlands hydropower project the software and December.
has been utilized. For the flood analysis, the
unit hydrograph technique (Snyder’s unit Concluding remarks
hydrograph) in the HEC-HMS has been used
since it is simple and only a few unknown A rainfall-runoff model for estimating stream
parameters had to be figured out. flow of the Maha Oya at Peradeniya University
premises was developed. This calibrated model
Methodology can be used as a tool for estimating discharge
characteristics of the Maha Oya necessary for
Modeling of the Maha Oya Catchment using the planning constructions on the banks of the
HEC-HMS mainly includes two steps: the stream and for the estimation of potential
catchment’s model calibration and the withdrawals from it.
verification of the results. To set up the model,
catchment topographic, geologic and land use References
details were collected. Since the catchment is
ungauged a stream flow gauge was set up. The Brassington, R. (1995) Field Hydrology, John
stage of the stream was measured on a daily Willy & Sons Ltd.
basis and converted to discharge using the Fleming (1975) Computer Simulation
rating curve established. Daily rainfall data Techniques in Hydrology, Elsevier
were obtained from the Gannoruwa rainfall Environmental Science Series, Elsevier
recording station. Daily flows in the Maha Oya publishers, Ed. 2.
188
Subramaniya, S (1997) Engineering

Hydrology, Tata McGrew – Hill publishing
company Ltd. Ed. 2.
45.00
40.00 Observed discharge ( Cubic feets per second)
35.00 Simulated discharge

D ischarge ( ft /sec)
3
30.00
25.00
20.00
15.00
10.00
5.00
0.00
ril
y
er
ch
ry
er
ar
Ap
mb
mb
ua
ar
nu
M
br
ce
ve
Ja
Fe
De
No
Month
Figure 1. Simulated and observed stream flow of the Maha Oya for the calibration period
25.00
Observed discharge
20.00 Simulated discharge
Discharge (ft /sec)
15.00
3
10.00
5.00
0.00
ne
ay
Ju
M
Month
Figure 2. Simulated and observed stream flow of the Maha Oya for the verification period
189
Issues Arising from Water Encroachments along Hurulu Wewa Feeder Canal
A. Abeynayaka1, D.R.I.B. Werellagama2* and G.N. Paranavitana3

1
Kaluganga Agriculture Development Project EIA Team, Centre for Environmental Studies,
University of Peradeniya
2
Department of Civil Engineering, University of Peradeniya
3
Natural Resource Management Services, Mahaweli Authority of Sri Lanka
Introduction as seepage and evaporation) would reach the

HW.
Water encroachment is unauthorized tapping of
irrigation water provided for downstream users.
In Sri Lanka, the Mahaweli Development
Scheme, a major development project in the
country’s history, could not achieve some of its
objectives owing to this problem. Attempts by
engineers and other government officers to
solve this problem are prevented by the
intervention of local politicians. This paper
studies the fate of the water in main canal
feeding Mahaweli water to the Hurulu Wewa
(HW) in Anuradhapura district of Sri Lanka.
The dry zone of Sri Lanka has been the home

of one of ancient “hydraulic civilizations” in
monsoon Asia (Wittfogel, 1957). It consists of Figure 1. Farmlands leading up to the dam
interconnected minor irrigation tanks
collectively referred to as a cascade (Madduma Mahaweli Authority of Sri Lanka (MASL),
Bandara, 1985). These cascades were formed Department of Agrarian Services (DAS) and
not only as water storage and irrigation practice Irrigation Department (ID) are managing the
but also as a system for proper land use, major three components, HFC, TH&H and
planning and operation, and maintenance. other minor irrigation schemes, and HW
respectively. Lack of interaction among those
institutions is a problem. When the MASL
Materials and methods releases water to HFC the water passes through
The study covers the experiences of the authors tanks managed by farmer organizations (FO)
during the EIA study of Kaluganga under DAS. At the beginning the cultivated
Agricultural Development Project. area under those tanks (TH&H) was limited
due to low availability of water. Yet, when the
Results and discussion HFC passed through those tanks, the water
availability was not a constraint any more. It
The 33 km long HW feeder canal (HFC) was destroyed the concept of “tank capacity
designed to convey 4.3 m3/s of water controlled farmland area” (Abeynayaka et al.,
throughout the year to the HW (Lahmeyer 2007). Farmers encroached the land as they
International, 2004). The canal discharges the could. It continued up to the dam in some
water into Yan Oya (a natural stream), which places (Figure 1) by removing the interceptor
crosses three minor tanks including Thalkote, (the marshy land between the dam and the
Hiriwadunna, and Habarana (TH&H) with paddy field), which acts as a salt trap. This has
command areas of 80, 64, 40 ha, respectively made a severe impact on the sustainability of
(MASL, 2005). At the project planning stage, the farm lands.
the land around the banks of the canal was
undeveloped and the project planners of 1960s On the other hand the lands around the HFC
and 1970s ignored future land development were developed by taking water from HFC.
possibilities and water requirement for those Since HFC is a contour canal along most of its
lands. Hence the project planners assumed that path, farmers on the low side started to take
the bulk of the flow (except minor losses such water out with siphons (now the lands are
developing on the high side also using solar
190
pumps). Once a siphon is set up, water HFC, ID, and MASL discussed and agreed on a
generally is allowed to flow out continuously water management plan, providing more water
to sustain the siphon function. This consumes a to HW. HW farmers now provide labour for the
considerably larger amount of water than a well maintenance of the upstream canals and the
designed outlet irrigation canal, which can also labourers also serve to police unauthorized
be used as a discharge control device. tapping. Yet the informal agreement did not
consider improving water controlling structures
or land use planning of the area. When MASL
officers removed the siphons, local politicians
forced them to put the siphons back. This is a
case of the state acting against the promises
made to the donors, to provide water to HW.
Measures to prevent recurrence of such things
are important in future schemes.
Conclusions
Improper management including poor
catchment management and land use planning
reduces the productivity of water resources and
land. Future land developments must take these
Figure 2. Water encroachments facts into account at project planning stage
itself. Water management policy must be
The design flow rate of 4.3 m3/s gives a water coupled with land management and land
flow of 44.6 MCM (million cubic metres) for a development.
four month cultivation season (“Yala”) and
55.7 MCM for a cultivation season of five References
months (“Maha”). Yet the HW water budget Abeynayaka, A., Werellagama, D.R.I.B.,
shows a very low inflow to the HW (Figure 3) Yatawara, S.C.B. and Paranavitana, G.N.
starting from 1985. On many occasions the (2007) Lessons on water management; Past
HFC flow is far below the designed flows due to the Future, International forum on water
to water pilferage. environmental governance in Asia,
Thailand, 26-32.
Owing to water scarcity in the HW command
area, the farmer organizations (FO) of HW
have campaigned to adopt a water management
plan for the HFC. In late 1990s’ FO of HW and
45
40
35
HFC inflow /(MCM)
30
25
20
15
10
5
0
19 5
19 6
19 7
88
19 9
19 0
91
19 2
19 3
94
19 5
96
19 7
19 8
20 9
00
20 1
20 2
03
20 4
05
8
8
8
8
9
9
9
9
9
9
0
0
0
19
19
19
19
19
20
20
Season
Figure 3. Inflow data to HW in Yala-Maha two seasons
191
Lahmeyer International (2004) Feasibility M.D. Reidel Publishing Company.

study report of Kaluganga development DordrecHW, Holland, pp 99-113.
project, Mahaweli Authority of Sri Lanka, MASL (2005) Mahaweli Authority
Sri Lanka, 3_134. Huruluwewa feeder canal management
Madduma Bandara, C.M. (1985) Catchment office database, Mahaweli Authority, Sri
ecosystems and village tank cascades in the Lanka.
dry zone of Sri Lanka; A time tested system Wittfogel, K.A. (1957) Oriental Despotism: A
of land and water resources management, Comparative Study of Total Power, Yale
Strategies for River Basin Management, University Press, New Haven, USA.
Lundqvest J., Lohm U., and Falkenmark,
192
Study of Cassava Starch Hydrolysis by α-Amylase and an Airborne Mould Culture
W.A.L.D. Wickramasinghe1, S. Sotheeswaran1, U.S.K. Weliwegamage1, S. Rajapakse2

and C.S. Kalpage3*
1
Institute of Chemistry Ceylon, Rajagiriya
2
Department of Molecular Biology and Biotechnology, Faculty of Science, 3Department of
Chemical and Process Engineering, Faculty of Engineering, University of Peradeniya
Introduction roots. The process involved washing, rasping,

pulping, grating, starch washing, dewatering,
Ethanol is an excellent source of energy which drying, and milling of cassava.
can be produced by microbial fermentation of
glucose. Starch can be used as a precursor in Liquefaction: Liquefaction was carried out by
glucose processing by chemical or biological the method proposed by Amutha and
hydrolysis (Amutha and Gunasekaran, 2001). Gunasekaran (2001) using heat stable α-
Cassava is a woody shrub containing starch amylase. Initially, starch slurries were prepared
that is extensively cultivated as an annual crop by dissolving cassava flour in distilled water
in tropical and subtropical regions for its edible and pH was adjusted to 5.0- 5.5 using HCl.
tuberous root (Encyclopedia Britannica, 2007). Slurries containing starch concentrations; 20%
(samples A), 10% (samples B) and 5%
It was reported that α-amylase is capable of (samples C) were prepared. Then, α-amylase
breaking down starch to a mixture of sugars was introduced into samples contained in
and amyloglucosidase to produce glucose from titrimetric flasks. Enzyme to flour weight
dextrin in the sugar mixture (Waliszweski et volume ratio was maintained at 1:20. CaCl2
al., 1992). This study investigates the use of a was added in small amount (0.3 g/l) in order to
commercially available α-amylase and an stabilize the enzyme. Glucose concentrations in
airborne mould culture (as a source of above samples were measured after subjected
amyloglucosidase) for the hydrolysis of to following heat treatment (HT) processes:
cassava starch at different processing
conditions. HT 1: Maintained at 65 0C for two days then
heated up to 100 0C for 10 min and kept at
Materials and methods 90 0C for 3 hours.
Materials HT 2: Heated up to 75 0C and held at this

temperature for 3 hours with agitation.
Cassava and α-amylase were purchased from
the local market. Aspergillus niger was HT 3: Heated up to 100 0C and held for 10 min
produced in the microbiological laboratory via and at 90 0C for 3 hours with agitation.
a mixed airborne fungal culture.
Dinitrosalicylic acid reagent, anthrone, 95% Saccharification: After liquefaction, the pH of
H2SO4, 72% perchloric acid, anhydrous the slurry was reduced to 4.5- 4.8 and solutions
glucose, 0.1M HCl, agar, potassium sodium were cooled to 30 0C. The liquefied starch
tartrate, Na2SO3 and potato extract were containing flasks were inoculated with
supplied by the Institute of Chemistry, Ceylon. Aspergillus niger and incubated at 30 0C for 2-
All chemicals used were of analytical grade. 5 days.
Methods Growing of Aspergillus niger: A microbial

culture identified as Aspergillus niger was
The study involves several laboratory obtained on potato dextrose agar (PDA)
experiments. Methods are briefly given below. medium, pH 4.8, after selectively isolating
Starch contents were estimated by the method them from a mixed airborne fungal culture
of McCready et al., (1950). Glucose contents grown on PDA medium at room temperature.
were measured using the dinitrosalicylic acid Aspergillus niger was identified by referring to
(DNS) method (Wang, 2007). the Commonwealth Mycological Institute
descriptions of pathogenic fungi and bacteria.
Cassava Flour Processing: Cassava flour was The slants of Aspergillus niger were stored at
produced by the wet milling of fresh cassava
193
4 0C in the refrigerator and were sub-cultured was monitored after liquefaction and
twice per month. saccharification. Results are given in Table 1.
Samples are denoted by an English letter and a
Results and discussion number. The letter refers to starch
concentration and the number indicates the
When starchy slurry is heated above 60 0C, the thermal treatment process. Conversion of
starch containing granules get swelled and starch to glucose in each test sample is shown
rupture and are gelatinized. The gelatinized in Table 2.
cassava starch gets partially hydrolyzed rapidly
by heat stable α-amylase in liquefaction. The According to Table 2, the highest glucose
partially degraded starch chains are called conversions were found among samples ‘C’
dextrins, which are suitable as starting (above 54%) in which the initial starch
materials for the later steps in ethanol concentrations are only 5%, while samples with
production. highest initial starch concentrations (A) have
reported the minimum Conversion Yields (less
For this study cassava powder was prepared than 21%). The best result; 57.6% was obtained
from cassava root by a wet milling process. with sample C3 which was prepared by the
The average cassava powder yield was method explained before.
375 g/kg of fresh cassava. It was estimated that
the starch and glucose contents in dry cassava Decreasing glucose conversion yield with
powder are 19.55 and 3.48 g/100g, increasing initial starch concentration is
respectively. attributed to a possible inhibition activity
taking place in starch solutions. Vasquez et al.,
Hydrolysis of cassava starch was studied under (2004) reported that plants contain anti
none different conditions using α-amylase as bacterial and anti fungal substances (such as
explained before; three different starch polyphenolics, cyanogenic compounds and
concentrations under three thermal processing peroxidases) in order to inhibit the bacterial
methods. The selected sample size was 30 ml. and fungal attacks. Therefore, it seems that low
After the liquefaction stage, the air borne concentrated starch solutions are more suitable
fungal culture which was identified as for the
Aspergillus niger was introduced to each of the
sample. The change in glucose concentration
Table 1. Concentration of glucose at different stages of the process

Process Stage Concentration of glucose in samples, mol dm-3
After Liquefaction 0.19 0.19 0.18 0.14 0.09 0.13 0.06 0.07 0.08
Saccharification
After 2 days 0.22 0.17 0.20 0.17 0.14 0.17 0.11 0.13 0.10
After 5 days 0.22 0.22 0.23 0.17 0.18 0.16 0.15 0.15 0.16
Sample A1 A2 A3 B1 B2 B3 C1 C2 C3
Table 2. Starch to Glucose Conversion yields

Process Stage Conversion Yield, g glucose/100 g starch
A1 A2 A3 B1 B2 B3 C1 C2 C3
After Liquefaction 17.1 17.1 16.2 25.2 16.2 23.4 21.6 25.2 28.8
Saccharification
After 2 days 19.8 15.3 18.0 30.6 25.2 30.6 39.6 46.8 36.0
After 5 days 19.8 19.8 20.7 30.6 32.4 28.8 54.0 54.0 57.6
194
enzymatic hydrolysis in order to produce Cassava starch using co-immobilized cells

ethanol. However, the use of diluted solutions of Zymomonas mobilis and Saccharomyces
in a biological reactor could be uneconomical diastaticus, Journal of Bioscience and
as large quantities of reactants are needed to be Bioengineering, 92(6),560- 564.
handled per unit production of ethanol. Encyclopedia Britannica (2007) Cassava,
www.britannica.com/eb/article-9020643/
Conclusions cassava accessed on 02/10/2007.
McCready, R.M., Guggolz, J., Silviera, V. and
The best sugar converting percentage in the Owens, H.S. (1950) Determination of
liquefaction process was obtained when, 5% starch and amylose in
starch slurry was processed at 100 0C for 10 vegetables/Application to peas, Analytical
minutes followed by 90 0C for 3 hours with chemistry, 1156.
agitation. The microbial strain that cultured in Vasquez, R.G., Day, R., Bushmann,H.,
the laboratory was found capable of converting Randles, S., Beeching, J.R. and Cooper,
liquefied cassava starch into glucose. Sugar R.M. (2004) Phenyl propanoids, phenyl
concentration continued to rise even after 5 Alanine ammonia lyase and peroxidases in
days of inoculating the fungus to the medium. elicitor challenged Cassava (Manihot
The maximum yield obtained after 5 days was esculanta) suspension cells and leaves,
57.6 g glucose/100 g starch. Annels of Botany, 94, 87-91.
Waliszweski, K.N., Alvarado, M.G. and
Acknowledgements Medina, J.D.L.C. (1992) Kinetics of
enzymic hydrolysis of cassava flour starch -
The authors wish to thank the Institute of optimization and modeling, International
Chemistry Ceylon, Department of Molecular Journal of' Food Science and Technology,
Biology and Biotechnology, and the 27, 465-472.
Department of Chemical and Process Wang, N.S. (2007) Glucose Assay by
Engineering of the University of Peradeniya. Dinitrosalicylic Colorimetric Method,
Department of Chemical and Bimolecular
References Engineering University of Maryland.
Amutha, R. and Gunasekaran, P. (2001)
Production of ethanol from liquefied
195
Cross-Sectional Assessment of Chlorpyrifos in a Small Stream Running Through a

Densely Cultivated Area in Kandy District
A.M.W. Menike*, C.S. Kalpage and. R. Shanthini

Department of Chemical and Process Engineering, Faculty of Engineering,
Introduction
Methodology
Chlorpyrifos (O,O-diethyl O-3,5,6-trichloro-2-
pyridyl phosphorothionate) is a highly active, Five random water samples were collected
non-systemic pesticide applied to control a from the Kiwullinda Oya in May 2007, which
wide range of soil pests and arthropods on was during off-peak pesticide application
various crops including vegetables, citrus, period. On June 16th, 2007, which fell within
cereals, maize, potato and tobacco. the peak pesticide application period, 14 water
Chlorpyrifos containing pesticides are samples were collected over a 3 km stretch of
commercially available as Durban, Lorsban, Kiwullinda Oya. The sampling locations are
Syren, Commando, Judo, Bullet, Chlofos, shown in the schematic diagram of Figure 1.
Unifos, Loseban, Patas, Lidoband, Dhanwan, From each sampling point, a 600 ml sample of
Dorson and Omexan in the local market. This water was collected in a 1-litre amber glass
chemical is moderately toxic following acute bottle with a glass lid, and the samples were
oral, dermal, and inhalation exposures (Zhao et transported to the Analytical Laboratory of the
al., 2004). The embankment of Kiwullinda Oya department within 4 hours of the sample
(a small stream, 9.5 m wide and 1 m average collection.
o
Samples were refrigerated below
depth), running through the Marassana area in 5 C until the time of analyses. Water samples
Kandy District and feeding the Victoria were analyzed for the presence of chlorpyrifos
reservoir, is densely cultivated with vegetables using a High Performance Liquid
and paddy. Chlorpyrifos
o
, with 40 days half-life Chromatograph (HPLC) method (CIPAC 1 C,
in buffers at 30 C (WHO, 2002), is one of the 1985). In this method, the target compound,
popular pesticides in use in Marassana. chlorpyrifos, was extracted using
Therefore, the probable presence of dichloromethane. The extract was then
chlorpyrifos in surface and ground water at concentrated and dried by means of blowing
Marassana, especially in the Kiwullinda Oya, ambient air, which is at 35 0C or below, over
has long been suspected. The objective of this the extract. The residue was then dissolved in a
research was to quantify chlorpyrifos mobile phase (acetonitrile). The solution so
concentrations (if present) in the water of prepared was injected to the HPLC and the
Kiwullinda Oya stream basin. It is important peak area readings were obtained. These
because, according to the discharge water readings were then converted to concentrations
quality standards (CEA, 1990), no pesticide by use of calibration charts, which were
should be detected in surface water even in generated in this study itself.
trace amounts.
inlet
inlet inlet inlet inlet inlets
inlet
1 2 3 7 10
4 5 6 8 9 11 12
13 14
Sample Anicut across
points the river Reservoir
inlet of stream
Figure 1. Schematic diagram of the 14 sampling points and the relative positions of inlets feeding
significant amount of water to the investigated stream
196
Results Chlorpyrifos concentrations of the 5 random

samples collected from the stream during off-
Chlorpyrifos in environmental wastewater peak pesticide application period are 0.000,
samples were extracted using Dichloromethane 0.017, 0.058, 0.116 and 0.118 µg/l.
for two reasons: (1) to prevent impurity Chlorpyrifos concentrations of the 14 samples
contamination in HPLC column (2) to increase collected during peak pesticide application
chlorpyrifos concentration in samples to HPLC period are given in Figure 3.
measurable level. Figures 2(a) and 2(b) show
charts used for HPLC calibration and Discussion
extraction efficiency estimation, respectively.
Both graphs exhibit linear relationships Significant amounts of the pesticide,
(regression coefficients are 0.9387 and 0.9913). chlorpyrifos, were detected in the water
The coefficients of linear regression shown in samples in the Marassana vegetable and paddy
the figures were used in the conversions of cultivation area during both the off-season and
HPLC peak area to chlorpyrifos concentration peak-season of pesticide application. The
in wastewater samples. All measurements used maximum detected concentration during off-
for calibration curves were duplicated. season and peak-season were 0.12 µg/l and
2.48 µg/l, respectively.
2.5
30 Concentration in extract, μg/l
(b)
25 (a) 2
Peak area, mAU
20 1.5
15 1
y = 0.7293x
10
y = 0.0316x 0.5 R2 = 0.9913
5 R2 = 0.9386
0
0 0 1 2 3 4
0 500 1000 Concentration in wastewater, μg/l
Chlorpyrifos Concentration, μg/l
Figure 2. Calibration curves for (a) HPLC peak area versus chlorpyrifos concentration, (b)
chlorpyrifos concentration in extract versus chlorpyrifos concentration in wastewater
Chlorpyrifos concentration in
3
2
2.5
the stream , μg/l
2 11
1
1.5
13
1 5 14
4 7 9
0.5 8
3 6 10 12
0
0 50 250 500 551 750 795 1045 1138 1222 1472 1722 2500 3000
Distance along the stream, m
Figure 3. Variation of chlorpyrifos concentration along the stream on a day during peak pesticide
application period
197
The chlorpyrifos concentration in the water pesticide application periods. The cross-
sample collected from one of the community sectional assessment of the chlorpyrifos
wells in this area was also as high as reported in this paper is being repeated at
0.79 µg/l. The highest chlorpyrifos present to study the variations in the
concentration was detected at the sampling concentration of chlorpyrifos in the stream
point 2 where several irrigated channels and with time.
field surface runoffs enter the stream.
Comparison of concentration data (Figure 3) Acknowledgements
and the sampling locations (Figure 1)
provides a telling relationship. Local peaks RG/2006/33/E, University of Peradeniya, is
in concentrations are seen at points 2, 5, 7, 9 acknowledged for funding. Special thanks
and 13, where main irrigated canals enter the are due to the Pesticide Registration Office
Kiwullinda Oya. In the span of sampling of the Department of Agriculture and to the
points 13 to 14, surface runoffs from technical staff at the Department of
cultivated lands located at high elevations Chemical and Process Engineering for the
enter the stream water at no specific location, technical support provided.
which keeps the chlorpyrifos concentration
approximately a constant. Stream water at Reference
points 10 and 12 are diluted with large CEA (1990) General standards for discharge
quantities of fresh water entering via of effluents in to inland surface waters,
channels, which are not running through Act no 47 & 56, Part 1, section 1,
cultivated land. It was observed that the both Gazette extraordinary of the Democratic
sides of stream banks between point 10 and Socialist Republic of Sri Lanka -
11 were cultivated with vegetables. The high 1990/02/02.
peak at point 11 is therefore, attributed to CIPAC handbook 1 C (1985) Collaborative
accumulation of pesticide contaminated International Pesticide Analytical
water seeping through the stream banks. council, 2028-2031.
WHO (2002) Geneva WHO Specifications
Conclusions And Evaluations For Public Health
Though, according to Sri Lankan Pesticides, Chlorpyrifos O,O-diethyl O-
regulations, not even trace amounts of 3,5,6-trichloro-2-pyridyl
pesticides should be detected in discharge phosphorothioate, World Health
water from industrial and agricultural Organization publication, retrieved on
applications high concentrations of 08/03/2006 from
chlorpyrifos (up to 2.48 µg/l) have been http://www.who.int/whopes/ quality/en/.
observed along a 3 km stretch of Kiwullinda Zhao, Q., Gadagbui, B. and Dourson, M.
Oya, a small stream running through the (2004) Lower birth weight as a critical
cultivated lands in Marassana. It is apparent eVect of chlorpyrifos: A comparison of
that chlorpyrifos entered the stream with the human and animal data, Regulatory
water from irrigation channels and surface Toxicology and Pharmacology, 42, 55–
runoffs. It is found that the presence of 63.
chlorpyrifos in surface waters is not limited
only to the peak, but also to the off-peak
198
Design of a Paddy Husk Charcoal Adsorption Unit for the Treatment of Parboiled
Rice Processing Wastewater
S.M.W.T.P.K. Ariyarathna*, C.S. Kalpage and R. Shanthini

Department of Chemical & Process Engineering, Faculty of Engineering, University of Peradeniya
Introduction
Materials and methods
Soaking paddy in water until it attains a
moisture content of 30 to 35% by weight is The wastewater sample was collected from
the key unit operation in parboiled rice the soaking tanks of a commercial rice mill
processing. Wastewater exiting the soaking situated in Kalawewa, Mahaweli H zone, Sri
tanks of the rice mills generally registers Lanka. The initial COD of the sample was
chemical oxygen demand (COD) at a very measured to be 4500 mg/l and the pH was
high value, for example, 4500 mg/l, which is 4.5. PHC was also collected from the same
well above the permitted COD (< 250 mg/l) mill, and sieved to separate particles of size
for wastewater discharged to surface waters 0.2 to 0.5 mm, which were used as the
in Sri Lanka (CEA, 1990). However, owing adsorbent in this study without subjecting to
to the location of a majority of rice mills in any pre-treatment. A column of 150 cm
the relatively environmentally-healthy rural height and 2.7 cm diameter was fabricated
areas of Sri Lanka, no stringent effluent with PVC conduit pipe. Of this column, a
control is imposed on these rice mills. As a height of 120 cm was packed with 75 g of
result, a good number of the rice mills in Sri PHC, which was the adsorption media.
Lanka discharge their untreated rice mill Wastewater was passed through the bed at the
effluent (RME) into surface waters, and experimentally determined optimum
thereby polluting them. superficial velocity of 5 mm/min. Samples of
the column effluent were collected at the
Since some of the pollutants in the RME are bottom of the bed at selected time intervals,
adsorptive, adsorbents such as activated and their respective COD were measured. All
carbon and paddy husk charcoal (PHC) could experiments were at least duplicated. The
be used to selectively remove these data so obtained were used to construct the
substances from the wastewater. PHC, breakthrough curve, showing the profile of
containing about 65% carbon is readily the column effluent COD against time; and
available at rice mills. It is a solid waste the principles of adsorption column design
generated from the boilers which use the were then employed for scale up for the
paddy husk waste originating from the industrial unit (Christie, 1993).
milling section as fuel. In boilers, about one
fourth of the paddy husk mass gets converted Results and discussion
into PHC during combustion. It has been
shown that PHC could successfully remove Figure 1 shows the breakthrough curve
COD, pH, odour, colour and TDS in RME obtained with a 5 mm/min superficial flow
(Ariyarathna et al., 2004). velocity with the laboratory-scale PHC
adsorption column. The ratio of COD of the
In this study, a detailed investigation was wastewater leaving the column (c) to the
carried out to design PHC adsorption units COD of the wastewater entering the column
for commercial-scale parboiled rice (co = 4500 mg/l) was plotted against time.
processing mills of capacity up to 10,000 The long time taken for bed saturation (about
kg/day of paddy. A design curve, constructed 3600 min) shows that the rate of adsorption is
with the help of experimental data obtained relatively slow.
from laboratory-scale PHC adsorption unit,
was used to scale up for an industrial-scale The levelling off of the breakthrough curve
fixed bed PHC adsorption column which shown in the Figure 1 close to c/co =1 implies
could reduce COD from 4500 mg/l to 500 that the entire bed of PHC has come to
mg/l. equilibrium with the wastewater fed to it. In
which case, according to theory, the total
capacity of the PHC packed bed is
proportional to the area between the
199
breakthrough curve and the vertical axis Table 1 summarises the results obtained for
(denoted by A1 = 32). A value of COD is the laboratory-scale column and the
chosen for the column effluent, at which the corresponding scaled up values for the
column operation would cease. This value of industrial-scale column for an operating time
the COD is known as the breakthrough COD. of three days using the procedure outlined in
It was chosen be 225 mg/l which is below the Christie (1993). Both the columns must have
permissible COD level of discharge water the same input and output CODs, as well as
quality into surface water. Since the initial flow velocity during scale up.
COD of the wastewater was 4500 mg/l, the
ratio at the breakthrough point was 0.05, The industrial columns were designed for the
which was reached 240 min (i.e. 4 hours) treatment of 33,000 l of wastewater, which is
from the commencement of the experiment, the maximum volume of wastewater
as shown in the figure. The area up to this produced per day by the rice-mill (chosen for
point gives the usable capacity of the bed this study). Therefore, three identical
(denoted by A2 = 4). The ratio of the two adsorption columns (throughput of each is
areas, A2/A1, which is the fraction of the total 11,000 l/day) are needed to be operated
bed capacity or length utilized up to the break simultaneously to treat the above wastewater.
point, becomes 0.125. Hence, usable length Table 1 shows that 677 kg of PHC is required
for selected bed was calculated to be 15 cm to treat 33,000 l of wastewater with the bed
(= 0.125 x the PHC bed height). The being operated for 3 consecutive days.
unusable bed height which remains a constant
as long as the superficial flow velocity
remains a constant, was then 105 cm.
C/Co
0.05
Figure 1. Breakthrough curve obtained with the laboratory-scale PHC adsorption column.
200
Table 1 Results obtained from laboratory-scale and the industrial-scale columns

Parameters Laboratory-scale Industrial-scale
adsorption column adsorption column*
Initial COD of the RME, mg/l 4500 4500
Final COD of the RME, mg/l 225 225
Flow velocity of wastewater, mm/min 5 5
Flow rate of wastewater, l/min 3×10-3 7.6
Height of the column, m 1.2 3.8
-2
Diameter of the column, m 2.7×10 1.4
Operating (Breakthrough) time of the column, h 4 72
Unused Bed Height, m 1.05 1.05
-3
Required amount of PHC, kg 75×10 677
*Three such columns are operated in parallel
reduced from 4500 mg/l to 500 mg/l in an

However, the rice-mill chosen for this study adsorption column of 1.4 m diameter and 3.6 m
generates a maximum of 625 kg of PHC per height operated at a superficial velocity of
day. Therefore, the amount of PHC generated 5 mm/min for 3 consecutive days. Research is
in the mill itself is not enough to reduce the being carried out at present to reduce the COD
COD of all the wastewater produced to from 500 mg/l to the permissible level of
225 mg/l. On the other hand, with the available 250 mg/l or below by conventional wastewater
amount of PHC at the mill, the COD of all the treatment methods such as biological treatment
wastewater generated could be reduced to or activated carbon adsorption.
500 mg/l COD with the PHC bed of 1.4 m
diameter and 3.6 m height. Reference
Conclusions Ariyarathna, S.M.W.T.P.K., De Silva, W.P.M.,
Wimalasena, B.D.S.N. and Shanthini, R.,
The design of the industrial scale adsorption (2004 ) Investigating the possibility of the
unit carried out in this study reveals that the use of paddy husk charcoal for the
COD of 33,000 l of wastewater produced in a treatment of rice mill wastewater in Sri
parboiled rice processing facility could be Lanka, Proceedings of the University
reduced from a very high value of 4500 mg/l to Research Session, University of
225 mg/l, using 677 kg of paddy husk charcoal. Peradeniya.
Three columns each of 1.4 m diameter and CEA (1990), General Standards for discharge
3.8 m height, operated at a superficial velocity of effluents into inland surface water,
of 5 mm/min for 3 consecutive days, are Gazette Extraordinary of the Democratic
required for this purpose. However, the rice Socialist Republic of Sri Lanka,
mill of 10,000 kg/d capacity chosen for this 1990.02.02: Part 1, Sect 1, page 26A.
study, producing a maximum of 33,000 l of Christie, J.G. (1993) Transport Process and
wastewater, produces only 625 kg of paddy Unit Operations, Prentice-Hall
husk charcoal. Using this 625 kg of paddy International, Inc, 3rd Edition.
husk, the strength of the wastewater could be
201
Effect of Process Parameters on the Quality of Instant Tea
I.R. Samarathunga* and D.G.G.P. Karunaratne

Introduction
Table 1. Selected process parameters and
Tea is the main agricultural export of Sri Lanka
contributing around 15% to the total exports of levels
the country. Sri Lankan tea is renowned as one
of the best blends of tea available in the global Level
market. The number of direct and indirect Parameter Lower Upper
beneficiaries from the tea industry is (-1) (+1)
considerable. Extraction time /(min) 10 20
Extraction temperature 75 85
At present, Sri Lanka exports several varieties
of tea including bulk tea, tea packets, tea bags, /(oC)
green tea, and instant tea. Among these, the Evaporator temperature 85 95
demand for instant tea is continuously /(oC)
increasing. There are two main types of instant
tea: hot water soluble instant tea and cold water
soluble instant tea. (Abeysekera, 2005). Production of instant tea
The principal operations carried out in Five liters of distilled water was pre-heated to
manufacturing hot water soluble instant tea are the required temperature of the extractor as
extraction, filtration, evaporation, aroma given in Table 1. Then 500 g of tea (tea grade
stripping and aromatization, spray drying and of Broken Orange Pekoe Fannings) was added
packing. The main indicators of the quality of to pre-heated water, and the temperature was
instant tea include particle size distribution, the kept constant at the required extractor
total polyphenol content, the thearubigins to temperature for the required period of time
theaflavin ratio, and the brightness of the tea while stirring. Then the tea brew was strained,
(Roberts and Smith, 2001). and was evaporated in the climbing film
evaporator at the Department of Chemical and
In this work, the effect of the important process Process Engineering, University of Peradeniya.
parameters such as extraction time, extraction The first 100 ml of vapour leaving the
temperature and evaporator temperature, on the evaporator was condensed, collected and added
quality of instant tea was examined. back to the concentrated brew to simulate the
aroma stripping operation. The evaporation
Materials and methods was then carried out for 90 minutes. The
concentrated tea brew was then spray dried at a
Experiment planning constant temperature of 95 ºC in the spray
dryer at the Food research institute,
As there were several variables under study and Gannoruwa. The resulting tea powder was then
since the production of instant tea and analysis aseptically packed and sealed in triple layered
of the quality were expensive and time aluminium foil bags to prevent possible
consuming, a two level factorial experiment moisture absorption.
design approach was employed to screen out
the influential process parameters. The selected Quality measurements
process parameters and the relevant levels are
shown in Table 1. The upper and lower levels The standard procedure for determining total
of each parameter were decided based on the Polyphenol level in instant tea was performed
range of process parameters used in the using a Folin-Ciocalteu Colorimetric reagent,
industry. with optical density measurements at 765 nm.
(ISO working draft, 2005). The standard
procedure for determining thearubigin and
theaflavin in instant tea was implemented using
202
isobutyl-methyl-ketone (IBMK) and sodium best-fit line in the plot of the normal
hydrogen carbonate by measuring optical probability against factor effect. (Montgomery,
density at 380 nm and 460 nm. (Roberts and 1976)
Smith, 2001).
By analyzing the four normal probability plots
Calculation of quality measurement related to total polyphenol, theaflaving,
thearubigin and brightness, the only outlier
Theaflavin and Thearubigin content were which deviates from the best-fit line is found in
calculated from the optical density the plot related to total polyphenol, and it
measurements at 380 nm while the brightness corresponds to the interaction of evaporator
was calculated from the optical density temperature. (Figure 1).
measurements at 460 nm (Roberts and Smith,
2001). The total Polyphenol content was Interaction plots were drawn to identify
calculated from the optical density significant interactions (Montgomery, 1976).
measurements at 765 nm. (ISO working draft, The only significant interaction found was
2005). between extractor time and evaporator time.
This is indicated in Figure 2. This interaction
Data analysis indicates that the Evaporator temperature has
little effect at low Extractor temperature, but a
The calculated values for thearubigin content, large negative effect at high level of Extractor
theaflavin content, total polyphenol content and temperature. This may be due to the sensitivity
the brightness values were analysed using the of Thearubigin to high temperature. When both
factorial experimental method. extractor and evaporator temperatures are high
the exposure time of tea for high temperate
Results and discussion increase, which leads to the destruction of
Thearubigin.
According to the factorial method, the most
influential parameters stay as outliers of the
1 99
2 98
5 95
10 90
20 80
30
60
Normal probability
50
40
70
80 20
90 10
C
95 5
98 2
99 1
99.8 0.2
99.9 0.1
99.99 0.01
-2 -1 0 1
Effect estimate
Figure 1. Normal probability vs effect estimate plot for Total Polyphenol
203
References
Conclusions
Abeysekera, S.A. (2005) Technical Feasibility
Among the three process parameters, extractor Study on the Manufacture of Hot Water
time, extractor temperature and evaporator Soluble Instant Tea, Tea Research Institute,
temperature, analysed in this research, Thalawakele.
evaporator temperature was identified as the ISO working draft (2005) Tea and Instant tea-
parameter which has the highest influence on Determination of total Polyphenols in tea-
the quality of instant tea. Part 1: Method using Folin – Ciocalteu
colorimetric reagent.
40.00 Montgomery, D.C. (1976) Design and Analysis
35.00 of Experiments, John Wiley and Sons.
30.00 Roberts, E.A.H. and Smith, R.F. (2001) The
Thearubigin /%
25.00 Phenolic substances of the manufactured

20.00
tea, IX: The Spectrophotometric evaluation
15.00
of tea liquors, Journal of the Science of
10.00
Food and Agriculture.
5.00
0.00
-1.5 -1 -0.5 0 0.5 1 1.5
Extractor Tem perature
Evp temp Evp temt at 85C

at 85C Evp temt at 95C
Evp temp at 95C
Figure 2. Interaction plot for
Thearubigin at extraction
time 20 min
204
Use of Light Absorption in the Fabrication of a Device for Measuring

Ambient Black Carbon Concentration
N.M.N.V. Bandara, P.S. Palugaswawa and M.A. Elangasinghe*

Introduction nearly 15 minutes for the lamp to get stabilized

and the container to reach thermal equilibrium.
Soot particles that contain black carbon are The lamp is at the side of the filter where
generated in combustion processes. particles are collected and a light dependant
Combustion of fossil fuel in automobiles is the resistor is on the other side of the filter. A
major source of high levels of aerosol black convex lens is placed between the light source
carbon in urban areas (Ernesto et al., 2000). and the filter to concentrate the light path to a
Studies have revealed that airborne fine soot small area of the filter. The light that reaches
particles, that have high catalytic, optical and the filter passes through a layer of particles:
electrical properties, not only harm human part is absorbed by the particles, part is
health but also influence global climate change scattered and a part is passed through. The
(Gundel et al., 1984; Hansen et al., 1993). fraction that is passed through reaches the filter
and is scattered by its pores. The light path is
High cost of ambient air sampling devices has then again concentrated using a convex lens,
limited the span of ambient particulate matter and the amount of light that reaches the light
monitoring in Sri Lanka to a few cities only. dependant resistor is sensed, amplified and
Our main objective is to design and fabricate measured. At present, the out put signal from
an affordable device for measuring the the device is a resistance value that is
concentration of airborne soot particles. By proportional to the light absorption coefficient
doing so, our goal is to popularize air quality of the particle sample.
measuring exercises in the country with the
view of raising the awareness on ambient air Results and discussion
quality.
Table 1 gives the data collected during the
Studies have revealed that more than 90% of experiment. Column 3 of the table shows the
the absorption of solar light in the visible concentration of PM10 (Particulate matter less
region is by aerosol black carbon (Horvath, that 10 µm in size) obtained at several road
1993). Therefore, measurement of Light side locations (given in column 2) using a high
Absorption Coefficient of air is a direct way of volume air sampler (Envirotech APM 460).
determining the concentration of black carbon “US-EPA federal reference method” (US EPA,
present in the atmosphere (Hansen et al., 1999) was followed in sampling. Each filter
1993). In this research, a compact low cost paper is subjected to the light source through
device has been designed and fabricated to the device and the final out put resistance is
measure the optical absorption coefficient of recorded in ohms, which is shown in the last
ambient black carbon particles collected on a column of Table 1.
filter paper.
In Figure 2, the recorded value of the resistance
Materials and methods is plotted against the concentration of PM10.
These two variables correlate with each other
The experimental setup that is used for the with a correlation coefficient (R) of 0.8759,
measurements is shown in Figure 1. The lamp, which assures that the method tested in this
convex lens, filter holder, filter and the light study could lead to the successful development
dependant resistor are enclosed in a sealed box of the measuring device in its next stages. The
made out of chip boards. The inner-side of the results obtained using the above set up are
container is painted black so that light back subject to the assumption that all the filter
scattered from the filter does not reach the papers have unique and uniform characteristics,
monitor or by multiple reflections reaches the and that the amount of light absorbed by the
filter again. When measuring the light filter material is a constant.
absorption, the filter is placed in the filter
holder and the lamp is switched on. It takes
205
Table 1. Mass concentration of PM10 and resistance obtained from the experimental set up for
different filter samples
Resistance from the
Concentration of
experimental set up
No Air pollution measurement Site PM10 (μg/m3)
( Ω)
1 Blank Filter paper (Reference) 0 4.5
2 In front of Kandy Girl’s High School 171 52.5
3 In front of Art’s theater (Peradeniya) 28 9.6
4 Infront of Kandy Post Office 176 14.6
5 Good’s shed Bus Stand 167 21.9
6 Gannoruwa 13 5.6
7 Idamegama 17 5.4
8 Inside Peradeniya Botanical Gardens 4 5.9
9 In front of Peradeniya Botanical Gardens 113 12.4
10 Near Katugastota Bridge 346 64.0
Filter and
filter Convex Light
Convex Dependant
holder Lens Amplifier
Lamp Lens Resistor and multi
meter
Figure 1. Experimental setup
70
Resistance Measured (Ω)
60
50
40
30 R = 0.8759
20
10
0
0 100 200 300 400
3
PM10 concentration (in μg/m )
Figure 2. Resistance measured from the device plotted against the PM10 concentration
206
amount of light absorbed by the filter material References

is a constant.
Ernesto, G., Catalan, L., Ormeno, I. and Palma,
Conclusions G. (2000) Traffic and seasonal dependence
of the light absorption coefficient in
The results obtained so far using the lab scale Santiago de Chile, Applied Optics, 39(27),
device for measuring the light absorption 4895-4901.
coefficient of ambient particulate matter gives Gundel, L.A., Dod, R.L., Rosen, H. and
a high correlation coefficient (R) of 0.8759 Novakov, T. (1984) The relationship
between the mass concentration of PM10 and between optical attenuation and black
the resistance reading obtained using the carbon concentration for ambient and
device. Therefore modifications are adopted for source particles, The Science of the Total
further improvement of the device. Environment, 36, 197-202.
Hansen, A.D.A., Kapustin, V.N., Kopeikin,
At present the light absorption measurements V.M., Gilletee, D.A. and Budhaine, B.A.
are being repeated with a photo detector in (1993) Optical Absorption by aerosol black
place of the light dependant resistor, since the carbon and dust in a desert region of central
former has a wider sensitivity range and a asia Atmospheric Environment, 27A(16),
longer life than the latter. The sealed box used 2527-2531.
is also being modified to facilitate online Horvath, H. (1993) Atmospheric light
monitoring so that the particles are captured by absorption: A review, Atmos. Environ., 27,
the filter paper when a mass of air is drawn 293-317.
through the box. US EPA (1999) Compendium of Methods for
the Determination of Inorganic Compounds
Acknowledgements in Ambient Air- Continuous measurement
of PM10 suspended particulate matter
University Research Grant No RG/2006/27/E (SPM) in ambient air, Chapter 10-1.
is greatly acknowledged.
207
Application of Electro-Coagulation for the Treatment of Wastewater from

Vehicle Service Stations
I.R. Samarathunga* and D.G.G.P. Karunaratne

Introduction
Experimental method
Vehicle service stations generate considerable
amount of wastewater and existing treatment Wastewater for the study was obtained from a
methods in most of these facilities in Sri Lanka service station, which has a reasonably good
are not up to the required standards. Most of treatment facility, and the samples collected
the methods employed, such as the use of fat were effluents from the treatment plant. In
traps, sand filters and charcoal filters, are electro-coagulation, the treatment of
limited to the physical treatment of wastewater. wastewater was examined by varying the
By physical treatment only free oil and grease current and the reaction time for each type of
are removed but the dispersed oil, which has a anode plate; aluminium and mild steel.
smaller particle size than the free oil, is not Aluminium cathode was used in both cases. In
removed effectively. Therefore, a proper chemical coagulation, effect of alum dosage on
chemical treatment method should be removal was studied at different reaction times.
implemented to reduce the oil content in the
discharged wastewater from the vehicle service Measurements
stations.
After a given reaction time, the turbidity was
The intention of this study is to determine a measured in 10 minutes intervals up to a total
suitable chemical treatment method and to of 120 minutes of sedimentation time. The oil
optimise it to treat both free and dissolved oil and grease test was carried out for samples
and grease in the wastewater from vehicle which had been treated for a given reaction
service stations effectively. The chemical time and had been allowed to settle for a time
treatment methods tested in this study were period of 90 minutes.
electro-coagulation using aluminium and mild
steel electrodes and the use of alum as a The oil and the grease content of the
coagulant. wastewater sample were measured using the
standard gravimetric method (Eaton and
Materials and methods Awwa, 1995) and the Turbidity was measured
using the turbidity meter in NTU.
Experiment planning
Results and discussion
For electro-coagulation, the effect of reaction
time, current density and the sedimentation The turbidity and oil removal for different
time on oil removal was investigated. The other combinations of current density values and
factors such as pH, the distance between the reaction times were measured for the three
electrodes, and the conductivity of the mixture types of treatment methods tested. Figure 1
were kept constant at the optimum values indicates the variation of turbidity removal
reported in the literature. Accordingly, for with sediment time and reaction time when Al
every trial, the initial pH value was kept at 6, anode was used. Oil removal efficiency for
the conductivity of the wastewater sample was these conditions is shown in Figure 2.
adjusted using 0.6 g/l of NaCl, and the distance
between the plates was kept at 10 mm (Xu and From the results obtained, it is evident that an
Zhu, 2004). In addition, the contact area of the increase in reaction time and current density
electrode plates was also kept constant. will increase the removal of turbidity and oil
for both types of anodes. For the chemical
coagulation process, the removal of turbidity,
oil and grease increased with the alum dosage.
208
100
90
80
Turbidity removal /%
70
60
50
40
30
Reaction times
20
60min 50min 40min
10
30min 20min 10min
0
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100 110 120
Sedimentation time /min
Figure 1. Turbidity removal vs sedimentation time for Al anode at different reaction times
It should be noted that the wastewater used in maximum oil and grease removal was archived
this study had already gone through the with mild steel anode at a current supply of 4 A
physical treatment process and most of the oil and a reaction time of 40 minutes.
remaining is dispersed oil, which is difficult to
remove. This is the reason for low oil removal A comparison of the three treatment methods is
in this study. as shown below in Figures 3 and 4. Hence, is
not that suitable to use in daily applications.
Oil removal efficiency
40 Maximum Turbidity Removal

35
O il rem oval efficiency/%
100.00
30
90.00
25
80.00
20
Turbidity Removal /%
70.00
15
60.00
10
50.00
5
40.00
0
10 20 30 40 50 60 30.00
Reaction time /min 20.00

10.00
Figure 2. Oil and grease removal Vs 0.00

Turbidity Removal trials
Reaction time for Al anode
Al - Anode, 3A, 60min Fe - Anode, 4A, 40min
Alum Dosage - 8 g/l
In this study, the maximum turbidity removal
was archived with the use of aluminium anode
at the conditions of a current supply of 3 A and Figure 3. Maximum turbidity removal in
60 minutes of reaction time, while the three different treatment methods
209
Conclusions
Maximum Oil Removal
Considering both oil removal and turbidity
removal, it can be concluded that, for the range
35.00 of dosage used in the experiment, the Electro
30.00 coagulation process is more efficient than the
25.00 use of Alum for the treatment of wastewater
O il re m o v a l %
20.00 discharged from a vehicle service stations.

15.00
In electro-coagulation method the oil removal
10.00
efficiency was higher for mild steel anodes
5.00 compared to aluminium.
0.00
1 References
Al - Anode(4A ,40min) Fe - Anode (4A, 40min)
Eaton, A. D. and Awwa, (1995) Standard
methods for the examination of water and
Alum Dosage 8 g/l wastewater.
Xu, X. and Zhu, X. (2004) Treatment of
Figure 4. Maximum oil removal in three refectory oily wastewater, Electro-
different treatment methods at 90 coagulation process, Chemosphere 56.
min sedimentation time
210
Strength and Ductility Evaluation of Rigid-Frames Using Finite Element Analysis
K.A.S. Susantha1* and T. Aoki2

1
Department of Engineering Mathematics, Faculty of Engineering, University of Peradeniya
2
Department of Civil Engineering, Aichi Institute of Technology, Toyota, Japan
Introduction
There are eight diaphragm plates in one column
Improvement of highway network of Sri Lanka and six in the beam. Yield strength of steel was
includes construction of motorways, flyover 298 MPa. The finite element mesh of the model
crossings, various bridge structures, etc. These is shown in Figure 2. The model consists of
structures can have sub-structure components four-nodes doubly curved shell element (S4R)
such as cantilever type columns, inverted L- at column bases and adjacent panels of beam
shaped piers, and rigid-frames, which are column joints, four-node linear beam-column
primarily constructed using concrete. However, element (B31OSH) at mid segments of
steel is also a very useful construction material columns and the beam, and rigid beam
since it offers a great flexibility in space elements (R2D2) at the beam column joints and
utilization, has speedy construction time and the interface between shell and beam-column
high earthquake resisting characteristics. In elements. The load bearing capacity beyond the
particular, steel rigid-frames supporting peak load occurs mainly due to the local
highway bridge systems are popular in many buckling deformation at column bases and
countries due to their effectiveness in probably at beam-column joints. Thus it is
overcoming space restrictions. Introduction of essential to use shell element at those locations
rigid-frames in large-scale motorway in order to capture the effects of the local
improvement projects in Sri Lanka would be buckling deformations. The lengths of the
very helpful when densely constructed areas segments where the beam-column elements
are concerned. Meanwhile, there is a were assigned were decided so that the
considerable interest among professionals elements undergo elastic or very little inelastic
involving infrastructure projects to ensure deformation. Therefore the use of beam-
adequate earthquake resistance in view of column elements would not lessen the accuracy
many recent earthquake events reported in the but increases the computational efficiency. In
region. Therefore, an analytical investigation order to simulate the proper boundary
that involves a large displacement finite condition at the interface of beam-column and
element analysis procedure is carried out to shell elements and column and beam joints
examine the performance of rigid-frames rigid beam elements were used. Only a half of
subjected to earthquake-induced forces. the frame was modeled considering the
symmetry in loading and the geometry. Mesh
Analytical model size was decided based on a trial and error
Finite element analysis method (FEM) is method. The length between the base and the
known to be accurate in analyzing steel first diaphragm is divided into 18 segments
structures provided that realistic material model while subsequent lengths are divided into 6
and proper elements with optimum element segments. Each sub-panel between longitudinal
mesh are employed. In this study, numerical stiffeners consists of 4 columns of shell
model of a steel rigid-frame pier was made elements. Three columns of elements were
using general purpose finite element analysis assigned in longitudinal stiffeners. The material
program Abaqus (Abqus, 2003). The model behavior of shell elements was simulated using
consisted of a one-story, rigid-frame pier with a the modified two surface plasticity model
beam length of 5.0m, a column height of 5.8m, (2SM) (Shen et al., 1995) externally linked to
and a 600 × 600 × 6 mm rectangular cross the Abaqus program. The beam-column
section that has 12 longitudinal stiffeners elements were simulated using a bilinear
(sizes: 50 × 6 (column), 80 × 8 (beam flange), elasto-plastic material model available in the
60 × 8 (beam web)), as shown in Figure 1. program. The 2SM has been extensively
More details of the model can be found in checked and found to be very accurate in
Nishikawa et al., (1998). inelastic cyclic analysis of steel structures. A
subroutine has been developed for 2SM and is
connected to the ABAQUS through the user
defined material option. Since the beam-
211
column elements undergo elastic or very little load carrying capacity was observed. Normally,
inelastic deformations the use of bilinear model the strength is given in terms of the ratio of
would not affect the accuracy. When loading maximum lateral load Hmax to Hy (i.e.,
procedure is concerned, first the vertical load P Hmax/Hy). The ductility (μ) is given by either
given by 0.15 times the yield load of the the ratio of lateral displacements at Hmax to δy
column was applied at columns top and then (i.e., μm=δm/δy) or lateral displacement at
the incremental cyclic lateral loads were 0.95Hmax beyond the peak to δy (i.e.,
applied in terms of multiples of yield μ95= δ95/δy) (Aoki and Susantha 2005). Above
displacement δy (i.e., ± δy, ± 2δy, etc.) at the two definitions are graphically shown in Figure
top left corner, as indicated in Figure 2. The 4. The values of Hmax/Hy, δm/δy, and δ95/δy of
displacement corresponding to the yield load the frame are 1.30, 2.0, and 2.70, respectively.
was taken to be the yield displacement.
The failure modes such as local buckling at
Result and discussion column bases and in adjacent panes of beam-
column connections could be observed from
The strength and ductility of the frame can be this analysis as shown in Figure 5. The local
evaluated using the envelope curve of the buckling patterns at the column bases were
lateral load-lateral displacement hysteretic similar to those normally observed in cantilever
curve shown in Figure 3. It is seen here that the type steel columns subjected to cyclic lateral
maximum load occurred at displacement level loads.
of 2δy and beyond that a gradual decrease in
Figure 1. Rigid-frame model Figure 2. FEM model
1000
μm=δm/δy
Lat. Load (kN)
500 Hmax μ95=δ95/δy

0.95Hmax
Lateral Load, H
0 Hy
-500
-1000 δy δm δ95
-200 -100 0 100 200
Disp. (mm) Displacement, δ
Figure 3. Lateral load-lateral displacement curve Figure 4. Ductility indices μm and μ95
212
Conclusions Aoki, T. and Susantha, K.A.S. (2005) Seismic

performance of rectangular-shaped steel
Large displacement finite element analysis piers under cyclic loading, Journal of
procedure was used to evaluate seismic Structural Engineering, ASCE, 131(2), 240-
resisting characteristics of rigid-frame bridge 249.
piers. The maximum load was found to be 30 Nishikawa, K., Josen, Y., Takahashi, M., and
percent higher than the yield load of the frame. Takaku, T. (1998) Experimental study on
The ductility was around 2.7. The decrease in failure and collapse of rigid-frame piers of
load bearing capacity occurred as a result of highway bridges, Proceedings of the 14th
local buckling deformation at column bases US-Japan Bridge Engineering Workshop,
and beam column connections. PWRI, Pittsburgh.
Shen, C., Mamaghani, I.H.P., Mizuno, E. and
References Usami, T. (1995) Cyclic behavior of
ABAQUS User’s Manual-version 6.4 (2003) structural steels, Journal of Structural
ABAQUS, Inc., Pawtucket, R. I. Engineering, ASCE, 121(11), 1165-1172.
Figure 5. Deformed shapes at 7δy
213
Initiation of Thermal Cracks in a Weir
M.M.G.V. Shyamalee*, C.K. Pathirana, H. Abeyruwan and K.R.B. Herath

Introduction the locations of initiation of cracks due to

thermal effects.
The mass concrete weir considered in this
study is supported in a trench of solid rock at The finite element mesh used for the analysis is
the bed of a river. This study follows the shown in Figure 1. X and Y are horizontal and
observation of surface cracks at a few locations vertical axes, respectively. Bottom nodes along
in the weir after a few days of casting. Heat of the X-axis are fixed to prevent both horizontal
hydration developed in mass concrete is and vertical displacements. The Z direction is
considered to be the main cause for the cracks. horizontal and along the weir.
A finite element analysis was done on the weir
to understand the thermal stresses due to heat
of hydration. Based on the stresses obtained in Upstream
this study, an attempt is made to predict the
1
locations of initiation of cracks using the
principles of fracture mechanics. 1 Downstream
0.7 m
0.4 m
Two-dimensional plane-stress and plane-strain
analyses were carried-out on the weir using 6.1 m 1.0 m
SAP2000 (1998) finite element code for 2.0 m
3.4 m
thermal loads. A four-node quadrilateral Y
isoparametric element was used for the
analysis. These analyses would provide the X
general thermal stresses developed in the weir 8.1 m
due to temperature variation across the cross
section of the weir. Figure 1. Finite element mesh used in the
analysis
Methodology
A two-dimensional finite element model was
created according to the actual dimensions of a
weir, which is currently under construction.
The bottom of the weir is considered to be
connected to solid rock. Therefore, it was
considered as a rigid base and the bottom
boundary was fixed against both vertical and
horizontal displacements. The grout curtain
between the bottom foundation and the weir Y 77 0C
was assumed to be fully in place and hence
uplift thrust was not considered in the analysis
(Shyamalee et al., 2007a and 2007b). The weir 27 0C
is to be made from Grade 25 concrete and the X
Poisson’s ratio of the concrete was taken as Figure 2. Temperature contours due to heat of
0.2.
hydration
Locations of the largest values of major
principal stresses due to thermal loads during Concrete is placed at 20 0C and the maximum
the initial hydration of the fresh concrete and hydration temperature was measured to be
the major principal stress contours due to 77 0C at the core of the weir. It was also
thermal loads and self weight are obtained from observed that the hydration temperature at the
finite element analyses and are reported herein. outer surfaces of the weir was the ambient
These stresses values are then used to predict temperature. Therefore, the hydration
temperature was given as temperature contours
214
for the purpose of finite element analysis with a face, the highest value of major principal stress
maximum temperature of 77 0C at the core and was observed as 6.2 MPa at the location C in
the outer surfaces at the ambient temperature of the direction of 890 to X-axis.
27 0C as shown in Figure 2. Since the weir was
cast as a series of longitudinal segments, each For the plane strain analysis the highest major
nearly 5 m long, the stress analyses were done principal stress occurred at A', shown in Figure
for two extreme cases of plane stress and plane 4, and identical to A in the earlier figure. On
strain to understand the distribution of thermal the inclined surface of the upstream end of the
stresses in the weir. weir, the highest major principal stress was
observed at B' again identical to B in the earlier
Results figure. The principal stresses at locations o
A'
and B' were 8.6 MPa in the odirection -38 and
The contours of major principal stress for the 7.5 MPa in the direction -45 , respectively. On
case of plane stress analysis are shown in the upstream face, the highest value of major
Figure 3. principal stress was observed as 4.4 MPa at
Sign Convention:
location C', identical location
o
to C in the earlier
figure, in the direction of 89 to X-axis.
C Tensile stress - Positive
Compressive stress - Negative The major principal stress variations were also
studied at locations A, B and C for different
B core temperatures and are reported in Figures 5
A and 6, respectively, for plane stress and plane
strain conditions.
14
Location A
12
Major. Prin. Stress / MPa
Location B
10
Location C
8
6
Figure 3. Contours of major principal stresses
4
in MPa for plane stress analysis
2
C′ 0
27 37 47 57 67 77 87
0
Core Temperature / C
B′
A′ Figure 5. Maximum principal stress
variations (plane stress) at critical
locations
12
Location A
10 Location B
Major. Prin. Stress / MPa
8 Location C
Figure 4. Contours of major principal stresses 6
in MPa for plane strain analysis
4
It was observed that the largest value of major 2

principal stress occurred at location A on the
0
weir surface as shown in Figure 3. The value of
27 37 47 57 67 77 87
principal stress at location A was 10.1 MPa in -2
the direction of -380 at X-axis. At location B of 0
Core Temperature / C
the inclined surface of the weir, the major
principal stress was found to be 9.1 MPa at the Figure 6. Maximum principal stress
direction of -450 to X-axis. On the upstream
variations (plane strain) at critical
locations
215
Discussion of results and conclusions will get healed towards the end of the hydration
period and with the maturity of concrete.
From the results, the locations, where high
principal stresses occured were identified as A, The results obtained in this study mainly
B and C (also identified as A', B' and C’). Since depend on the mesh size used, aspect ratios of
the location A is an intersection point where elements and the boundary conditions. The
inclined and horizontal surfaces meet together, results would be slightly different slightly if a
a significant amount of reinforcements were finer mesh having better aspect ratios for
provided at this location even without having elements is used or different boundary
any knowledge about thermal effects and that conditions are used for the analysis.
might be enough to resist the tensile stresses
developed by the hydration heat. Therefore, no This analysis has provided a reasonable
cracks may appear near location A during the understanding of the process of initiation of
initial hydration period of the weir. surface cracks and their location in mass
concrete during the initial hydration period.
Locations B and C were also identified as
possible critical locations for initiation of References
cracks and actually there were two surface
cracks initiated from those locations and SAP2000 Non-linear, Version 10.0.1 (1998)
propagated in inward normal directions of the Analysis Reference User’s manuals,
surface during the initial hydration period of Computers and Structures Incorporation
the concrete. The values of principal stresses (CSI), Berkeley, California, USA.
and their directions were not significantly Shyamalee, M.M.G.V., Pathirana, C.K. and
different at locations B and C for both plane Herath, K.R.B.(2007a) Analysis of a weir
stress and strain analyses. for earthquake loading, Proceedings of the
International Conference on Mitigation of
For plane strain condition, the stress intensity the Risk of Natural Hazards, March 27-28,
factors calculated for 1 mm surface flaws of the University of Peradeniya, Sri Lanka, ISBN
concrete at locations B and C are 0.5 MPa m1/2 955-589-099-1, 50.
and 0.3 MPa m1/2 respectively. These values Shyamalee, M.M.G.V., Pathirana, C.K. and
exceed the fracture toughness of concrete Herath, K.R.B. (2007b) Earthquake effect
(0.2 MPa m1/2) and initiations of cracks due to on a weir, A paper submitted to the annual
small surface flaws at these locations are hence congress of the Sri Lanka Association for
justified. Advancement of Science (SLAAS) to be held
in December 2007.
Even though the visible cracks appeared in the
concrete surfaces during initial hydration they
216
Application of Multiaxial Sequential Law to Estimate

Secondary Stress Based-Fatigue Life of Riveted Connections
P.B.R. Dissanayake1* and S.A.S.C. Siriwardane2

1
2
Department of Civil & Environmental Engineering, Ehime University, Japan
Introduction corresponding residual life at load level i+1 is

N (i +1) R = N (′i +1) R − n(i +1) . The cumulative
The secondary stress effect in riveted damage at load level i+1 is defined as,
connections between the primary members of
bridges was found to be one of the main σ (i +1) eq − σ i +1
reasons for fatigue damage. Present D( i +1) = (3)
approaches, which are generally used to predict σ u − σ i +1
such fatigue damage, are based on a
combination of secondary stress histories,
effective stress with Miner’s rule and code The damage indicator is normalized to one
provided fatigue curve. But under many (Di=1) at fatigue failure. The effective stress,
variable amplitude loading conditions, Miner’s which characterizes the deformation of the
predictions have been found to be unreliable material, is then used to enter a uni-axial S-N
since it does not properly take the loading curve to determine the damage indicator Di of
sequence effect into account. Therefore, a new the sequential law for multiaxial stress state.
damage indicator-based sequential law was
recently developed to capture the loading log(σ )
sequence effect of variable amplitude loads
(Mesmaque et al., 2005). The main objective of σu
this study is to estimate the fatigue life of a σ (i +1)eq
riveted connection using this multi-axial
sequential law. σ (i′ +1)eq
A new damage indicator based-sequential σ ( i ) eq

law
Suppose a structural component is subjected to σi
a stress σi for ni number of cycles at load level i N ( i +1) R N ′( i +1) R ( N i − ni ) N i log( N )
and Ni is the corresponding fatigue life (see
Figure 1). The residual life at load level i can Figure 1. Schematic representation of
be obtained as (Ni−ni). The stress σ(i)eq is the ith parameters in Wöhler curve
level damage stress. Hence, the new damage
indicator is given by;
σ ( i ) eq − σ i
Di = (1)
σu −σi Secondary (local) stressed area
Where, σu is the intercept of the Wöhler curve
with the ordinate at one-quarter of first fatigue
cycle. The same damage is then
transformed to load level i+1.
σ ( i ) eq − σ i σ (′i +1) eq − σ i +1
Di = = (2)
σu −σi σ u − σ i +1
Where, σ (′i +1) eq is the damage equivalent stress

at the level i+1. Thus, N (′i +1) R can be obtained
from Figure 1. σ i +1 is the applied stress at the Primary stressed member
level i+1 and suppose that it is subjected to
n(i +1) number of cycles. Then the Figure 2. Critical riveted connection
217
Considered connection 600
A riveted connection was selected in a highly 500 −0.1674

stressed member, which was found from the ⎡ N + 300 ⎤
σ = 60
detailed investigation of one of the longest
400
⎢⎣ N + 120000000 ⎥⎦
Stress range (MPa)

railway bridges in Sri Lanka. The selected 300
connection is shown in Figure 2. 200
100
Secondary stress evaluation
0
The critical member without 1.E+00 1.E+01 1.E+02 1.E+03 1.E+04 1.E+05 1.E+06 1.E+07 1.E+08 1.E+09 1.E+10
rivets was considered for Number of cycles N
analysis (Figure 3). The

actual air gap restraint Figure 5. The Wöhler curve for wrought iron
conditions were applied to
represent the unilateral Comparisons and discussions
contact between rivet and
plate. The measured The proposed method-based estimated fatigue
uniform tensile stress lives were compared with two other previous
history of the member was approaches. Previous approach 1 (Imam et al.,
used as the external load. 2007) is based on combination of secondary
The obtained von Mises stress histories, effective stress with Miner’s
stress histories (Figure 4) rule and railway code provided mean fatigue
obtained are converted to curve. Previous approach 2 (Alampalli and
stress ranges using the Figure 3. FE mesh Lund, 2006) is based on combination of
reservoir counting method primary stress histories, Miner’s rule and code
(Network Rail, 2001). given modified fatigue curve (using the stress
concentration factors). The comparisons reveal
that results based on the proposed method
250 deviate from previous approaches and it show
P rima ryste sh isto yr less residual fatigue lives than other
predictions. Finally, the study indicates that the
200 S tre sh isto ryw h e n a l6 ivr e tsa er a c tiv e
S tre sh isto ryw h e n 5 ivr e sat re a c ivt e
sequential law-based proposed approach gives

150
100
more realistic residual fatigue life of riveted
bridge connections where the detailed stress
50
histories are known.
0
-50
0 1 2 3 4 5 6
References
T i me (s e c ) Alampalli, S. and Lund, R. (2006) Estimating
fatigue life of bridge components using
Figure 4. The von Mises stress histories at measured strains, Journal of Bridge
critical locations due to heaviest rail Engineering, 11(06), 725-736.
traffic Imam, B.M., Righiniotis, T.D. and
Chryssanthopoulos, M.K. (2007) Numerical
Determination of fatigue curve modeling of riveted railway bridge
connections for fatigue evaluation,
The obtained mean S-N curve obtained from Engineering Structure, Article in press, doi:
the assessment code (Network Rail, 2001) was 10.1016/j.engstruct.2007.02.011.
transformed into a fully known Wöhler curve Mesmaque, G., Garcia, S., Amrouche, A. and
by using Kohout and Vechet Wöhler curve Rubio, G.C. (2005) Sequential law in
modeling technique as in Figure 5. multiaxial fatigue, a new damage indicator,
International Journal of Fatigue, 27(4),
Fatigue life estimation 461-467.
Network Rail (2001) RT/CE/C/025, Rail track
The new damage indicator based sequential line code of practice: The structural
law in multiaxial fatigue was utilized to obtain assessment of under-bridges, Rail track.
a more realistic service life for the riveted
connection..
218
Reliability Based Resource Allocation in Bridge Maintenance
P.B.R. Dissanayake1* and P.A.K. Karunananda2

1
2
Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering, Ehime University, Japan
Introduction Where, PF is the system reliability index of the

bridge.
There is a need for significant investment to
repair civil infrastructures worldwide, which In one route or path, there exist more than one
are deteriorating under heavy use, severe bridge and failure of one bridge makes the road
exposure conditions, and age. Among these, to be ineffective. As this happens, the bridge
road and railway transportation associated system located in a route can be considered as a
structures play an important role in ground series system. Supposing, there are l number of
transportation systems and constitute a bridges situated in one path, the path failure
considerable investment in infrastructure and probability can be found as below.
directly affect the productive capacity of a
country (Kong and Frangopol, 2004; Atashi et l l
Max PF i ≤ PFl ≤ 1 − ∏ (1 − PFi ) (3)
al., 2007). i =1, 2 i
Where, PFl is the path failure probability.

In addition to condition evaluation of bridges
individually, there is a need to evaluate the For the paths having higher failure
condition of bridge paths to guarantee the probabilities, more resources can be allocated.
safety of the total system. This arises from the If path reliability is calculated at different time
fact that failure of one bridge in a bridge path intervals, preparations can be made on future
affects the total system, especially in case of resource planning.
disasters. Consequently, it is essential to
optimise resources expenditure in bridge paths. Numerical example
Methodology Assume there are three different routes
connecting two cities A and B as shown in
Bridges can fail under different types of failure Figure 1 and bridges are located as shown in
mode. The critical types of failure mode for a the figure.
selected bridge can be different from one type
of bridge to another. Depending on the type of
bridge, failure modes are proposed considering B5 B6 B7
A
critical failure modes of the bridge concerned
as shown in Eq. (1).
M i = Z Ri − Z Si i = 1, 2…, n (1) B2 B8
B1
th
Where, M i is the safety margin for i mode of
failure of the bridge concerned, Z Ri is the
B3
strength variable and Z Si is the load variable.
The reliability index (β i ) and failure B
probability (Pf i ) for ith failure mode can be C D B4
calculated as the first step. Assuming that all
failure modes can be combined into a series Figure 1. Bridge network between two cities
system for the bridge concerned, it is possible
to calculate the system failure probability (PF ) In general, when a bridge is constructed
from simple bounds as shown in equation (2) initially, its reliability index is a high and it
(Christensen and Baker, 1982; Christensen and reduces with time. Allowable reliability indices
Murotsu, 1986). are around 2 to 3. Considering these, the
n n
reliability indices of different bridges given in
Max Pf i ≤ PF ≤ 1 − ∏ (1 − Pf i )
i =1, 2 i
(2) Table 1 were assumed.
219
Table 1. Assumed failure probabilities of shown in the numerical example, different path
bridges failure probabilities can be found and using this
process, path performance can be evaluated.
Bridge System System failure Depending on the path failure probabilities,
reliability probability resources can be allocated in a comprehensive
index way.
B1 4.94 3.5×10-5 This is the first publication of the authors
B2 5.35 4.5×10-6 regarding the concept of resources expenditure
B3 4.87 5.5×10-5 using reliability index. They expect to do more
B4 4.81 7.5×10-5 research in this area for greater understanding.
B5 4.81 7.5×10-5
B6 4.80 8.0×10-5 Acknowledgements
B7 5.03 2.5×10-5 National Science Foundation of Sri Lanka
B8 5.25 1.0×10-5 (NSF/SCH/2005/02 and RG/2002/E/01).
Initially, from the values of system reliability References
indices of bridges, system failure probabilities
can be found as shown in the third column of Atashi, M., Lachemi M. and Kianoush (2007)
Table 1 and using those, path failure Numerical modeling of the behavior of
probabilities can be found as outlined in overlaid slab panels for reinforced concrete
Table 2. bridge decks, Journal of Engineering
Structures, 29(2), 271-281.
Table 2. Path failure probabilities Christensen, P.T. and Baker, J. (1982)
Structural reliability theory and its
Path Lower bound Upper bound applications, Springer-Verlag, Berlin,
path path Germany.
Failure Failure Christensen, P.T. and Murotsu, J. (1986)
Application of structural systems reliability
probability probability theory, Springer-Verlag, Berlin, Germany.
AEB 8×10-5 19×10-5 Kong, J.S. and Frangopol, D.M. (2004) Cost–
ACDB 7.5×10-5 11×10-5 Reliability interaction in life–cycle cost
ADB 7.5×10-5 13.5×10-5 optimization of deteriorating structures,
Journal of. Structural Engineering,
Discussion 130(11), 1704-1712.
This paper proposes a way to evaluate bridge
paths performances using reliability theory. As
220
Seismic Review Sheet for Evaluation of Earthquake Risk of Bridges
H.M.K.G.G.H.B. Herath, L.G.A. Liyanage, M.G.B.S. Manangoda and

P.B.R. Dissanayake*
Department of Civil Engineering, University of Peradeniya, Peradeniya
Introduction Effects of parameters were adjusted

considering their relative importance. In order
Sri Lanka, which is situated away from major to improve the weight of the SRS, a simple
plate boundaries, is considered to be in a non- bridge model was designed. Then the bridge
seismic zone. However, there have been many model was redesigned changing some items of
seismic events within Sri Lanka in the recent SRS such as piers (single pier, or multiple
past, which were small in magnitude and with piers) in order to improve the weight and the
epicenters far from Sri Lanka. Scientists and factor while keeping others as constant in that
geologists believe that formation of a new plate model bridge. Finally, the weight and the factor
boundary, which divides Indo-Australian plate, were improved by considering the
is about 400 km away from Sri Lanka and displacement of the bridge model.
could pose a possible risk of future earthquakes
in Sri Lanka. Total weight in the SRS is 100 and it was
distributed among items depending on their
If an earthquake occurs, the whole importance when considering seismic force
transportation system could become crippled resistance.
when the road network is damaged. It is
undisputed that key elements of any road The visual screening was done using the SRS
network are bridges. This happened in the for the following six bridges.
earthquake trigged tsunami disaster of 26
December 2004 in Sri Lanka. Considering the 1. Gannoruwa bridge
above, it is very important to evaluate the 2. Highway bridge at Peradeniya
potential earthquake risk of existing bridges to 3. Kuruduwaththa bridge
withstand potential earthquakes. 4. Steel railway bridge at Paradeniya
5. Gampola bridge
It is indispensable to perform condition 6. Akbar bridge
evaluations of all existing bridges for potential
earthquake risk on bridges of any road Table 1. Results obtained with SRS for six
network. However, it is a time-consuming and
costly work to evaluate the condition of each bridges
and every bridge in Sri Lankan road network. Bridge Score out of 100
To overcome this difficulty, vulnerable bridges Gannoruwa bridge 87.3
can be identified easily by visual inspection Highway bridge at 34.7
and then a detailed inspection can be performed Peradeniya
based on scoring of visual screening of the Kuruduwaththa bridge 54.9
bridges of a network. Steel railway bridge at 44.3
Panideniya
The objective of this research is to upgrade a Gampola bridge 62.3
Seismic Review Sheet by modifying the Akbar bridge 46.5
Seismic Review Sheet (SRS), prepared by
Bandara et al., (2006) and then apply the sheet As shown, in Table 1, lower scores represent a
to existing bridges. higher risk against possible earthquakes.
Methodology In such a case, it is better to analyse such
The improving of the Seismic Review Sheet bridges in detail as the displacement criterion
(SRS) shown in Table 2 was done by becomes important in earthquakes. In this
modifying SRS prepared by Bandara et al., context, the highway bridge at Peradeniya and
(2006). It converts the building seismic review Akbar bridge in Table 1 were analyzed in detail
sheet by Federal Emergency Management to find maximum possible displacement.
Authority (FEMA, USA) to cater for bridges.
221
Table 2. Seismic Review Sheet

SEISMIC REVIEW SHEET
Bridge Name Bridge No.
Evaluator Date
Bridge Type : □ Arc □ Beam □ Cantilever □ Truss □ Suspension
SPAN : SLAB DEPTH :
PIER HEIGHT : PIER THICKNESS :
SEAT LENGTH : SKEW ANGLE :
No Item Weight Evaluation Content (Factor) Gr. Point
Historical □ Yes (0) □ Yes (0 )
1 11
Events □ Grade I (1.0) □ Grade I (1.0 )
□ Grade III (0.6) □ Grade IV (0.4 )
2 Damage 9
□ Grade V (0)
□ High (0) □ Medium (0.5 )
3 Importance 9
□ Low (1.0)
□ Before 1960 (0.1) □ 1960 - 2980 (0.1 )
4 Age 7
□ 1980 - 2000 (0.6) □ After 2000 (1.0 )
□ RC Bridge (0.6) □ Steel (1.0 )
5 Material 7 □ Wood (0.4) □ Composite (0.8 )
□ Pre-Stressed (0.8)
□ Beam & Slab (0.8) □ Void Slab (0.3 )
6 Deck 3
□ Solid Slab(0.5)
7 Pier 5 □ Single Pier (0.5) □ Multiple Pier (1.0)

□ Open (0.3) □ Open (0.5 )
8 Abutment 3
□ Special (1.0)
9 Foundation 6 □ Shallow (0) □ Deep (1.0)
□ Rubber (1.0) □ Fixed (1.0)
10 Bearing 3
□ Expansion (0.7)
Soil □ Hard l (1.0) □ Medium (0.5 )
11 6
Condition □ Soft (0)
Span Depth
12 Ratio 3 □ s/d >0.5 (0.3) □ s/d < 0.5 (0.7)
13 Seat Length 7 □ N>minimum (1.0) □ N<minimum (0.0 )
14 Skew Angle 5 □ α <250 (1.0) □ α >250 (0.0 )
15 Pier Ratio, r 3 □ r > 1.5 (1.0) □ 1.0< r > 1.5 (0.5 )
□ None (1.0) □One Direction (0.5)
16 Redundancy 2
□ Both Direction (0)
Expansion □ 30 mm (0) □ Required (1.0)
17 3
Joint □30mm<Required (0.5)
□ Rectangular (0.4) □ Circular (0.6)
18 R/f 4
□ Hollow (1.0) □ No r/f (0)
Stirrup and □ Having 1350 (1.0) □ Less than 1350 (0.0)
19 Crosstie 4
Total Points 100
222
Maximum displacement of the highway bridge The total weight indicates vulnerability. If the
at Peradeniya (middle of span) is 465 mm. total score is low, the vulnerability is high and
if total score is high the vulnerability is low. To
Maximum displacement of the Akbar bridge get a marginal score a survey has to be carried
(middle of span) is 360 mm. out and then detailed analysis should be done
for bridges in a particular network.
Visual Screening by SRS (Weight)
According to the method used in this research,
the most seismic vulnerable bridge is the
highway bridge at Peradeniya and it has a score
Evaluation Priority of 34.7 and the Akbar bridge has a score of
W>50 Low 46.5. Considering their displacement, it can be
50<W<70 Medium said that the Peradeniya bridge has higher
70<W<100 High vulnerability than the Akbar bridge. The result
obtained from the SRS also indicated similar
results. Therefore, it can be said that the SRS
Low has enough accuracy. Using this SRS, one can
evaluate the condition of potential earthquake
Detailed Analysis risk on existing bridges.
References
Bandara A.C.R., Priyadarshana G.S. and
Tennakoon N.C. (2006) Condition
Upgrading Upgrade evaluation of bridges for potential
needed? earthquake risk, Undergraduate Research
Yes No Report, Department of Civil Engineering,
University of Peradeniya, Sri Lanka.
Figure 1. Procedure for seismic risk reduction
Discussion
By applying the aforementioned procedure to a
seismically less resistant bridge, this can be
validated to have a reasonable accuracy.
223
Equivalent Electric Network Model for Ionic Polymer Metal Composite Dynamics
B.G.L.T. Samaranayake* and A.M.U.S.K. Alahakoon

Department of Electrical and Electronic Engineering, Faculty of Engineering,
Introduction This leads to the conclusion that the voltage

across an IPMC can not be changed
Ionic Polymer Metal Composites have been the instantaneously. Further, if the voltage source
focus of many researchers around the world for is disconnected, after being connected for some
the past few years. Their inherent light weight, time, a potential difference retains across the
flexibility, repeatability and the tip force have top and bottom surface metallic electrodes of
been the major concerns to replace the electro- the IPMC. These two properties exactly match
mechanical actuators in a vast variety of with the typical characteristics of a capacitor.
application areas ranging from bio medical
engineering to unmanned flying devices. Many When the current through the IPMC
studies such as Colozza et al., (2007) have corresponding to the above voltage step is
been carried out to develop cost effective observed, there is a spike caused by the voltage
fabrication techniques, improve electro-chemo- step change and it dies out over time. However,
mechanical characteristics, derive finite it does not decay to zero as in the case of a pure
element and other modeling techniques, etc. capacitor. Instead a non-zero current flows as
However, very little attentions have been paid long as the voltage is applied. This observation
on the control of IPMCs. One of the main suggests that there should be a resistor parallel
reasons for this is the absence of a globally to the capacitor. The suggested model is shown
acceptable model, whose parameters can in Figure 2(a). Since an uncharged capacitor
directly be calculated from the dimensions and behaves as short circuited at the instant of
the physical properties of the IPMC. applying the input voltage, the initial current
should rise to infinity. However, the current
This paper presents an unprecedented approach through the IPMC as shown in Figure 1 (lower)
to dynamic modeling of IPMCs using standard is finite at the instant of applying the voltage.
electric network components to model the Therefore there should be a resistor in series to
transient and steady state voltage and current the circuit suggested in Figure 2(a), through
characteristics. This leads to a global model for which the capacitor can be charged. Assuming
IPMCs with fine tunable parameters, which the output resistance of the voltage source is
depend on the material properties, the Rout, the suggested passive electric network
manufacturing process and the physical model consisting of a series resistor R1, parallel
dimensions of the actuator. resistor R2 and a capacitor C, is shown in
Figure 2(b).
Equivalent electric network model
To apply precise control techniques for better
performance, it is vital to obtain a dynamic
model of the system. By observing the current
waveform for an applied voltage on the IPMC,
this section proposes a capacitor resistor based
passive electric linear network to model the
dynamics of IPMCs with no external load
torque applied. Further, it is derived in the
continuous time domain and a methodology is Table 1. Table title
presented to evaluate the parameters using
current and voltage measurements.
Figure 1. The voltage applied on the IPMC
Background of the proposed model
(upper) and the corresponding
When a square wave step voltage signal is current (lower)
applied on an IPMC, from a voltage source of
finite output impedance, a voltage variation as
shown in Figure. 1 (upper) can be observed.
224
Rout
I(t)
I (k ) = dI (k − 1) + KV (k ) − cKV (k − 1) (6)
C
R1
This parametric estimation method works well
R
Vs V(t)
for noise free measurements, which is hard to
R2
C achieve in practice. Therefore the measurement
noise component has to be incorporated in the
model. Different parametric system
(a) (b) identification models such as Auto Regressive
with Extra Input (ARX), Auto Regressive
Figure 2. Initially suggested passive electric Moving Average with Extra Input (ARMAX)
network model for the IPMC and Box and Jenkin (BJ), which can handle
actuator. (b) Since the initial current measurement noise are available as derived in
Ljung et al., (1999) With the results of the
is finite, a series resistor R1 is preliminary identification experiments, the BJ
introduced. The output resistance model structure, whose block diagram is shown
Rout of the voltage source Vs is in Figure 3, is used here for the model
also included. The voltage measured verification as that has the capability of
across the IPMC is V(t) estimating independent dynamical models
between input-output and noise-output.
Passive electric network model derivation
The strategy used in this paper is to obtain a
Referring to Figure 2(b), the transfer function basic input output model for voltage vs. current
from the input voltage V to the total network dynamics using non-parametric identification
current I is: methods and verify its validity using
⎛s + 1
⎜
⎞
⎟
(1) parametric identification experiments.
I ( s) ⎝ R2 C ⎠
=
V (s) ⎛ + ⎞⎞
R1 ⎜ s + ⎛⎜ R1 R2 e(s)
⎝ ⎝ R1 R2 C ⎟⎠ ⎟⎠
C (s )
D (s )
where ‘s’ is the Laplace operator. This can
also be presented as V(s) B (s ) I(s)
I ( s ) K (s + b ) B(s ) (2) A(s )
Σ
= =
V (s) (s + a ) A(s )
where K = 1 , 1 R1 + R2 Figure 3. BJ model structure to incorporate
b= , a=
R1 R2C R1 R2C measurement noise in the parameter
estimation. More accurate noise
For a step voltage input, it becomes (3) models may be obtained by suitably
I( s ) K Kb selecting the orders of C(s) and
= +
V ( s ) (s + a ) s (s + a ) D(s). A(s) and B(s) are same as in
equation (2)
In the discrete time domain, with the z-
transform operator and h being the sampling Results and discussion
period, it becomes
The model verification is done using both
I ( z) K (z − 1) (1 − e − ah )Kb (4) parametric and non-parametric approaches.
= +
V ( z) (z − e ) (z − e )
− ah − ah
Non-parametric identification
which can be simplified as
(5) Referring to step response of IPMC shown in
I ( z ) K (z − c ) Figure 1, K, b and a of the transfer function
=
V ( z ) (z − d ) model described in equation (2) were estimated
using initial value, final value and the time
where c = a(1 − e − ah ) − 1, d = e − ah . constant of the step response of current. The
values are given in Table 1. Figure 4 shows the
applied step, measured current and simulated
Introducing the pulse transfer operator q, it current using the above model.
becomes
225
Parametric identification
A BJ model was fitted to a recorded voltage
and current data set. The input voltage was
varied as a pulse sequence of random
amplitude and duration. The strategy used in
trying to fit the BJ model was to keep the
voltage vs. current dynamics fixed according to
equation (6) and fine tune noise model to
achieve the best fit. The Figure 5 shows the
step sequence applied and the corresponding Figure 5. Comparison (lower) of BJ model
current variation and simulated BJ model and and Non-Parametric model with the
non parametric model outputs for comparison. experimentally obtained output data
corresponding to the input voltage
As can be seen in Figure 4, most of the time,
the non-parametric model output closely pulse sequence (upper)
follows the basic shape of the experimental
output. But the model does not take into However, especially from D to E and some
account the measurement noise, which is why other places in the figure, none of the models
matching in Figure 4 (d) is poor. can match the actual output. This is believed to
be due to un-modeled non-linearities.
The Figure 5 compares the models obtained by
BJ method and non-parametric method with the Table 1. Model parameters of the non-
experimental data, for the series of pulse input parametric identification
voltages. At A, C, and F, where the current rise
is shape corresponding to high frequency Estimated Value
excitations in the frequency domain, the non- Parameter
parametric model output is more closer to the K 0.01168
actual output. But when the changes are slower b 0.0915
in a place like B, the BJ model is better as it a 5.0813
incorporates a high order noise model.
Conclusions and future work
An equivalent electric network based dynamic
model for IPMCs has been introduced derived
and verified experimentally. It will be
improved in the future to incorporate the un-
modeled non-linearities.
References
Colozza, A. (2007) Fly like a bird – Flapping
wings could revolutionize aircraft design
Figure 4. Verification of the identified non- IEEE Spectrum, 32–37.
parametric model Ljung, L. (1999) System Identification: Theory
for User. 2nd Ed., Prentice Hall.
226
Implementation of an Electronic Tuner in J2ME using Fast Fourier Transform
I. Herath and R.G. Ragel*

Department of Computer Engineering, Faculty of Engineering, University of Peradeniya
Introduction
There are quite a number of mobile
applications such as, Guitar Tuner (Kohn,
An electronic tuner is a device used by 1997-2007), Tiny Tuner (GetJar.com, 2004-
musicians to tune instruments. There, a 2007), and Chromatic Guitar Tuner
musician plays a note and the display of the (4pockets.com) are available. The Guitar Tuner
tuner tells the musician how much the played and Tiny Tuner are simple applications which
note has deviated from the desired note in are only capable of playing a note so that
terms of frequency. Most of these devices, such musicians can hear the note and adjust their
as KORG Chromatic Tuner CA-30, are instruments. However Chromatic Guitar Tuner
standalone equipments which are solely used to is a sophisticated application which is capable
tune musical instruments. It would be of analyzing the frequencies and estimating the
advantageous if this functionality could be closest notes. The limitation of this application
integrated into existing electronic appliances is that it can only be deployed on high end
like mobile phones as these devices are mobile devices such as Pocket PCs.
equipped with all the necessary hardware
components to be used as an electronic tuner. Therefore the aim of this project is to develop a
In addition, mobile software applications are mobile application which could be deployed in
becoming increasingly popular and authors of most of mobile phones. It was a challenging
this paper uses this opportunity to develop a task to implement frequency analysis in low
tuner application to be deployed in mobile end mobile devices such as Java enabled
phones. mobile phones due to their limited
functionality. The authors of this paper have
Section two of this paper focuses on related succeeded in this by finding a mechanism to
researches on this area and section three implement Fast Fourier Transform (FFT) in
describes the methodology used during the Java 2 Micro Edition (J2ME).
development process. Section four shows the
results obtained and section five discusses the Development and implementation
issues related to development. Finally, section
six concludes the paper. The major part of the product is the frequency
calculation. The FFT has to be applied to
Related work obtain the frequency of the sound wave from
which the notes are identified. In order to
In the first part of this section we will brief two perform FFT the sound wave needed to be
academic researches and in the latter part we sampled. But the chosen platform, J2ME, does
will focus on few similar industrial not accompany an Application Programming
applications. Zaykovskiy and Schmitt (2007) Interface (API) to deal with sampling the
presented front end implementation of speech sound. Even though this limitation exists,
recognition systems for mobile devices. The J2ME was chosen as the development platform
signal analysis of these systems is being carried due to the higher number of mobile phone
out at the server side where the mobile client models supported by this platform. Then the
does not interfere with signal processing. The authors used the only available option, which is
shortcoming of this sort of application is the to sample the sound wave within the
communication overhead between the client application. The sound wave is sampled and
and the server. The Java signal analysis stored as a wave file, which comprises of
application by Clausen et al. (1998) can only header (chunk descriptor), “fmt” sub chunk and
be deployed on desktop computers and any “data” sub chunk as shown in Figure 1. As
other similar or advanced electronic appliances depicted in Figure 1, the “fmt” chunk has eight
due to the functions used in this particular fields which are represented in little endian
program. format except the field chunk ID. The fields
which are important from this chunk for the
227
FFT are SampleRate and BitsPerSample. The frequencies are known, it is mapped into the
value represented in BitsPerSample field is closest notes and displayed to the user. The
being used in deciding the number of bytes to first phase of our application samples the sound
read from data chunk per reading. The value in wave by recoding it as an audio clip in wave
the sample rate field is being used in file format as shown in Figure 1.
calculating the frequency. When the
Figure 1. The WAVE File Format (taken from (Wilson, 2003))
Main:
While there is data in data chunk
Call Subroutine1 with 256 samples
End while
For (i = 0 to 256)
FindMax (|totalCos[i] + totalCos[i]|)
location = i
End
Frequency = SampleRate * location / (2*255)
End Main
Subroutine1: Input data[]

For (i=0 to 256)
For (j=0 to 256)
X = (-2 * π * i * j ) / 256
cosPart [i] = cosPart [i] + data [j] * Cos (X)
sinPart [i] = sinPart [i] + data [j] * Sin (X)
End For
totalCos [i] = totalCos [i] + cosPart [i]
totalSin [i] = totalSin [i] + sinPart [i]
End For
End Subroutine1
Figure 2. Algorithm for Obtaining the Frequency
228
The second phase of our application analyses Conclusions

the audio clip in wave file format from where
the information is extracted. The values This paper presents the mechanism behind the
SampleRate and BitsPerSample are read from implementation of FFT in J2ME for an
“fmt” chunk and are stored as application electronic tuner application and to the best of
variables. As in Figure 1, the data chunk our knowledge this is the first time such an
comprises of a chunk ID (Subchunk2ID), chunk effort has succeeded (SunMicrosystems,
size (Subchunk2Size) and data. The value develop a Musical Tuner, 1994 - 2006).
chunk size is being used to determine the size
of the data to be read. Then 256 samples are References
being read to an array called data which is then 4pockets.com. (n.d.). 4pockets.com. Retrieved
being processed by Subroutine1 in the 07 30, 2007, from PocketPC Applications:
algorithm shown in Figure 2. This process is Chromatic Guitar Tuner:
being carried out until there are no samples to http://www.4pockets.com/product_info.php
be read. Then as shown in Figure 2, amplitude ?p=39
of the total cos and sin values are being Clausen, A., Spanias, A., Xavier, A. and
calculated by the FindMax method and the Tampi, M. (1998) A Java signal analysis
location of the highest amplitude, i.e. between tool for signal processing experiments,
1 and 255, is determined. Then the frequency is Proceedings of the 1998 IEEE
being calculated as shown in the algorithm. International Conference on Acoustics,
Speech and Signal Processing. Seattle,
Results 1998. 1849-1852.
The playTone()function (an inbuilt function of GetJar.com. (2004-2007) Tiny Tuner / free
the API) in the Manager class is being used to download. Retrieved 07 30, 2007, from
play the notes A, B, C, D, E, F, G and sound is Free Java, Symbian, Palm and Pocket PC
captured via the microphone. The captured data Software:
are then being sent to our application to get the http://www.getjar.com/products/5314/Tiny
frequency of the played notes. Following Tuner
results were obtained. Kohn, M. (1997-2007) Guitar Tuner. Retrieved
07 30, 2007, from Michael Kohn:
Table 1. Frequencies obtained for notes played http://www.mikekohn.net/j2me/guitartuner.
with Mobile Media API php
SunMicrosystems (2006) CLDC Library API
Note A B C D E F G Specification 1.0. Retrieved 07 30, 2007,
Frequency 2 2 2 2 3 3 3 from Java Technology:
(Hz) 2 3 6 9 2 6 9 http://java.sun.com/javame/reference/apis/js
0 5 6 8 9 0 2 r030/
SunMicrosystems (1994 - 2006) Develop a
Discussion Musical Tuner. Retrieved 07 30, 2007,
Our application uses cos and sin functions from from Developer Forums Java Technology
the Math library. Therefore this application can Forums:http://forum.java.sun.com/thread.js
only be deployed on mobile phones with pa?forumID=76&threadID=613127
Connected Limited Device Configuration SunMicrosystems. (2006) Overview (CLDC
(CLDC) 1.1 (SunMicrosystems, 2006), where 1.1). Retrieved 07 30, 2007, from Java
the cos and sin functions are implemented in Technology:
the Math library. This limits the usability of http://java.sun.com/javame/reference/apis/js
our application as these functions are not r139/
implemented in the Math library of CLDC 1.0 Wilson, S. (2003, 01 20) WAVE PCM soundfile
(SunMicrosystems, CLDC Library API format. Retrieved 07 30, 2007, from Center
Specification 1.0, 2006). Therefore it is for Computer Research in Music and
necessary to take appropriate measurements to Acoustics:http://ccrma.stanford.edu/courses
make our application run on CLDC 1.0. The /422/projects/WaveFormat.
FFT processing time is comparably high due to Zaykovskiy, D., and Schmitt, A. (2007) Java
the floating point arithmetic used during the (J2ME) Front-End for distributed speech
process. This reduces the performance of the recognition, 21st International Conference
application. Further research and development on Advanced Information, Washington
is required to overcome these issues. 2007. 353-357.
229
Full Instruction Encoding for Heterogeneous Multi Pipeline Application Specific

Instruction-Set Processors
S. Radhakrishnan* and R.G. Ragel

Introduction pipeline (which was the third pipeline in a three

pipeline design) and have analyzed the benefits
Embedded systems are becoming ubiquitous, of such an approach. The decision to customize
cheaper, powerful, and increasingly ever the encoding of only the third pipeline was
present in people's life. Since embedded made based on: (1) the observation that it had a
systems usually execute a single application or smaller subset of instructions compared to the
a class of applications, customization can be first and the second pipelines and this subset
applied to optimize for performance, cost, does not require the same instruction width as
power etc. One popular design platform for the first two pipelines do; (2) a limitation on
embedded systems is the Application Specific the width of the processors (instruction width
Instruction-set Processor (ASIP), which allows could only be a multiplication of eight bits)
such customizability without overly hindering which could be developed in the tool (ASIP-
design flexibility. Numerous tools and design meister) that was used to generate each
systems such as ASIP-meister (PEAS Team, pipeline.
2002) and Xtensa have been developed for
rapid ASIP generation. In this paper the authors have extended the
customization of encoding for all three
Usually ASIPs contain a single execution pipelines. This is achieved by customizing
pipeline. Recently however, there has been ASIP-meister to generate processors with any
trend towards having multiple pipelines. For instruction width. The authors were able to
the first time, in (Radhakrishnan et al., 2005), a prove that the customization of all pipelines
design framework was proposed for ASIPs even with a considerably larger subset of the
with varying number of pipelines. Given an instructions could yield a saving in overheads.
application specified in C, the design system Even though the saving of the number of bits in
generates a processor with a number of each pipeline may not be very significant in
heterogeneous pipelines specifically suitable to some of the cases, there is a reduction in area,
that application. Each pipeline is customized, leakage power and clock cycle of every design
with a differing instruction set and the considered. This is the first known attempt to
instructions are executed in parallel in all perform this reduction in the area of
pipelines. heterogeneous multi-pipeline system through
customizing the encoding of all the pipelines.
In the framework described in (Radhakrishnan
et al., 2005), the instruction widths for each Design overview
pipeline are identical. Later, this work was
extended with the aim of reducing processor The design flow of our target multi-pipeline
and code size for such a design by ASIP framework is as follows: it starts with an
systematically customizing the instruction application written in C, which is compiled into
encoding with differing instruction width for a single-pipeline assembly code. The single
each pipeline, without affecting the pipeline code is then scheduled into a number
performance of the processor. The instruction of parallel pipelines, from which the instruction
set for each pipeline is different. Therefore, set for each individual pipeline is deduced.
instead of using identical instruction widths for Next, ASIP-meister, a single-pipeline ASIP
instruction encoding, each pipeline can have its design tool, is used to design each single
own encoding scheme with differing pipeline. All these pipelines are then integrated
instruction width; thus, high density code can into a multi-pipeline processor containing a
be achieved, saving instruction memory. multi-issue structure where the register file is
shared by all pipelines. Each pipeline performs
As an initial attempt to the extension, in its own program sequence and has a separate
(Radhakrishnan et al., 2006) the authors have control unit that controls the operation of the
implemented the customization of instruction related functional units on that pipeline. This
encoding and forwarding path for a single design process is repeated with different
230
number of pipelines until a design that meets Row 3 in Table 1 gives an example of such an
the given design criteria is obtained. encoding. Given a register array for a register
operand field, we determine the encoding
Instruction encoding values by using REE algorithm. The full REE
algorithm is omitted from this presentation for
Instruction encoding is the act of using binary brevity. Applying this algorithm to each of the
bits with certain format to represent operand fields, we can obtain encoding for all
instructions. The format of the instructions can operand fields in an instruction type with a
be generally divided into two parts: one, minimal number of bits.
operation field or the operation code (op-code),
for encoding operation; and the other, multiple Operation encoding
operand fields for encoding operands. Our
encoding approach uses a fixed instruction We group the instructions according to the
width for each individual pipeline, with the number of bits needed for the operand fields.
width varying from one pipe to another. The When the instruction type is unique no bits are
encoding starts with the existing instruction used for operand fields. The operation field
sequence produced by the scheduling encoding is summarized in Algorithm 1. For
algorithm. Encoding for each pipe is carried each instruction type, the instruction operation
out separately. The instructions in a sequence encoding progresses from inner most level to
are grouped based on the type of the the outmost level; and the code size grows
instructions. The pattern of operand values is accordingly.
analyzed and operands are encoded with
minimal possible number of bits. Based on the
operand encoding, the operations of the whole
instruction set used by the application program
is then encoded. Details for both encoding
tasks are given below.
Operand encoding
In the instruction set architecture (ISA) used in
our design, the operands can generally be
classified into two types: registers and
immediate values. The encoding strategy is
demonstrated in the following with register
operands (or registers for simplicity).
Conventionally, the size of a register field (or
Algorithm 1. Operation Encoding
operand field), is determined by the size of the
register file. However, with a given program
sequence, a certain type of instructions may not Results and discussion
use all of those registers. Therefore, the field We designed ASIPs for two applications from
size can be reduced. Rather than randomly Mibench embedded systems benchmark suite.
assigning code-words to each of the registers, The designs were later synthesized using
we used an encoding approach such that the Synopsys Design Compiler based on the
decoding will be simpler, thus reducing Taiwan Semiconductor Manufacturing
hardware complexity, and hence improving Company’s (TSMC) 90nm core library, and
performance, area and power. We call this simulated with the Modelsim simulator. Figure
technique reduced-bit efficient encoding or 1 depicts the area, clock cycle and leakage
REE. Table 1 compares a typical full bit power comparisons of the non-customized
encoding (FBE) against REE for a given set of (typically encoded) and customized (fully
register usage. encoded) designs. The average savings are
26.9% on area, 27.8% on leakage power and at
Table 1. FBE Vs. REE the same time there is a reduction in clock
Registers R2 R4 R13 R11 cycle by 1.4%. In addition, the average
FBE (b3b2b1b0) 0010 0100 1101 1011 instruction memory size saving is about 69%.
REE (c1c0) 10 00 01 11
For instruction encoding, many approaches
have been proposed. In (Lee et al., 2002),
authors presented a technique that encodes all
231
instructions, required by an ASIP, with a given implemented in the future work for
instruction size. A hierarchical instruction customization of processor.
encoding for VLIW-based architecture
application is presented in (Liu, 2005). These References
approaches are not tailored to our target
processors proposed in (Radhakrishnan et al., Lee, J.S., Choi, K. and Dutt, N. (2002)
2005). The techniques presented in this paper Efficient instruction encoding for automatic
exploit the unique architectural feature of our instruction-set design of configurable
target heterogeneous multi-pipeline ASIP. ASIPs, ICCAD, 649-654.
Liu, C.H. (2005) Hierarchical instruction
Conclusions encoding for VLIW digital signal
processors, ISCAS, 3053-3056.
We presented techniques to fully customize PEAS Team. (2002) ASIP Meister Toolset.
instruction encoding for a multiple pipe Retrieved 4 2007, from ASIP Meister:
processor. This approach best trades off the http://vlsilab.ics.es.osaka-u.ac.jp/dac2003/.
simplicity of fixed size encoding approaches Radhakrishnan, S., Hui, G. and Parameswaran,
and high density of varied size encoding S. (2005) n-pipe: Application specific
techniques. The encoding is customized, with heterogeneous multi-pipeline processor
each pipeline having its own fixed instruction design, Workshop for Application Specific
width and the instruction width varying from Processors.
one pipe to another, and hence achieving a Radhakrishnan, S., Hui, G., Parameswaran, S.
better trade-off between the design simplicity and Aleksandar, I. (2006) Application
of the fixed-width encoding and code reduction specific forwarding network and instruction
efficiency of the varied-width encoding. Due to encoding for multipipe ASIPs,
the resource and time limitation only few CODES_ISSS: 06, Proceedings of the
applications were implemented for the current fourth International Conference on
work. Many versatile applications will be CODES.
Figure 1. Savings due to full customization of encoding
232
An Algorithm for Automatic Playlist Generation in Radio Stations
I.M.K. Kahanda* and U.G. Kanewela

Introduction
In CSP approach, instead of selecting
In a typical radio station, DJs play songs using individual music titles, one by one, like above,
pre-generated playlists. A playlist is a set of the idea is to produce a collection of music
music titles which should be played in a given titles, in an order, restricted to a set of global
order. Composing high quality playlists for constraints (Pachet et al., 1999). One of the
radio stations is very demanding because of the better CSP approaches to APG, with regard to
large number of songs available for selection. scalability is proposed by Aucouturier and
Therefore the person responsible for Prachet (Pachet, 2002), which starts by having
composing playlists have to either memorize or a random set of songs from the whole set, and
listen to the excerpts of the songs in order to iteratively tries to improve the playlist by
choose the right song for the right situation. making small changes to it, using adaptive
search (an adaptation of the local search)
All the radio stations in Sri Lanka build their algorithm (Codognet and Diaz, 2001).
playlists manually. In today’s competitive
world, even though maintaining a high Both these approaches so far have looked at
standard largely defines the popularity of the APG for playlist generation mainly for a set of
station, the above situation makes it difficult very few listeners or a large set of listeners
for a human to achieve this consistently. This which can provide immediate feedback. This
is the motivation for this research which paper, for the first time, presents an APG
examined the feasibility of using a computer to technique for radio stations (a large global set
generate music playlists for radio stations using of listeners from which continuous immediate
a newly developed Automatic Playlist feedback cannot be obtained), PlayGen, which
Generation (APG) algorithm. is a hybrid of the aforementioned techniques
and enjoys the benefits of both the schemes.
Related work
APG, which is formally defined by Pauws et Methodology
al., (2006) has enjoyed lots of research recently The APG algorithm presented in this paper,
and the researchers have come up with many PlayGen, uses the algorithm presented in
different approaches depending on different (Prachet, 2002) as a starting point due to its
applications, such as similarity based scalability. The main idea of that the algorithm
techniques for Personal music players to presented is that the qualities/characteristics
Constraint Satisfaction Programming (CSP) which a playlist should posses are described as
approach for Electronic Music Distribution constraints.
(EMD) systems. Similarity based techniques
are specially used for recommender systems, in Problem statement
which the listener selects one or more of her
favorite songs to be used as seed songs and the The playlist generation problem is defined as
generator will pick the rest of the songs one by follows in (Prachet, 2002). A playlist S is a
one for the unordered playlist. Collaborative sequence of variables v1, v2…, vn whose values
filtering (French and Hauver, 2001; Pestoni et xi can be taken from a catalogue of music titles
al., 2001), timbre similarity measures (Logan D. The problem is to assign values to variables,
and Salomon, 2001; Aucouturier and Pachet, so that the resulting sequence satisfies
2002) and machine learning using existing constraints c1, c2,…,cm.
playlists (Platt et al., 2002) are the popular
similarity based techniques. The major Constraints
advantage of using these techniques is that
their sensitivity in capturing the changes in the Constraints are seen as simple cost functions.
choices of a single listener. The cost represents how ‘bad’ the constraint is
satisfied, for the given assignment of variables.
Constraints may hold on attributes of music
233
titles and these are typically metadata of songs. moment of time considered. Playability
Therefore, a playlist will have a total cost function P is defined as follows.
associated with it. The algorithm starts with a
certain initial playlist (having a certain total P=P(release year, number. of times requested/
cost) and iteratively refines the solution until a recommended, last time played, time of the
playlist satisfying all the given constraints day).
(having a total cost less than a given threshold)
is found. Authors have developed the following Further, the algorithm addresses a set of global
three compulsory constraints for radio stations constraints that would cover various
along with several other optional ones. requirements of any radio station as detailed
under constraints. Therefore, this is the first
• C-ALL-DIFFERENT: Two songs of the time that these two (CSP and similarity based)
same album/artist should not be included. techniques are combined to develop a hybrid
• C-DISTRIBUTION: Genre (e.g. pop), APG algorithm for radio stations.
type of artist (e.g. female), release year
and tempos (in beats per minute) of two Let S ≡ playlist, P ≡ set of playable songs and dj ∈ D
consecutive songs should be different.
• C-VARIETY: Number of different
genres of songs should exceed a certain Assign random songs from P∩RNS to S
threshold. Until cost(S
S) is less than threshold
For each vi
For example, the cost associated with C-
Calculate cost vi
VARIETY is quantified as follows.
Find vw whose cost is the worst
Cost(C-VARIETY): For each song dj ∉ S and dj ∈ P
vw Å dj
Return the length of the playlist – number of Calculate cost(vw)
genres of music titles divided by length of the
Locate dL with the lowest- cost(vwÅdj)
playlist
vw Å dL
PlayGen algorithm S)
Find cost(S
PlayGen possesses two major features which Figure 1. PlayGen algorithm

are not found in the APG algorithm presented
in (Pachet, 2002). First, as shown in Figure 1, Experimental results
the PlayGen algorithm searches only through a
small subset of songs termed request neighbor
set (RNS), as opposed to the whole set D. RNS (0) bonnie & clide - beyonze - rap - 2002
(1) give it to me - nelly furtado - rock - 2007
is the set of similar songs to the recent listener
(2) you all dat - baha men - world - 2000
song requests, which is generated by the (3) all rise - blue - rock - 2001
nearest neighbour algorithm utilizing the (4) smack that - eminem - rap -2006
metadata and calculated attributes of music (5) feel good inc. - gorillaz - rock -2005
titles, and specially helps when the collection is (6) with oive - hilary duff - pop - 2007
very large like in a typical radio station, since it (7) because of you - ne-yo - rnb - 2007
narrows the search space effectively. Formal (8) coco jumbo – mr president - pop - 2000
definition of RNS is given below. (9) real girl - mutya buena - rock - 2007
RNS = N songs with min(TotalDistance(xi,xr))

Where, xr=requested song and xi=all other Figure 2. Example playlist
songs.
The evaluation method of the algorithm was to
TotalDistance(x1,x2)=∑distance(a1j,a2j) provide a collection of playlists generated by
Where a1j and a2j are the jth attribute of x1 and PlayGen to two different sets of testers, to be
x2 respectively. rated in a scale of 5 where score of 1 means
“completely unsuitable to be played on radio”
Secondly the algorithm introduces a new and a score of 5 means “perfectly suitable to be
attribute of a song, playability, which derives played on radio”. Firstly, a professional playlist
the suitability of a song to be played at the composer (E) at a radio broadcasting
corporation rated them by estimating the
suitability of them to be played on their radio
234
station. Secondly, a set of frequent radio constraint satisfaction approach and the
listeners (L) of the above station rated them similarity based techniques, of playlist
considering their own satisfaction derived out generation, are combined to develop an
of listening to them, relating to qualities like automatic playlist generator, which would suit
variety etc. In a set of five playlists, the radio stations. The developers were able to test
playlists 1-4 were generated using all three and prove that it is feasible to generate quality
compulsory constraints (of which playlist 3 is music playlists using a computer.
depicted in Figure 2) while playlist 5 was
randomly generated using only C-ALL- References
DIFFRENT constraint. Figure 3 depicts the
playlist ratings from the test. All five playlists Aucouturier, J.J. and Pachet, F. (2002) Finding
were generated from a database containing songs that sound the same, Proceedings of
song attributes of 200 music titles. Most of the IEEE Benelux Workshop on Model based
attributes were metadata of songs like title, Processing and Coding of Audio,
artist, album, and tempo, which were extracted University of Leuven, Belgium.
from allmusic.com and id3v2 tags of the songs. Codognet, P. and Diaz, D. (2001) Yet another
local search method for constraint solving,
Discussion Proceedings of the AAAI Fall 2001
Symposium, Cape Cod, MA.
French, J.C. and Hauver, D.B. (2001)
Ratings for Playlists
Flycasting: On the fly broadcasting,
Proceedings of International Conference on
5.00 Web Delivering of Music (WedelMusic),
4.00 Firenze, Italy.
Average rating
3.00 Logan, B. and Salomon, A. (2001) A music

similarity function based on signal analysis,
2.00
Proceedings of IEEE International
1.00 Conference on Multimedia and Expo
0.00 (ICME), Tokyo, Japan.
E L E L E L E L E L Pachet, F., Roy, P. and Cazaly, D. (1999) A
Paylist1 Paylist2 Paylist3 Paylist4 Paylist5
Combinatorial approach to content-based
music Selection, Proceedings of IEEE
Multimedia Computing and Systems
Figure 3. PlayGen ratings International Conference, Firenze, Italy.
Pachet, F. (2002) Scaling up music playlist
Figure 2 depicts a typical playlist generated by generation, Proceedings of IEEE ICME,
PlayGen. All three compulsory constraints of Swiss Federal Institute of Technology,
this playlist are satisfied 100%.The threshold EPFL, Lausanne, Switzerland.
value used was zero and PlayGen took only 1 Pauws, S., Verhaegh, W. and Vossen, M.
second in a typical personal computer (PC) to (2006) Fast generation of optimal music
produce the above result. As evident from playlists using local search, Proceedings of
Figure 3, all playlists (except playlist5, which International Conference on Music
was randomly generated) have received very Information Retrieval ( ISMIR), Victoria,
good average ratings (higher than 4.3 out of 5) Canada.
from both E and L, which concludes that Pestoni, F., Wolf, J., Habib, A. and Mueller, A.
PlayGen is capable of generating quality (2001) Karc: Radio research, Proceedings
playlists that significantly satisfies the radio of International Conference on Web
station requirements and listener preferences at Delivering of Music (WedelMusic), Firenze,
the same time, even with just three carefully Italy.
developed constraints. Platt, J.C., Burges, C.J.C., Swenson, S., Weare,
C. and Zheng, A. (2002) Learning a
Gaussian Process Prior for automatically
Conclusions generating music playlists, Proceedings of
In this paper the authors considered the Neural Information Processing Systems
automatic playlist generation problem. For the (NIPS), Vancouver, Canada.
first time, two most popular methods, namely
235
User Dependant Speech Based Lip Synchronization
S.M.I. Wickrama1 and J.V. Wijayakulasuooriya2*

1
Computing Centre, 2Department of Electrical and Electronic Engineering, Faculty of Engineering,
Introduction
Methodology
User dependant speech based lip
synchronization is an area that is being The first step in this research was to find a
researched thoroughly. Combination of the suitable recording method for the lip
auditory and visual speech recognition is more movements and corresponding sound capture.
accurate than only auditory or only visual. For this, several methods were tried out to see
Consequently, there has been a large amount of which was the most appropriate for the
research on incorporating bimodality of a required project. The recording was done using
speech into the human-computer interaction a Canon XL 1 digital video camcorder with 7.2
interfaces. A speech-driven face animation is V DC power supply. The recordings have a
one of the research topics in this area, since frame rate of 24 frames per second (fps) and a
using natural voice for the animation of 320x240 resolution. The first recording was in
synthetic faces remains a challenging area of Moving Picture Experts Group (MPEG) format
research in computer animation. but it was later discovered that Audio Video
Interleave (avi) was the better format for
Since the FAPs (Facial Animation Parameters) picture frame / sound editing.
are required to animate faces of different sizes
and proportions, the FAP values are defined in Most of the avi manipulation and specific
face animation parameter units (FAPU). The frame extraction was done in Adobe Premiere.
mouth is one of the most difficult face features The coordinates of the key points marked on
to analyze and track. It has a very versatile the lip were obtained using computer graphic
shape and almost every muscle of the lower methods of a Matlab program. For finer co-
face drives its motion, unlike some areas of the ordinate manipulations and storing of data in a
face such as hair line or eyebrows which more accessible form for those who do not
become mobile only when the user uses certain have Matlab (Ver 7.0), Microsoft Excel spread
tones and expressions. sheets were used. The wave files, in wave and
avi format were also processed using Matlab,
The aim of this research is to develop a speech Adobe Premiere and Goldwave. The neural
based lip synchronization technique which networks were constructed using Matlab and
operates in real time. The final system should the output files were also implemented in
be capable of analyzing a speech signal and re- Matlab graphics (which uses OpenGL which is
producing the coordinates of the critical points C based.).
of the lip. The first part of the research was
dedicated to investigating models for the Data collection and pre-processing
automatic lip synchronization by speech signal
analysis and to finding a method which is The work initially started aiming to develop a
suitable for recording speech and facial system that was capable of simulating a 3D
movements with the minimum of equipment. face movement with real time user independent
speech. However, the work was limited to 2D
The research dealt with a method by which the face movement capture and lip synchronization
key points (critical points) of the lip could be for user dependant speech signals due to
read as coordinates and stored in a suitable difficulties that arose during the project. These
format and also a method by which to process difficulties included extracting key coordinates
speech signals, so it can be fed into a neural from the recording, different levels of frame
network for quick results and easy training. clarity, the lack of proper lighting equipment
for the recordings, etc.
It is hoped that by further developing this such
a method could be used to in the animation The research mainly concentrated on capturing
industry and for web communication, such as mouth / lip movements and corresponding
webcasting and user friendly avatars. sounds. It also dealt with some attempts at
236
capturing facial movements using limited phonemes such as /k/ consisting of the
equipment and some techniques in sound unvoiced stop, are not that easily recognized.
processing which can be used for phoneme Sounds with the soft ‘sss’ sounds are extremely
recognition. difficult to accurately recognize. It is believed
that this is caused by the similarity in
Several methods were tried out to find a pronunciation between these phonemes.
suitable arrangement for the recording to be
made. These methods included using the two ANN
mirror approach (Lin, I-Chen, Jeng-Sheng,
Ouhyoung, Ming 2003 and Whit, Amelia and A technique based on Artificial Neural
Lees, 1999) for 3D motion capture, full frontal Networks (ANN) was tried to create a user
face capture and finally recording only the dependant system. In this technique, the speech
mouth and nose area. The marker coordinates analysis consisted of programming neural
on the lip contours were extracted from the networks by feeding direct speech made up of
recordings and stored in Ms Excel worksheets. 44 phonemes and using the critical points of
the lip movements as the desired out come.
Then, speech analysis was done using cross- Feeding direct sound to the ANN produced
correlation of the phonemes used to see if this large errors and was therefore deemed
process could be used for Phoneme unsuitable.
recognition. Also, a technique based on
Artificial Neural Networks (ANN) was tried to When the result from the first method proved
create a user dependant system. In this insufficient several other speech processing
technique, the speech analysis consisted of methods were used to extract the features from
programming neural networks by feeding direct the speech signal. The second attempt was to
speech made up of 44 phonemes and using the train an ANN using the wave pattern envelop
critical points of the lip movements as the and the corresponding key-point coordinates.
desired out come. This method gave better results than the earlier
method but was still not satisfactory.
When the result proved unsatisfactory several
other speech processing methods were used to The final method was to extract the energy
extract the features from the speech signal. levels of the wave using Discrete Fourier
These methods included reducing the waves Transform and training an ANN using this data
into its wave envelop pattern and extracting the with again, the key point co-ordinates as the
energy levels of the wave using Discrete desired outcome. This method gave for more
Fourier Transform. encouraging results as the error when training
ANN was very small.
Experimental results
Discussion
Cross-correlation The cross- correlation method can be used to
Speech analysis was done using cross- categorize phonemes into three different groups
correlation of the phonemes used to see if this and to identify them as being in one of these
process could be used for Phoneme groups but it is not possible to use that method
recognition. for actual identification of a specific phoneme
from an audio speech signal.
From this method The two original methods (feeding direct sound
:accurately recognizing a sound is 56.18%. to the ANN and training the ANN using sound
:25.00% phonemes gave ambiguous results. envelops) do not produce satisfactory results
:18.18 % of the phonemes were not but using the Fourier transform to process
recognizable at all. sound waves showed promise. When the ANN
where trained using this method gave more
It is believed that the recognition accuracy of satisfactory results than any of the previously
56.18% is due to the pronunciation distinctness tried methods.
between the phonemes such as /p/, /t/ and /th/,
as well as to the small class size. Certain of
237
Design of an All-In-One Billing Meter for Three Wheelers in Sri Lanka
B.G.L.T. Samaranayake
Introduction billing meter, has been designed for the three

wheelers in Sri Lanka, which will have some
There is a massive trend in the Sri Lankan additional technically sound features, which
society to use Three-Wheelers in the absence of will promote the meter to out perform such
a reliable and punctual public transport service. meters in the import market. The design is
This has been the practice for the past decade presented in the paper.
or so and the future is uncertain about of
changing the situation. However, still there is Methodology
no transparent charging system (billing system)
for the above three-wheeler taxi services. As a The meter uses a pulse counting technique
result, clients have to satisfy with whatever the using Hall effect sensors to derive the number
hire demanded by the three-wheeler driver. of turns of the road wheel, while its prevailing
Hence there is a severe threat of abusing the effective wheel diameter will be taken online
service and charge unjustifiable amounts of via coupled electronic and optical methods to
money, and in fact this has been the experience derive the distance travelled. This offers
by most of the clients, irrespective of the area mechanical cable free, maintenance free, long-
of operation of the taxi service in the country. term operation. Vehicle inclination is also
Therefore, there should be a viable technical sensed to derive whether it is on an ascent or a
solution to protect the client and make him pay descent and the engine idle time is the feedback
only the desired amount. to evaluate the fuel waste during traffic jams.
The above parameters are used in an onboard
Concerning the owners, since there is no micro controller to execute the relevant
stipulated per kilometer charging system, there calculations. Low cost seven segment displays
is no way for the owner of the three-wheeler which can be viewed from distance both by the
(as he may not be the driver in most of the driver and the clients, is used for the human
cases) to double check the day’s collection, machine interface with a simple up-down and
with the number of kilometers the vehicle has push button touch panel with mode changing to
traveled. Hence a reliable mechanism is needed display the relevant parameters. Further, the
for the owners to keep track of the distance same interface touch panel is used to enter the
traveled and fuel consumed against the income per kilometer charge by the authorities, which
presented by the driver. is password protected. In addition, it adapts
appropriate noise handling techniques to
As far as the road network of the country is overcome noise interference in the two-stroke
concerned, in most of the cities, they get and four-stroke internal combustion engine
flooded with traffic jams especially during the environment.
peak hours. In such situations, three-wheelers
may have to be kept in queues with their Results and discussion
engines on but at zero road wheel speeds. If the
vehicle is issued with a fixed amount of fuel, Measure and display the distance of the trip
then obviously the distance it can travel
reduces compared to that of without traffic The distance traveled is calculated by counting
jams. Then the driver may find it difficult to the pulses generated in the coils due to the
convince the owner, at end of the day, the rotation of the permanent magnets (PM)
reason why the income dropped while having connected to the driving shaft of the road
consumed the entire amount of fuel he has been wheel. The same pulse count is used to derive
given. In that case, there should be a technical the speed of the three wheeler. The
evidence for the driver to prove his honesty. arrangement of PMs and the corresponding
pulse pattern are shown in Figure 1 (a) and
Focusing mainly on the above needs of the Figure 1 (b) respectively.
clients, owners and drivers, an all-in-one
238
Display the accumulated distance

The designed meter to be fabricated is shown
in Figure 2. The top row of the display shows v(t)
the distance traveled for a given trip in

kilometers, which may be set to zero at the PM1
beginning using the SET button. The same row
can be used to display the total distance
traveled since fixing the meter. The ω
DISTANCE or ODO modes can be selected
using the MODE button. The second row PM4 PM2
shows the instantaneous speed in km/h, while

the bottom row shows the hire. This hire gets
updated automatically based on every 100m
traveled and / or the engine idling time since
PM3
the beginning of the trip.
Password protected access to edit the billing

rate by the authorities of the governing area Figure 1(a). Rotation of the PMs connected to
the shaft, which drives the road
This is accomplished using the same display wheel
panel as shown in the Figure 2 but in a
different mode entered using the MODE
button. v(t)
Continuously display the due charge as the trip

progresses, while taking into account the:
π/2ω
a). Air pressure of tires
Figure 1(b). Pulse pattern generated in the coil.
Since the distance is calculated by counting the
number of pulses as was shown in Figure 1(a),
it is important that the correct effective road
wheel radius is used. This is heavily dependant
upon the flatness of the tyre as shown in
Figure 3. Therefore it is measured and taken DISTANCE / ODO (km)
into account in the calculation of the distance
so that it results in a more accurate distance
calculation.
b). Amount of time spent on traffic jams SPEED (km/h)
This is estimated by sensing the idling time of MODE

the engine since the beginning of the trip.
c).Elevation gradient of the road, i.e., traveling

HIRE (Rs.) SET
in mountainous vs., flat areas
This is detected by using the electromagnetic
sensor arrangement as shown in Figure 4(a) RESET
and (b).
Calculate and display the fuel wasted due to Figure 2. Display screen of the ALL-IN-
traffic jams ONE-BILLING METER
This is done inside the micro-controller using
the engine feedback on idling.
239
(a) Normal Air Pressure Exists (b) Air Pressure decreased,

reducing effective radius
Figure 3. Effective radius of the road wheel influencing the distance calculation
Input Waveform
Output Waveform
on flat plane
Figure 4(a). When the two input coils are supplied with the same sinusoidal input signal, two
identical sinusoidal signals are induced in the two output coils, provided that the two
coils are identical. The black circles are metal balls
Input Waveform
Output Waveform
on flat plane
Output Waveform
on inclined plane
Figure 4(b). When the three wheeler is travelling on an inclined plane, the metal balls enter into
the coil core increasing the magnetic coupling (reducing the reluctance). Hence the
output coil with metal balls inside has a higher voltage induced compared to the coil
without the metal balls. This difference is used to detect the elevation and decide the
inclination.
240
Proceedings of the Peradeniya University Research Sessions, Sri Lanka, Vol.12, Part II, 30th November 2007
Memory Efficient Algorithm and Closed Form Formulas for Computing Odd
Magic Squares of Higher Order
P.C. Perera
Department of Engineering Mathematics, Faculty of Engineering

number.
Introduction
Even though the computational aspects of
Magic squares have been studied for at least lower order magic squares are fairly simple
three thousand years, the earliest recorded and straightforward, those of the higher or-
appearance dating to 2200 BC, in China. der counterparts demand memory and time
In the 9th century, Arab astrologers used efficient algorithms. The computational time
them in calculating horoscopes, and by 1300 as well as the memory requirement for the
AD, magic squares had spread to the West. computation of n × n magic square are both
An engraving by the German artist Albrecht of order n2 . The unavailability of a closed
Dürer included a magic square in which the form expression for the nth order magic squa-
artist embedded the date, 1514, in the form re results lengthy source codes. Moreover, as
of two consecutive numbers in the bottom n becomes very large, high memory require-
row. Because the concept of a magic square ment makes the computation of nth order
is so easily understood, magic squares have magic square impossible. In this endeavor,
been particularly attractive to puzzlers and it is attempted to devise a memory efficient
amateur mathematicians. In modern mathe- algorithm and formulate a closed-form ex-
matics, the notions pertaining to magic squa- pression to compute odd higher order magic
res are utilized to characterize magic graphs squares by formulating de la Loubere type
as well as magic cubes. (Jezny and Trenkler magic square.
et al. 1983 and Adler, Robert Li et al. 1978)
The objectives of this work are to develop
The nth order magic square is an n × n ar- memory efficient algorithms in the context
ray consisting of the first n natural numbers of nth (n mod 2 = 1) order magic square to
such that the sum along rows, along columns determine,
as well as along two diagonals are all equal (a) the cell (i, j) ∈ N × N for a given k
n(n2 + 1)
to . Of course, given any magic satisfying 1 ≤ k ≤ n2 , and
2
square, a rotation or reflection will produce (b) the entry k with 1 ≤ k ≤ n2 when the
another magic square. Not counting these cell (i, j) ∈ N × N is specified,
as distinct, it is known that there is only one
3rd order normal magic square, and there are where N = {1, 2, ..., n}.
880 normal 4th order magic squares. The
number of distinct normal magic squares in- Preliminaries
creases dramatically with its size. For in-
stance, there are over 13 million normal mag- Letting the entry of the ith row and the j th
ic squares of 5th order. The algorithm de- column of the magic square be xij , the prob-
vised in this endeavor produces only one such lem of magic square can be formulated as fol-
normal magic square for a given odd natural lows. For the sake of notational simplicity,
241
henceforth, unless specified otherwise, the algorithm may be very high as n becomes
entry of the cell corresponding to the ith row very large. The case is the same for the other
and the j th column of the nth order magic existing algorithms used for computation of
square is denoted by Mn (i, j). Then, magic squares. The algorithm devised in this
work requires much less computer memory
n
X n(n2 + 1) as well as computational time.
xij =
j=1
2
for i = 1, ..., n The main result
n
X n(n2 + 1)
xij = The following results are conjectured and pr-
i=1
2 oved in this work. For the sake of brevity,
for j = 1, ..., n their proofs are not presented here.
n
X n(n2 + 1)
xii =
i=1
2 Theorems
Xn 2
n(n + 1) Theorem 1. For a given n and k satisfying
xn+1−j,j = n mod 2 = 1 and 1 ≤ k ≤ n2 ,
j=1
2
Mn (a, b) = k,
where xij ∈ {1, 2, ..., n2 }.
where
It should be noted that the solution of the
(n + 2k − 3) k−1

problem is not unique. The optimum algo- a= − mod n
rithm available at present is used in MAT- 2 n
LAB. In MATLAB, two n × n arrays are de- +1
clared by the function MESHGRID in the
and
process of obtaining the nth order magic squ-
are. Then those two n × n arrays are manip- k−1

ulated to obtain the nth order magic square. b= n+k−2−2 mod n
n
Thus, it is obvious that the demand for the +1
memory is an issue as n becomes large. To
comprehend the demand for the memory and Example 1. If n = 7, using the above algo-
the associated complexity of other existing rithm, the MATLAB routine
algorithms, consider the following algorithm
used in MATLAB. n=7;
for k=1:n^2,
function M = magic(n) a=mod((n+2k-3)/2+
...floor((k-1)/n),n)+1;
n = floor b=mod((n-k-2+
...(real(double(n(1)))); ...2*floor((k-1)/n),n)+1
M(a,b)=k;
if mod(n,2) == 1 end;
[J,I] = meshgrid(1:n);
A = mod(I+J-(n+3)/2,n); produces 7th order magic square as
B = mod(I+2*J-2,n);
M = n*A + B + 1; 30 39 48 1 10 19 28
end 38 47 7 9 18 27 29
46 6 8 17 26 35 37
In the case of the above MATLAB routine, 5 14 16 25 34 36 45
A, B, I and J are of nth order square matri- 13 15 24 33 42 44 4
ces. Thus, the memory requirement and the 21 23 32 41 43 3 12
computational time pertaining to the above 22 31 40 49 2 11 20
242
Remark 1. In the light of Example 1, it is Conclusions

obvious that this algorithm converts a prob-
lem which demands the manipulation of two Unlike the other algorithms associated with
n × n arrays, to a problem of simplifying magic squares, this algorithm can be con-
a simple expression involved two variables, verted to any high level language very easily
namely, n and k. due to the absence of manipulations of ar-
rays. Nevertheless, it should be noted that
Theorem 2. Denoting {1, 2, ..., n} by N , the above algorithms are not applicable for
for a given cell (i, j) ∈ N × N , the cor- the even order magic squares. Moreover, the
responding entry Mn (i, j) of the nth order improvement of the time efficiency associ-
magic square is given by ated with the algorithms developed in this
endeavor are quite insignificant. Hence, the
(n − 1)

Mn (i, j) = n i − j + mod n+ above facts should be considered in the pro-
2
cess of generalizing and extending the af-
(2i − j − 1) mod n + 1.
orementioned algorithms to make them ap-
plicable for the computation of a magic sq-
Example 2. If n = 11, using the above uare of any order.
algorithm, the MATLAB routine
References
n=11;
for j=1:n, Jezny, S. and Trenkler, M. (1983) Charac-
M(2,j)=n*mod( i-j+(n-1)/2,n)+ terization of magic graphs, Czechoslo-
...mod(2i-j-1,n)+1; vak Math. Journal, 33(2), 435-438.
end;
Adler, A. and Robert Li, S.Y. (1978) Magic
produces the set of entries in the second row N-cubes and prouhet sequences, Amer-
of the 11th order magic square as ican Mathematical Monthly, 84(1), 618-
80 93 106 119 11 13 26 627.
... 39 52 65 67
243
An Efficient Algorithm to Compute the Square of a Binary Number
M.G. Arlis1 and P.C. Perera2
1
Independent Researcher
2
Obviously, p2 ≥ 2. Letting 2p2 − m2 = m1 ,

Introduction
it turns out that
Much of contemporary research is geared to m21 = 2p2 (2p2 − 2m2 ) + m2 2 ,
develop and devise efficient algorithms that
are applicable in solving very complicated for some m2 with m1 > m2 . Since the fi-
mathematical problems. Nevertheless, the nite sequence {mi } is a strictly decreasing
development of efficient algorithms to per- sequence of odd positive numbers, ml = 1
form calculations that are used ubiquitously, for some l ∈ N. Iteratively, it can be shown
enhances the speed of almost every calcula- that
tion performed by a computer. In this en- l
X
deavor, it is aimed at developing an efficient N2 = 1 + 2pi (2pi − 2mi ) . (1)
algorithm that can be used in squaring bi- i=1
nary integer.
The terminating condition for the algorithm
is that mi = 1 for some i ∈ N.
It should be noted that for the process of
squaring only the significant figures of the
It turns out that for i ∈ N, 2pi − 2mi can
number under consideration do matter. Let
be computed simply by means of shift regis-
N̂ ∈ N be a binary number. Let k be the
ters. See the following example.
largest nonnegative integer such that 2k |N̂ .
Thus, the significant figures can be obtained
The main result
by chopping off the last k integers of N̂ . Let-
N̂
ting N = k , the following procedure can be Theorem 1. Let N be a binary integer
2 consisting of a significant part with L binary
used to compute N 2 and N̂ 2 as well.
transitions. Then
L
Preliminaries X
N2 = 1 + 2pi (2pi − 2mi ) . (2)
i=1
Since the square of unity is trivial, suppose
N 6= 1. Let p1 be the least positive inte-
Remark 1. In the light of Theorem 1, it
ger such that m0 = N < 2p1 . It is ob-
can be concluded that the steps required for
vious that p1 ≥ 2. Define m1 by letting
the computation of N 2 is exactly the transi-
2p1 − m1 = N = m0 , it turns out that
tions present in the significant part of N .
m20 = N 2 = 2p1 (2p1 − 2m1 ) + m1 2 ,
The application of this algorithm is outlined
and m0 > m1 . If m1 = 6 1, let p2 be the least with the help of the following examples.
positive integer such that m1 < 2p2 .
244
Examples Note that p1 = 6 and p2 = 3. It can be

observed that 1110012 = 57 and 572 =
Example 1. Let m0 = 11011012 . The value 3249 = 1100101100012 .
of p1 = 7 since 10000002 < 11011012 <
100000002 . (p1 is, in fact, equal to the num- Discussion
ber of digits of m0 .) m1 = 100000002 −
11011012 = 100112 The terminating condition for the algorithm
is that mi = 1 for some i. Thus, if m1 6= 1,
2p1 − 2m1 = (100000002 − 1001102 ) letting m2 be the least positive integer such
= 10110102 that m1 < 2m2 , add m1 − m2 number of ze-
It turns out that ros to the end of the current answer in the
register and repeat the aforementioned steps
m0 = 1 1 0 1 1 0 1 until mi = 1 for some i. Note that 2pi − 2mi
a1 = 1 0 1 1 0 1 0 is directly obtained by left-shifting mi−1 by
It can be observed that a1 = 2p1 − 2m1 can one bit while discarding the most significant
be obtained simply by shifting the bits of m0 bit of mi−1 . Moreover, mi is obtained by
by one place to the left while introducing a keeping the least significant digit of mi−1 as
’zero’ for the least significant bit. it is, while complementing the other bits.
Example 2. Let b = 11100012 . If the binary integer N of our interest con-

sists of m significant bits, N 2 has exactly 2m
m0 = 1 1 1 0 0 1 or 2m − 1 significant bits. Clearly, when N
m1 = – – – 1 1 1 becomes large, the overflow error occurred
m2 = – – – – – 1 can be eliminated by using several registers
in series. The above fact is not possible in
and the case of other existing algorithms.
2p1 − 2m1 = 1 1 0 0 1 0
2p2 − 2m2 = – – – 1 1 0 Conclusions
Note that 2pi −2mi is directly obtained by In Phillips et al. (2001), the square of long
shifting mi−1 by one left shift while discard- integers was obtained by removing repeated
ing the most significant bit of mi−1 . The digit products from the accumulation tree
number mi is obtained by keeping the least which is called optimized squaring using pre-
significant digit of mi−1 as it is, while com- computed partial products. It can be shown
plementing the other bits. that the algorithm devised in this paper su-
Since, in this case, it yields persedes the method of optimized squaring
2
X using pre-computed partial products present-
N = m0 = m22 + 2pi (2pi − 2mi ) , (3) ed here. Shifting involved in the regular pro-
i=1 cess of squaring is not an issue in the con-
where m2 = 1, we have text of this new algorithm. Additions and
subtractions are also kept minimal in this
2p1 (2p1 − 2m1 ) = 1 1 0 0 case.
2p2 (2p2 − 2m2 ) = – – – –
m22 = – – – – References
N2 = 1 1 0 0 Phillips, B. (2001) Optimized squaring of
long integers using pre-computed par-
1 0 – – – – – –
tial products, Proceedings. 15th IEEE
– – 1 1 0 – – –
... Symposium on Computational Arithm-
– – – – – – – 1
etic
1 0 1 1 0 0 0 1
245
Modified Stepping Stone Algorithm for Solving Large-Scale Balanced

Transportation Problems
B.M.R.K. Basnayake and P.C. Perera

Introduction There exist examples for which DSS requires

approximately 20% more steps than SS. See
The optimal solution to a transportation pr- graph 1. Nevertheless, DSS demonstrates
oblem is sought by employing the Stepping 1
relatively faster convergence if for < r <
Stone algorithm(SS), starting from some ini- 5
tial basic solution. Some attempts have been 1
,
made et al Kèri to reduce high computa- 2
tional time associated with solving of trans- card ({(i, j) : zij − cij < 0})
portation problems involving very large num- > r and
(m − 1)(n − 1)
ber of sources and destinations. In this en- σs
≪ 1,
deavor, it is aimed at developing an algo- s
rithm which outperforms all Stepping Stone
like algorithms in terms of computational where S = {cij − zij : zij − cij < 0}, s and
time required for solving large-scale balanced σs are respectively the mean and the stan-
transportation problems. The algorithm that dard deviation of the set values of S. It can
is devised and tested in this work, is called be shown that card ({(i, j) : zij − cij < 0})
σs
Modified Stepping Stone algorithm(MSS). and are functions of mn − m − n + 1
s
and the iteration number k. It should be
Derived Stepping Stone algorithm noted that the derivation of closed forms of
(DSS) σs
card ({(i, j) : zij − cij < 0}) and may be
s
extremely tedious or impossible. Despite the
A balanced transportation problem with m unavailability of closed forms of the above
and n sources and destinations can be formu- functions, it can be shown that
Xm X n
lated as Minimization of cij xij such
i=1 j=1
card ({(i, j) : zij − cij < 0})
,
m
X (m − 1)(n − 1)
that xij = sj for j = 1, 2, ..., n and
i=1 decreases and
n σs
X ,
xij = di for i = 1, 2, ..., m. In the case s
j=1 increases as the number of iterations k be-
of DSS, at k th iteration, for each open cell comes large. Since, m and n are fixed for a
(i, j) for which zij − cij is negative, instead given problem, it follows that
(k)
of zij − cij , it is considered Mij (zij − cij ),
(k) card ({(i, j) : zij − cij < 0})
where Mij is the maximum value that can
be assigned for the cell (i, j) with the solu- decreases with k.
tion at the k th iteration.
246
Modified Stepping Stone algorithm

(MSS) 6
•◦⋆
total cost
The above facts motivates us to revert to •

the SS after the first few iterations by DSS, ◦ • − SS
⋆
shows the most favorable results in terms • ◦ − DSS
◦ ⋆ − MSS
of speed of convergence. According to the ⋆ ◦•
aforementioned description, tt turns out that ◦
the combined application of SS and DSS wh- • ◦
⋆ ◦
ich is, in fact, MSS, produces the most favor- • ◦
able results. Topologically, the basic differ- ⋆ ◦
ence between the SS and MSS is that while •
⋆ ◦
the former always searches for the direction •
of the steepest decent, the latter choses the
direction along which the highest fall is pos- -
sible on the simplex Ŝ ⊂ Nmn . 0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 50
Graph 2 iter. no.
Results
For the sake of brevity, the results obtained Discussion

from SS, DSS and MSS for a balanced trans-
portation problem with 10 sources and 8 des- Let SS requires p iterations to converge to
tinations are given in Graph 1. the optimal solution starting from an initial
basic solution for a transportation problem
with m and n sources and destinations re-
6
total cost spectively. Then, by applying DSS for the
mn − m − n + 1

•◦⋆ first p followed by SS re-
γ
• • − SS
quires only αp iterations where γ ∝ (mn)β
◦ − DSS
for some β > 0 and α ∈ (0, 1 − f (m, n)) with
• ⋆ − MSS
◦⋆ 0 < f (m, n) monotonically increasing with
• mn having unity as its least upper bound.
◦ ◦
⋆ ◦
• ◦ Conclusions
◦
⋆ • ◦
⋆ • ◦
⋆ • ◦ It can be concluded that MSS converges fast-
er than SS for the large-scale balanced trans-
portation problems. In terms of computa-
- tional simplicity, MSS supersedes the algo-
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 rithm developed by (Kèri et al 1972). It
Graph 1 can also be concluded that the significance of
iter. no.
this algorithm is enhanced when m, n → ∞.
Nevertheless, the following avenues are open
For large scale balanced transportation prob- for future work. Even though
lems the behaviors of SS and MSS turn out
to be significantly different from each other. card ({(i, j) : zij − cij < 0})
Consider the results obtained for a balanced σs
transportation problem with 200 sources and and are known to be the functions of
s
150 destinations which are provided in Graph mn − m − n + 1 and the iteration number
2. k, models for those functions are yet to be
247
determined. A statistical model may be vi- References

able though the formulation of precise ex-
Kèri, (1972) A modified stepping-stone al-
pressions for the above functions is extremely
gorithm for the Transportation Prob-
tedious or impossible. More importantly, the
lem, Int. J. of Theoretical and Applied
parameters α, β, γ as well as the function
Statistics, 5 (2) 327-331
f (m, n) are to be determined.
248
Controller Design and Implementation for Cost Effective Mobile Robots

I.B. Wijayasinghe and B.G.L.T. Samaranayake*
Introduction Neglecting the viscose friction, Ia is assumed to

be constant at steady state. It can be related to
ROBOCON is an annual robot competition speed as
organized by the Asia – Pacific Broadcasting
Union (ABU) among the countries in the ⎛1⎞ I R (1)
ω = ⎜ ⎟V − a a
region. In 2007, the game plan included design ⎝K⎠ K
and construction of two types of mobile robots,
namely manually operated mobile robot, i.e., which is an equation of a straight line with
the manual machine and automatic mobile gradient 1/K and intercept - Ia Ra/K. The
robot, i.e., the automatic machine. Both the experimental dataset is shown in Table 1 and
types are supposed to pick hollow cylindrical Ra was calculated for each data set, and the
objects called pearls and put them around a average was taken as the true value of Ra.
pole called the island. This operation with the The armature current dynamics (Figure 4)
manual machine and automatic machines are corresponding to a voltage step input, with the
shown in Figures 1(a) and 1(b) respectively. motor shaft on no load, are used to calculate
Depending on the game strategy, there are the parameters La, Ts and J.
significant differences between the accessories
used in the two types of machines. However, With s being the Laplace operator, the voltage
the driving platforms, which need controllers, and current can be related as
are identical in terms of the designed 1 (2)
acceleration, maximum speed, I ( s) = V ( s)
Ls+R
a
maneuverability, weight, height of the top most a a
point, ground clearance, etc. Out of them, the Hence the electrical time constant
main criterions of the design are the speed and τe= La/ Ra can be calculated from the rise time
the maneuverability as the machines have to of the current waveform in Figure 4 and
travel about 50m in total in the game field in 3 assuming τe << τm, where τm is the mechanical
minutes, where the field is of a polygon shape. time constant.
The speed requirement is over 2 ms-1 for a
machine of weight of approximately 25 kg with In the current falling, τm =J Ra /K2 is dominant
all its accessories connected. and it can be used to evaluate the relevant
parameters. The armature current in steady
System modeling state is related to the torque T by T=K Ia. The
effect of the mass (M) of the mechanical
Permanent Magnet DC motors are used in the structure can be modeled by
drive platforms, in order to achieve the desired
2
dynamics, because the torque of the stepper T= ω, (3)
motors, which is the other alternative, Mr 2 s
drastically drops at higher speeds. The block
diagram model as shown in Figure 2 is used to where r is the radius of the road wheels. Hence
model the Permanent Magnet DC motor from the resultant inertia felt by the motor can be
the input voltage to the output angular velocity given by, J = J + J + Mr .
2
The identified
(Figure 3). s w
2
In the block diagram, La and Ra are the motor parameters are listed in Table 2, which
armature inductance and resistance respectively are used in the controller design.
and K is the torque constant, while J being the
rotor moment of inertia. Since the manufacturer Controller design
specified values for the above parameters were The controller mainly consists of speed control
not available for the motors, they were and position control. The purpose of the speed
identified by measuring armature current Ia and controller is to maintain the road wheel speed
the speed ω for a set of input voltages Va.
249
at the desired value depending on the expected

motion profile. Two loops are implemented,
one for each motor. But the two loops are
coupled as these machines do not have a
differential for driving in circular or curved
paths and the differential action is implemented
electronically through the controllers. Pole
placement design technique is used to tune a
Proportional Integral (PI) controller (Kp +
Ki/s), where the gains have been set to obtain a
closed loop bandwidth of 10Hz, where the
Bode amplitude diagram is shown in Figure 5.
An outer position controller is used to ensure
the correct position profile is followed. Since
the integral action is inherited from the speed
loop only a Proportional controller (gain
0.01745) is used here.
Results and conclusions

Speeds of the two road wheels, when they are
under different load torques, without the
position controller is shown in Figure 5. The Figure 1 (b): Automatic Machine has just
corresponding difference of the angle of entered a Pearl to the Island
rotation of the two wheels is shown in Figure 6.
The same scenario, but with the position
controller implemented, is shown in Figures 7
and 8 respectively.
It is observed that position controller
effectively brings the angular position Figure 2: DC Motor Model
difference to zero effectively.
Heading 2
Figure 3: Angular Velocity vs. Voltage
Figure 1 (a): Manual Machine entering a Pearl

to the Island
Figure 4: Shape of the Current Trace
250
Table 1: Steady State Characteristics
Voltage Current Velocity Ra

/(V) /(A) /(rpm) /(ohms)
4 0.58 623 0.6742

5 0.61 792 0.6754
6 0.65 958 0.6929
7 0.68 1134 0.6336
Figure 6: Angular position differences without
8 0.7 1311 0.5793
Position Controller
9 0.73 1482 0.5684
10 0.76 1657 0.5278
11 0.79 1826 0.5344
12 0.81 2004 0.4827
Table 2: Calculated Parameters

Parameter Value
K 0.05532
Figure 7: Speeds of the two wheels with the
Ra 0.5962
Position Controller
La 0.001908
Js 0.0001242
Jw 0.0002967
Figure 8: Angular position differences with the

Position Controller
eds of the two wheels without Position

Controller
Figure 5: Speeds of the two wheels without

Position Controller
251
An Efficient Algorithm to Compute the Reciprocal of a Binary Number
P.C. Perera

1
The binomial expansion of yields that
Introduction 1−x
∞ k−1
!j
In recent times, much research has been fo- 1 1 X X i−k
= k bi 2 .
cused on developing both time and mem- N 2 j=0 i=0
ory efficient algorithms for solving compli-
1
cated mathematical problems. Contrarily, Considering the binary expansion of N, we
very efficient algorithms for calculation of have
simple operations that are performed very ∞ k−1
!j
frequently, tremendously improve almost ev- 1 1 X X i−k
= k bi 2 =
ery complicated computation performed by a N 2 j=0 i=0
(1)
computer. The algorithm developed in this X∞
work may be used to compute the recipro- 2−k + di 2−i ,

cal of a binary integer while eliminating the i=k+1
underflow errors occurred due to the limi- where dl ∈ {0, 1} is the binary digit corre-
tations of length of registers employed in a sponding to the lth binary place of the binary
CPU. sequence of the reciprocal of N .
Preliminaries The objectives of this work are
Let N be the binary integer of which the (i) to determine the number of binary pla-
reciprocal should be computed. Denote A = ces to be determined in order to obtain
{0, 1}. To avoid trivialities, let the least sig- the exact answer, and
nificant digit of N be 1. Suppose k ∈ N is the
(ii) to devise an efficient algorithm to de-
smallest number such that N < 2k . Then
k−1
X termine di for i ≥ k + 1.
N = ai 2i , where ak−1 = 1 and ai ∈ A
Theorems and lemmas
i=0
for i ∈ {1, 2, ..., k − 2}. The assumption on
the least significant bit makes a0 = 1. It For the sake of brevity, the proofs of the
turns out that lemma and the theorems presented in this
section are omitted in this paper.
1 1 1 It is a known fact that the binary sequence

= k−1 = k−1
,
N X X of every rational number Q has a recursive
i i
ai 2 2 −
k bi 2 subsequence in it.
i=0 i=0
1
where a0 = b0 = 1 and bi = ai for 1 ≤ i ≤ Example 1. Let x = . Clearly x ∈ Q,
7
k − 1.
252
1 the outputs produced by the difference equa-
and = 0.142857142857... = 0.142857. If
7 tion converges to the reciprocal of our inter-
1 1
x= ∈ Q, then = 0.00110011...2 = est.
1012 1012 k−1
X
0.00112 . Theorem 2. Let N = bi 2i where bi ∈ A
i=0
Lemma 1. If N is a prime, N |2N −1 −1 and
∞
1 X
the upper bound for the length of the string ∀ i. Then = 2−i xi and yi for i = N
N i=1
repeated in the binary sequence of N1 is N −1.
are the sequence of solutions to the k th order
For a given prime N , there exists a ∈ N such k−1
!
that N |2(N −1)/a − 1 and the exact length of
X
difference equation yn+k = bi yn+i +
the string repeated in the binary sequence of i=1
1 N −1
N is a .
b0 yn with initial conditions yi = 0 for i =
1, ..., k − 1 and yk = 1 such that the se-
Example 2. Recall that N = 17 is a prime. quence {zj }j=1 has the property zr−k+1 =
∞
As the second assertion of Lemma 1, the

r r

X X
N −1
2 xi −
−i
2 yi → 0 as r → ∞.
−i

smallest number in the sequence 2i − 1 i=1

which is divisible by 17 is 255 which is i=1 i=1
Example 4. Let N = 15. Thus, N =

2(17−1)/2 − 1 or 2(N −1)/a − 1 with a = 2.
11112 . The corresponding difference equa-
tion is yn+4 = yn with initial conditions yi =
For composite N , the following theorem is 0 for i = 0, 1, 2 and y3 = 1. Thus it turns
applicable. out that

Theorem 1. Let N ∈ N and the prime fac- 1 if n = 4k − 1
yn =
torization of N be given by N = pr11 pr22 ...prmm . 0 otherwise
Suppose ai is the largest positive integer such
that pi | 2(pi −1)/ai − 1 for i = 1, 2, ..., m. y4 = y5 = y6 = 0, y7 = 1, y8 = y9 =
y10 = 0... and by continuing this process
Then there exists a least positive integer N̂ 12
such that N |2N̂ − 1 and is given by = 0.000100010001.. = 0.0001 can be
11112

(p1 − 1) r1 −1 (p2 − 1) r2 −1 computed accurately.
N̂ = p1 , p2 , ...,
a1 a2
(pm − 1) rm −1
Example 5. Let N = 119. Thus, N =
pm . 11101112 . The corresponding difference equa-
am
tion is yn+7 = yn+3 + yn with initial condi-
Moreover, the exact length of the recursive tions yi = 0 for i = 0, 1, ..., 6 and y7 = 1.
1
portion of the binary sequence of is N̂ . Thus it turns out that y8 = y9 = y10 =
N y12 = y13 = y16 = y17 = y20 = y24 = 02 ,
Example 3. Let N = 119 = 7 × 17. Since y11 = y14 = y15 = y19 = y21 = y23 =
7|23 − 1 and 17|28 − 1, as in Theorem 1, y27 = y28 = 12 , y18 = 102 , y22 = y25 = 112 ,
the length of the recursive binary sequence is y26 = 1002 ... and after 26th iteration, trun-
3 × 8 = 24. In particular cating the tail after the 24th binary place (in
1 12 the light of Example 3), it yields that
= =
119 11101112
0.0000001000100110101110012
12
The required binary digits in the sequence =
11101112
can be determined by constructing a denom- 0.0000001000100110101110012 .
inator dependent difference equation as indi-
cated in the following theorem. The sum of
253
Conclusions
The algorithm outlined in this paper out-

performs all of its counterparts in the con-
text of division of integers and is applicable
while utilizing registers with any length as
opposed to the other available algorithms.
The aforemention method which is based on
difference equations, guarantees faster con-
vergence and accurate results when all or
most of the binary digits of N are equal to
’one’. Otherwise, the convergence may be

slow requiring large number of iterations for
the exact solution. Even though this ap-
proach is promising, avenues are open for
improvements.
References
Bennett, W.S. (1973) Quotient generation
with conventional binary multipliers,
Proceedings of IEEE, 61(5), 664-665
254
Error Correction Model for Predicting the Carbon Dioxide Emissions of

a Coal-based High-income Economy
R. Shanthini1 and K.Perera2*

1
Department of Chemical and Process Engineering, 2Department of Engineering Mathematics,
Faculty of Engineering, University of Peradeniya
Introduction
The results obtained from regressing CO2 on
Oil shock of the 70s has been the major factor GDPpc, ln(CO2) on ln(GDPpc) and ln(CO2) on
that caused structural breaks in the ever- 1/ln(GDPpc) using the ordinary least square
increasing trend in carbon dioxide (CO2) (OLS) procedure are given in Table 1. In all
emissions experienced by high income cases, the R2 statistics are very high. The low
economies such as United States, Japan, France values of Durbin-Watson (dw) statistics
and Austria (see, Unruh and Moomaw, 1998; indicate the presence of serial correlation
Friedl and Getzner, 2003; Shanthini and Perera, among the residuals of the respective
2006). The ever-increasing trend in the CO2 regressions. The problem is, however, more
emissions of Australia, despite it being a high than just the presence of auto-correlated
income economy, remains relatively unaffected residuals. It is the fact the time series
owing to perhaps its dependence on coal as fuel considered are all nonstationary as revealed by
(BP, 2006; World Bank, 2007). This paper the results of Augmented Dickey-Fuller (ADF)
seeks to identify the effect the increasing test carried out to test the presence of unit
income has upon the CO2 emissions of roots. Regressing one nonstationary time series
Australia, particularly because it is one of the on the other is known to give significant
two countries that has defied the Kyoto statistical correlation, such as high R2, between
Protocol (UNFCCC, 1997) that assigned the variables, even though the two variables
mandatory greenhouse gas emissions may not be related at all.
limitations to the signatory nations.
In order to determine if there exists an
Since both income and emissions data of equilibrium relationship between the
Australia are trending non-stationary time nonstationary time series of our interest, i.e. if
series, an ordinary least square regression these series “move together” over time, we
model developed based on this data can be tested the residuals of the respective regression
spurious (Granger and Newbold, 1974). In this models shown in Table 1 for stationarity using
study, we show that there exists a cointegrating the ADF test. The results showed that the
relationship between the income and emissions residuals are stationary at the 5% level of
non-stationary time series, and thus the long significance for the first two regression models
term effect that income has on emissions can and at the 10% level of significance for the last
be captured using the error correction modeling regression model tabulated in Table 1.
approach proposed by Engle and Granger Therefore, we concluded that the respective
(1987). time series are cointegrated, which is indeed a
clear proof for the existence of an equilibrium,
Data analyses i.e. a long-term, relationship between the
The annual CO2 emissions (denoted by CO2) cointegrated time series (Engle and Granger,
and the gross domestic product per capita 1987; Stock and Watson, 1988).
(denoted by GDPpc) data for Australia used in
this study, obtained from World Development Results: Error correction model
Indicators (World Bank, 2007), are shown in The error (or equilibrium) correction model
Figure 1. The unit of CO2 is Mt (mega tonnes = (ECM) between two cointergrated first-
109 kg) of CO2 and that of GDPpc is thousands difference stationary variables, y and x, could
of constant 2000 US$. The time span used for be written (Engle and Granger, 1987) as
modeling is 1960 to 1996, which makes
available the emissions data from 1997 to 2003
for model validation.
255
m per capita growth in accordance with the

Δy t = a + ∑ b Δy
i =1
i t −i + c 0 Δx t
(1)
relationship given by,
n CO 2 (t ) = 0.7183CO 2 (t − 1)
+ ∑ c Δx
j =1
j t− j + dECTt −1 + ε t
− 6.3233x(t ) + 3.1635 x(t − 1) + 2.6860,
where x = 1/ln(GDPpc), if there is a crisis in
where y is CO2 or ln(CO2), x is GDPpc or the oil supply or not. It is made possible owing
ln(GDPpc) or 1/ln(GDPpc), and the error to Australia being a heavy user of coal, which
correction term ECT, expressed as is available in abundance in her soil. In 2004,
ECTt = yt − slope * xt − intercept, coal-based energy generation in Australia
is the residual of the cointegrating regression accounted for 44.6% of the total (BP, 2006)
obtained using the OLS procedure. The and coal-based electricity generation accounted
respective slope and the intercept values could for 79.3% of the total (WDI, 2007).
be obtained from Table 1. The coefficients of
ECM in Eq. (1) estimated using the Engle The model above, developed in this study,
Granger 2-Step Method (Engle and Granger predicts that Australia would have a total of
1987), and other relevant statistics are tabulated 440 Mt CO2 emissions in 2012, whereas Kyoto
in Table 2. Protocol allows only 294 Mt of emissions in
2012, which is 8% above the 1990 emissions
Discussion level. This means, in 2012, Australia would be
emitting 50% above the emissions allowed by
The coefficients of ECT, given by the values of the Kyoto Protocol in order to maintain its
d in Table 2, show that the error correction GDP per capita growth at a minimum of
term in Eq. (1) has significant effect on the 2.135%. The strong link between the GDP per
otherwise difference model in all three cases capita growth and the emissions as established
analysed. The AIC and BIC values of Table 2 in this study would probably explain why
make the Linear Model inferior to the Ln and Australia rejected Kyoto Protocol.
the Inverse Models. Of these two, the Inverse
Model is superior to the Ln Model since the Ln Acknowledgement
Model fails the tests for the normal distribution
of the residuals (as testified by the P-values University Research Grant RG/2006/28/E is
corresponding to the Shapiro-Wilk, gratefully acknowledged.
Kolmogorov-Smirnov, Cramer-von Mises and
Anderson-Darling tests). Moreover, the dw of References
the Inverse Model, being close to 2, also makes
it clear that the Inverse Model is the model to BP (2006) BP Statistical Review of World
be used for predicting the future CO2 emissions Energy June 2006, Downloaded on
in Australia. 02.02.2007 from
http://www.bp.com/statisticalreview
Figure 2 shows the emissions predicted by the Engle, R.F. and Granger, C.W.J. (1987) Co-
Inverse Model in comparison to the other two integration and error correction:
models and the actual emissions. The GDPpc representation, estimation and testing,
value used for model prediction is the actual Econometrica, 55(2), 251-76.
value until 2005 and after that it is generated Friedl, B. and Getzner, M. (2003) Determinants
using an annual GDPpc growth rate of 2.135%, of CO2 emissions in a small open economy,
which is the average growth rate for Australia Ecological Economics, 45, 133-48.
during the period 1961 to 2005 (World Bank, Granger, C.W.J. and Newbold, P. (1974)
2007). The CO2 value used for model Spurious regressions in econometrics,
prediction is the value predicted by the model Journal of Econometrics, 2, 111–120.
considered, except for the 1960 value. Figure 2 Shanthini, R. and Perera, K, (2006) Oil price
shows that the long term predictions made fluctuation incorporated models for carbon
using the Inverse Model trace the trend of the dioxide emissions and energy consumption
actual emissions much better than the other two of high-income economies, accepted for
models. publication in Ceylon Journal of Science:
Physical Sciences, Volume 13.
Stock, J.S. and Watson, M. (1988) Variable
Conclusions trends in economic time series, Journal of
Australian carbon dioxide emissions has a long Economic Perspectives, 2(3).
term tendency to keep growing with the GDP
256
UNFCCC (United Nations Framework transitions, Ecological Economics, 25, 221-

Convention on Climate Change), 1997, 9.
“Kyoto Protocol”, World Bank (2007) World Development
http://unfccc.int/kyoto_protocol/items/2830 Indicators, Online, Downloaded on
.php 27.7.2007 from
Unruh, G.C. and Moomaw, W.R. (1998) An http://publications.worldbank.org/
alternate analysis of apparent EKC-type susbcriptions/WDI/.
Table 1. Coefficients and other relevant statistics of the ECM
Model R2 Adj R2 Root

dw AIC BIC
(%) (%) MSE
CO2 = 23.498 GDPpc -131.427 0.977 0.977 0.74 9.792 171 173
Ln(CO2) = 1.750 ln(GDPpc) + 0.645 0.984 0.983 0.93 0.047 -224 -222
Ln(CO2) = -11.217 [1/ln(GDPpc)] + 9.535 0.976 0.976 0.66 0.057 -210 -208
Note: P<.0001 for both the intercept and slope coefficients, and dw, MSE, AIC and BIC stand for Durbin-Watson, Mean
Square Error, Akaike-Information Criterion and Schwarz Bayesian Information Criterion, respectively.
Table 2. Coefficients and other relevant statistics of the ECM

Linear model: Ln model: Inverse model:
ECM with y = CO2 ECM with y = ln(CO2) ECM with y = ln(CO2) and
and x = GDPpc and x = ln(GDPpc) x = 1/ln(GDPpc)
a, bi, cj of Eq. (1) Set to 0 since the OLS estimates of them are not significant (i.e. P>0.05)
C0 of Eq. (1) 13.5916 (P < 0.0001) 1.0071 (P < 0.0001) -6.3233 (P < 0.0001)
d of Eq. (1) -0.3374 (P = 0.0059) -0.4125 (P = 0.0019) -0.2817 (P = 0.0136)
R2; Adj R2 0.461; 0.429 0.508; 0.479 0.452; 0.419
dw 1.695 1.649 1.821
F-valve 14.52 (P < 0.0001) 17.58 (P < 0.0001) 14.03 (P < 0.0001)
Root MSE 6.58173 0.03365 0.03552
AIC; BIC 137.6; 139.8 -242.3; -240.0 -238.4; -236.1
Chi-Square for
0.89 (P = 0.8270) 3.27 (P = 0.3513) 2.44 (P = 0.4862)
heteroskedasticity
Shapiro-Wilk P = 0.2325 P = 0.0309 P = 0.5158
Kolmogorov-Smirnov P > 0.1500 P < 0.0100 P > 0.1500
Cramer-von Mises P = 0.1325 P = 0.0144 P > 0.2500
Anderson-Darling P = 0.1488 P = 0.0154 P > 0.2500
Figure 1. CO2 emissions and GDP per capita time series of Australia from 1960 to 2003
Figure 2. CO2 emissions, actual and predicted
257
Experimental Investigation of Condensation Heat Transfer Coefficient of

Refrigerants during in Tube Condensation
L. Rajapaksha* and Y.M.C.E.K. Abeykoon

Department of Mechanical Engineering, Faculty of Engineering, University of Peradeniya
Introduction three separate fluid circuits or loops;

refrigerant, cooling water and heating water, in
Heat transfer performance of a refrigerant is an the apparatus. The pre heater provides a
important aspect of the design of new measurable thermal load to the evaporator for
refrigeration systems or retrofit of existing the steady running for the system. Heat given
ones. Though there are accurate and sufficient up by condensing the refrigerant is measured
heat transfer performance data and correlations using the temperature rise of a known flow rate
for established and well-known refrigerants, of cooling water.
data for alternative fluids are not yet well
established or available in public domain. This Test rig design, assembly and running
situation makes experimental investigation of
heat transfer performance of alternative The design of the rig includes sizing the heat
refrigerants important. This paper briefly exchangers, compressor, expansion valve and
describes the design and fabrication of a test rig refrigerant pipes. Instrumentation of the test rig
to find the condensation heat transfer is another important aspect where sensing
coefficients of mixture refrigerants in plain elements for pressure and temperature of the
tubes in the presence of lubricant, and presents refrigerant have to be embedded into the rig
initial results obtained for R134a. The results accurately, particularly to capture the
are compared with theoretical values obtained parameters during phase changing flow.
using correlations to demonstrate the validity
of the measurements so that the procedure Sizing the evaporator and the condenser was
could be extended to refrigerant mixtures. based on the log mean temperature difference
(LMTD) heat exchanger design method.
Heat exchangers of the test rig were initially Theoretical values of convective heat transfer
designed using selected correlations for coefficient of the refrigerant were obtained
common refrigerants. Figure 1 presents a using Dittus and Boelter (1985) and Shah
schematic of the test rig fabricated as a part of (1979) correlations. A counter flow
the research, and available at the Applied configuration is used in both heat exchangers
Thermodynamics Laboratory of the University and they are arranged as concentric tube (tube
of Peradeniya. The test rig includes an open in tube) heat exchangers and thermally
type compressor with provision to vary the insulated.
refrigerant volume flow rate by varying the
flow speed. It also includes a desuperheater,
condenser, pre heater and evaporator. There are
Evaporator
De-super heating Pre-heater

condenser
Condenser
Figure 1. Schematic diagram of the test rig
258
The refrigerant flow rate was varied by varying C W m w (Tw1 − Tw 2 )

the speed of the compressor. During testing, the U= (2)
evaporator was loaded using a stream of hot LΔTm
water generated with an electric heater. During
the test the inlet refrigerant to the main Results and discussion
condenser must not be in a superheated state.
Therefore, the flow rate of water and Table 1 presents some of the initial results
refrigerant should be adjusted as necessary to obtained with refrigerant R134a, after
achieve this. The flow rate could be measured commissioning the test rig. These give an idea
to a precision of ± 0.0001 m3 and temperature of the order of magnitude of the difference
to a precision of ± 0.1 oC. The refrigerant between average in-tube condensation
pressure and temperature at the inlet and outlet convective heat transfer coefficients obtained
of the condenser section is measured with from measurements under practical conditions
pressure transducers and thermocouples, and the corresponding theoretical values for
respectively. similar flow conditions. Compared to the
theoretical values, the results of the test rig are
The thermo-physical properties of refrigerants on average about 7% to 8% smaller.
were obtained from a refrigerant property
database which uses all the recent correlations Invariably there are certain aspects of the
and mixing rules to estimate refrigerant experiment where the ideal conditions
properties (McLinden et al., 1998). stipulated in the development of correlations
are difficult to achieve. The existence of
pressure drops, certain unavoidable heat losses,
Data reduction variation of flow patterns (compared to those
In-tube average heat transfer coefficient, hr-av, for which the correlations are developed) and
is calculated from the expression for overall certain assumptions used in data reduction such
heat transfer coefficient U as given in Eq (1). as negligible wall thicknesses etc contributes to
differences in the experimental and theoretical
1 π 1 1 d values.
= − − ln out (1)
h r − av K h w d out 2π d in Conclusions
Where, K is the thermal conductivity and, din The test rig was able to produce results for
and dout represent inner and outer diameters of R134a to better than 10% accuracy referred to
the tube respectively. predictions based on the correlations. For the
purpose of engineering design, accuracy of this
The waterside heat transfer coefficient, hW, is order of magnitude is acceptable for vapour
obtained using Dittus-Boelter correlation compression systems so that the experiment
(Dittus and Boelter, 1985). The overall heat can be extended to other refrigerants to obtain
transfer coefficient per unit length of the test in-tube convective heat transfer coefficients
section can be estimated using Eq (2), where C during condensation using the same test rig
and m are specific heat and mass flow rate, L is under practical conditions encountered in
the length of the test section, ΔTm is the log refrigeration system operation.
mean temperature difference, ant Tw is the
water temperature.
Table 1. Comparison of results obtained from test rig with theoretical estimates
Refrigerant Convective heat transfer
Trial
flow rate coefficient (W/m2K)
3
kg/s x10 Experimental1 Theoretical2
1 4.225 267.7 304.5
2 4.630 301.3 327.1
3 8.712 510.0 521.0
1 - Obtained using the test rig given in Figure 1
2 - Obtained using correlation in Ref [1] and [2]
259
Acknowledgements tubular type; re-printed in Int. Comm. Heat

Mass Transfer, 12, 3-22.
The assistance of W.M.M.P. Abeyrathne and McLinden, M., Klein, A.S., Lemmon, E.W.
G.S.K. Gunasena, during initial preparation and Peskin, P.A. (1998) REFPROP version
work up to commissioning of the test rig is 6.01, NIST, USA.
acknowledged with thanks. Support by the staff Shah, M.M. (1979) A general correlation for
of the Engineering Workshop in various ways, heat transfer during film condensation
and the research grant provided by the inside pipes, Int. J. Heat Mass Transfer, 22,
University of Peradeniya are also 547-556.
acknowledged with thanks.
References
Dittus, F.W. and Boelter, K.L.M. (1985) 1930,
Heat transfer in automobile radiators of the
260
Analysis of the Effect of Excessive Temperature and Humidity in a Production

Environment
L.U. Bakmeedeniya
Department of Mechanical Engineering, Faculty of Engineering, University of Peradeniya
Introduction
Methodology
Provision of a congenial working environment
is an important matter that affects productivity Two factories were selected as case studies
of any process or service. Various measures are where the occupants in the production floor
in place in industrial environments to maintain experience thermal discomfort.
conditions that make the working surrounding
comfortable. In the relevant standards, The geographical location and the factory
specifications are stipulated on acceptable layout were studied and suitable measurement
levels of temperatures, humidity, noise, etc., as grid was constructed to ensure accessibility, in
applied to different working environments, order that the intended floor measurements and
which are to be strictly adhered to. However, other readings could be obtained within an
the situation in most Sri Lankan industries is hour. At each grid point, dry and wet bulb
far from this, owing to lapses ranging from temperatures were recorded for the different
those in planning, to the implementation and layers which were, respectively, 1 m and 2 m
commissioning of a process. Complaints about above the floor. The process was repeated
high temperatures and humid conditions are throughout the working day (8 a.m. to 5 p.m.).
common on production floors where the Air flow velocity was also noted. The
number of workers per unit area or the investigation procedure implemented in was
generation of heat/moisture is relatively high. repeated after one month.
For examples apparel industries, footwear
manufacturers, catering industry/hotels etc., are Other observations made included the currently
common instances where one experiences such implemented solutions, inside/outside factory
adverse working conditions. In these cases, the conditions and the environment, the number of
main problem appears to be insufficient occupants, sources of heat generation, location
ventilation and heat and effluent removal. of fans and their effective region, blowers,
These two aspects are important to maintain a diffuser fans, windows, doors and related
balanced heat and moisture exchange process measurements.
between the process or the production floor, the
workers and the surroundings. Analysis of observations
The objective of the reported study was to For both case studies, relative humidity was
identify prevailing problems that affect the found from psychometric chart using dry and
human comfort in the working environments wet bulb temperature measurements, and
and to propose remedial actions using tools of hourly plots of relative humidity and ambient
computational fluid dynamics in accordance temperature contours were individually
with the relevant standards. Investigations were obtained.
carried out to study the factors and analysis
done with the help of available thermal comfort The behaviour of temperature and RH variation
standards to draw conclusions from an were examined on an hourly basis and
engineering view point. compared to detect special patterns as well as
repetitive behaviours. In addition, the nature of
This study looks into the present state of the background, such as fans, occupants,
selected industries in the above context to functions etc., were considered to determine
understand the gravity of the issue using basic their contributions to the problem and the
heat transfer and fluid dynamic principles amount of heat generation was also calculated
applied to two-dimensional flow, as a part of as necessary. Considering the results the
the research. It is expected to extend the existing problems were determined.
analysis to three-dimensional flow situations
using tools of computational fluid dynamics.
261
Table 1. Comparison between standard values and results

Value in standards Observed value
Parameter ASHRAE BOI Case 1 Case 2
Temperature / ºC 23 - 26 23 - 26 29 - 35 29 – 34
Relative humidity / % 30 - 60 30 - 60 64 - 87 62 – 83
Space per occupant / ft3 400 * 290 364
* Space per person should be more than 400 ft3 where no space over height of 14 feet
(BOI, 2004; ASHRAE 55, 1981)
Comparisons and discussion relative humidity was also outside the comfort
zone. In this factory, the presence of fumes
Case 1 – An apparel industry situated in the from the chemicals used in the process
Central province contributes to the increase of temperature
levels. There was also a high rate of heat gain
It was observed that the temperature contours from several sources. The presence of a wide
followed a similar pattern in some regions monitor roof also led to the formation of eddies
throughout the day. Figure 1 shows such a at the high levels leading to the stagnation of
contour in the factory during the most critical warm air in the breathing zone.
period. All the pedestal fans were placed in a 4.00
way that air movement was forced towards the
rear wall. But the exit door and the window
areas were not enough to provide sufficient
space to expel the air. As a result, air was 3.00
trapped in the vicinity of the wall, which also
reaps the higher temperature. The
corresponding RH contours did not reflect the
2.00
pattern of the temperature contours. However,
the humidity range in the floor was not at the
desired level.
1.00
5.00 1.00 2.00 3.00 4.00 5.00 6.00 7.00 8.00
4.50
Figure 2. Temperature contours at 2 pm
4.00 (Footwear manufacturing factory)
3.50
Conclusions
3.00
2.50
According to the results, observations and
comparisons it can be seen that the factory
2.00 floor environments did not have desired values
1.50
of ambient temperature, relative humidity, and
also the space per person. Thus, it can be
1.00
1.00 1.50 2.00 2.50 3.00 3.50 4.00 4.50 5.00 5.50 6.00 6.50 7.00 concluded that the major contributory factors
Rear wall for the thermal discomfort are insufficient
ventilation, insufficient heat and effluent
Figure 1. Temperature contours at 2 pm removal inside the floor owing to improper
(Apparel industry) implementation of the present solutions,
noxious building configuration and inadequate
Case 2 – Footwear manufacturing factory space per person on the floor.
situated in Western province
References
Here again, the analysis of the observations
(Figure 2) shows an example of a critical ASHRAE 55 (1981) Air quality and thermal
temperature contour in the factory, and other comfort in factory buildings, Construction
details show major factors, which affect the Technology Update, 64.
occupants’ thermal comfort. Temperature at the BOI Enterprises (2004) General Guidelines for
floor was above the accepted level, and the Factory Buildings
262
Limitation on Connecting Mini Hydro Power Plants to the Sri Lankan Power System
Network: A Case Study at Balangoda Grid Substation
A.I. Weerasekera1, A. Arulampalam2* and J.B. Ekanayake2

1
Ceylon Electricity Board, Kandy, 2Department of Electrical and Electronic Engineering,
Faculty of Engineering, University of Peradeniya
Introduction embedded mini hydro generators under night

peak and early morning light loading
In 2002 many mini hydro power plants were conditions. Data collection and preprocessing
proposed to connect to the Sri Lankan power
system network due to heavy shortage of The mini hydro plants connected to the
electricity occurred. Today 60 mini hydro Balangoda grid substation is shown in Figure 1.
plants (Ceylon Electricity Board, 2006a)are Distances of the plant connection from the line
connected to 10 grid substations and further 22 and rating of the each mini hydro plant are
(Ceylon Electricity Board, 2006b) already marked in this Figure.
issued LOI for connection. However, mini
hydro plants operations are irregular in two Data collection and preprocessing
ways. The most effected irregularity is due to
faults. The MV lines are more prone for The mini hydro plants connected to the
failures. Therefore the mini hydro operation got Balangoda grid substation is shown in Figure 1.
interrupted several times per months. This Distances of the plant connection from the line
causes difficulties to the system operators. The and rating of the each mini hydro plant are
most challenging cases occurred due to a line marked in this Figure 1.
breaking during heavy loaded conditions and
over voltage problems at light loaded The data pertaining to loads and the generation
operations. schedule at the night peak and early morning
load of 10th May 2006 was fed to IPSA. The
This study is carried out in order to ascertain effects of connecting mini hydro plants are
the implications to the power system network studied with these loading conditions. The
due to the connection of mini hydro power night peak load at Balangoda Grid Substation
plants. For this study Balangoda Grid was 24.2 MW and 9.6 MVAr and there were 11
Substation is chosen as it has the maximum mini hydro plants which could be connected
penetration of mini hydro plants compared to and capable of delivering maximum amount of
other Grid Substations. This study is based on 30.0 MW power. The minimum load at
the data collected at the mini hydro plants Balangoda sub station was 6.4 MW, 2.8MVAr
connected to the Balangoda Grid Substation. at early morning.
Several power system network loading and
mini hydro generating conditions were studied. The combinations are from no contribution to
Limitations of over voltages were found and full contribution from mini hydros in steps of
discussed when large number of mini hydros is 20% increasing in generation at night peak &
integrated at their above 60% capacity (Ceylon minimum load condition.
Electricity Board, 2006c).
Discussion
Methodology
With the connection of mini hydro plants even
The complete Sri Lankan power system which with a generation of 60% at peak, voltage of
includes the generation & transmission system Gomala Oya, Rakwana and Wijeriya bus bars
of 220/132 kV is modeled in IPSA. The 33 kV are above the limits. There are about 42
distribution system is represented by 33 kV distribution sub stations fed from above and all
lumped loads at each grid substation. The 33 consumers may experience over voltage. One
kV feeders at Balangoda grid with mini hydro solution to this is to transfer some loads from
plants are modeled with mini hydro plants. adjoining grids to Balangoda grid. Other wise
Rests of the 33 KV systems are represented as the generation has to be curtailed. At light
loads at appropriate Grid Substations. The loading condition, the situation is more severe.
system was studied with and without the Even with a generation of 40% voltage of
263
Gomala Oya, Rakwana and Wijeriya bus bars exceed the limits.
Table 1. Voltage of each bus bar
Voltage for heavy loading(peak loading) and light loading

Bus bar Percentage generation of mini hydro
0% 20% 40% 60% 80% 100%
Balangoda 33Kv 0.998 1.015 1.000 1.016 1.000 1.014 0.999 1.011 0.996 1.006 0.991 1.000
Kuburuthanigala 0.986 1.015 0.991 1.018 0.993 1.018 0.994 1.018 0.993 1.015 0.991 1.011
Belihuloya 0.986 1.015 0.991 1.018 0.994 1.019 0.995 1.018 0.994 1.016 0.992 1.012
Sithagala 0.987 1.015 0.995 1.021 1.000 1.024 1.003 1.025 1.004 1.024 1.004 1.021
Alupotha 0.983 1.015 0.994 1.023 1.001 1.028 1.006 1.031 1.010 1.032 1.011 1.031
Babarathotuwa 0.975 1.015 0.992 1.029 1.005 1.039 1.016 1.048 1.024 1.054 1.030 1.058
Hapugastenna 0.974 1.015 0.991 1.029 1.006 1.041 1.017 1.050 1.026 1.057 1.033 1.061
Way Ganga 0.981 1.015 1.002 1.132 1.017 1.043 1.027 1.043 1.032 1.051 1.032 1.049
Gomala Oya 0.963 1.015 1.004 1.049 1.035 1.074 1.058 1.093 1.074 1.105 1.083 1.111
Rakwana 0.957 1.015 1.006 1.056 1.043 1.084 1.073 1.112 1.094 1.130 1.109 1.141
Wijeriya 0.955 1.015 1.007 1.059 1.048 1.098 1.080 1.121 1.105 1.141 1.122 1.155
Table 2. Line flows and line losses

Fault level MVA Fault level MVA
Bus bar Without With mini Bus bar Without mini With mini
mini hydros hydros hydros hydros
Balangoda 33Kv 1092.754 1266.835 Hapugastenna 108.703 311.607
Kuburuthanigala 237.011 332.148 Way Ganga 161.137 367.976
Belihuloya 211.293 290.604 Gomala Oya 75.772 219.822
Sithagala 255.557 366.773 Rakwana 59.127 193.199
Alupotha 194.951 321.661 Wijeriya 52.796 235.994
Babarathotuwa 116.764 286.510
Table 3. Fault level

Fault level MVA Fault level MVA
Bus bar Without With mini Bus bar Without mini With mini
mini hydros hydros hydros hydros
Balangoda 33Kv 1092.754 1266.835 Hapugastenna 108.703 311.607
Kuburuthanigala 237.011 332.148 Way Ganga 161.137 367.976
Belihuloya 211.293 290.604 Gomala Oya 75.772 219.822
Sithagala 255.557 366.773 Rakwana 59.127 193.199
Alupotha 194.951 321.661 Wijeriya 52.796 235.994
Babarathotuwa 116.764 286.510
Fault level of Balangoda grid is increased by 132 kV side has increased by 1.22 MW by
16% by connecting the mini hydro plants. connecting the mini hydro plants. It is 37%
Breakers at the grid at 33kV level have a short increase over the losses without mini hydro
circuit capacity of 1450 MVA. Hence at this plants.
moment it is not a problem. If any other plants
to be connected the switch gear of Balangoda Conclusions
grid sub has to be changed.
At Balangoda grid, mini hydro plants
The line losses due to the connection of the penetration is studied. This has shown that the
mini hydro plants have been increase by 3 voltages at the mini hydro plants terminals
MW. This is very significant as it was 0.14 have already exceeds the limits with above
MW with out mini hydros. The line losses of 60% injection at night peak loading conditions.
264
Further over voltages occurred in several points Ceylon Electricity Board (2006b) Medium
at light loading condition. This has also Voltage System Planning Report 2006,
increased the fault level at the grid substation Sabaragamuwa Province.
by 16%. Therefore this study concludes that for Ceylon Electricity Board (2006c) Monthly
proper utilization of mini hydro plants, a Review Report - May 2006, System Control
voltage control mechanism must be adopted at Branch.
the grid.
References
Ceylon Electricity Board (2006a) Statistical
Digest 2006, Statistical Unit, Commercial
& Corporate Branch.
Figure 1. Mini hydro plants connected to Balangoda grid substation
265
Microgrid Operations: Case Study at Nilambe Mini Hydro Grid
D.N. Navaratne1, J.B. Ekanayake2 and A. Arulampalam2*

1
Asset Management Hydro Electrical, Ceylon Electricity Board, Kandy
2
Introduction
A simplified model of the system is shown in
Embedded generation technologies are proved Figures 2. The transformer and the series
by researchers as one of the solution to satisfy impedance of the line are lumped into one
the increasing electricity demand while series impedance of (0.354+j27.626) Ω. AVR
optimizing the existing network (Jenkins, and governor controls together with
2000). In Europe micro grid technology also synchronization control are shown in Figures 3
potentially studied to supply green electricity to and 4. The AVR consists of a PI regulator with
most important industries (Lasseter, 2002; an output derivative feedback function to
Arulampalam et al., 2004). However, represent the practical AVR response. The
challenges are being made on keeping the governor consists of a PI regulator with the
micro grid running when the main grid was
disconnected due to a fault and smooth M AIN GRID
reconnection of micro grid when fault is

cleared.
PT1
PT2
The objective of this study is to find out the M icro grid
possibility of synchronizing a microgrid to the

main grid at grid connection point, when it is
disconnected due to a fault.
Transmission
LO AD
LO AD
LO AD
In this study, Nilambe 1.6 MW mini hydro LO AD
generator with its surrounding grid shown in

Figure 1 was taken as micro grid. It was
Synchronizer
G
studied whether the embedded generator could AVR

Governor
be kept running while feeding surrounding

loads during a Grid failure. The frequency and Figure 1. Micro grid at Nilambe
voltage maintaining capability of this generator permanent droop feedback.
was also checked with shedding excess loads
when it was islanded. Finally automated
synchronizing control of this micro grid was Data collection and modeling
studied once the grid was restored. I=0.5 F Grid voltage
-
+
P=4
Methodology Limiter Non linear Gain
Break point =0.1 pu
B Micro grid voltage
The micro grid with embedded generator was

P+I of AVR
Synchronization input B
P=10
-
modeled using EMTDC/PSCAD simulation
1 1
Reference +
D -+ 1 + 0.5s 1 + 0.5s field
G I
package. All the loads in the medium voltage Voltage feedback
F I=0.2
Excitor
network lumped into two loads one 0.1s

1 +0.1 s
0.1
representing the non frequency sensitive loads Figure 2. Simulation model of the AVR
and other representing frequency sensitive
loads. Initially steady state stability of the
micro grid, connected to the main grid, was
studied. Automatic Voltage Regulator (AVR)
operation and governor controller operations
were checked in islanded operation. Finally
resynchronization and automatic grid
connection was checked, when grid was
resorted. Data of generator, transformer and
feeder is annexed. Figure 3. Simulation model of the governor
266
Figure 4. Simulation model of the studied system

In simulation, the stability of the generator in Here the generator governor setter and the
islanded mode, just after tripping of the AVR setter were kept at 1.08 pu and 1.01 pu
breaker at the grid connection point, was respectively.
studied (generator was loaded to ≈75% of its
capacity). The results are shown in Figure The stability of the generator during
5a. Similarly the stability of the generator synchronization to the grid, when grid
just after shedding of lumped frequency voltage was initially at 1.06 pu and
depended sensitive loads (0.544 MW) was frequency was 1.1 pu, was tested and results
studied and results are shown in Figure 5b. are shown in Figure 6 and the voltage
The voltage variations in the generator bus variations are tabulated in Table 2. The
and the micro grid point of connection to synchronizing parameters are selected as (i)
grid were tabulated in Table 1. maximum frequency deviation is ± 150 mHz
and (ii) maximum voltage deviation is ±10%.
Simulation results
Excitation Voltage Excitation Voltage

1.20 1.20
1.00 1.00
0.80 0.80
pu
pu
0.60 0.60
0.40 0.40
Generator bus voltage Generator bus voltage

1.050 1.050
1.000 1.000
pu
pu
0.950 0.950
line end voltage line end voltage
1.020 1.020
0.990 0.990
pu
pu
0.960 0.960
Speed Speed
1.040 1.050
1.040
1.020
pu
1.030
pu
1.000 1.020
turbine turbine
0.60
0.80
0.70 0.50
pu
pu
0.60 0.40
0 50
0.0 5.0 10.0 15.0 20.0 0.0 5.0 10.0 15.0 20.0
Figure 5a. Results at islanded operation Figure 5b. Results at shedding loads
267
Conclusions
Table 1. Transient study results at islanded
This study confirms that synchronization of
and load shedding operations the Nilambe generator with the micro grid
Excessive load consisting of local loads after shedding the
Grid failure
shedding excessive load is possible. The proposed
Over Under Over Under AVR and governor control together with
shoot shoot shoot shoot automatic synchronizer has shown very good
Generator bus voltage/pu 1.025 0.983 1.026 1,001 performance within allowable responses
limits. Therefore this can be taken as a
Grid point voltage/pu 1.003 0.966 1.004 0.979
preliminary studied model in for developing
Generator Speed/pu 1.035 1.049 micro grid technology to the Sri Lankan
power system.
Guide vane opening /pu 0.556 0.378
A commercially available synchronizer can
be configured and used with transmitters and
receivers for this purpose of remote sensing
and synchronizing.
References
Arulampalam, A., Barnes, M., Engler, A.,
Goodwin, A. and Jenkins, N. (2004)
Control of power electronic interfaces in
distributed generation microgrids,
International Journal of Electronics,
91(9), 503-523.
Figure 6. Simulation results at synchronizing process Jenkins, N., Allan, R., Crossley, P.,
Table 2. Transient study results at Kirschen, D. and Strbac, G. (2000)
synchronizing process Embedded Generation, IEE power and
Pre
Over Under Steady
energy series 31, 2000, ISBN
synchroniza
shoot shoot state
0853967748
tion Lasseter, R.H. (2002) MicroGrids, IEEE
Generator bus voltage/pu 1.01 1.04 1.03 Power Engineering Society Winter
Grid point voltage/pu 0.991 1.021 1.02
Meeting, Volume 1, 305-308.
Generator Speed/pu 1.03 1.11 1.09 1.098 Appendixes
Guide vane opening /pu 0.41 0.851 0.346 0.438
Generator data: 3MVA, 6.9kV, 0.85 p.f.,
Xd=1.014 pu, Xd'=0.314 pu, Td0'=6.55 sec,
Discussion Xd"=0.28 pu, Tdo"=0.039 sec, Xq=0.77 pu,
The AVR and governor responses have Xq"=0.375 pu, Tqo"=0.071 sec, Inertia 2 sec.
proven that it can maintain the micro grid
stability after a grid failure with excessive Line data: 33kV tower line of "Links"
load rejection. The maximum generator bus conductor line length -2km, Positive
voltage overshoot is 2.6% and maximum sequence resistance - 0.177ohms/km,
grid point overshoot is 0.4% for the grid reactance - 0.313 ohms/km, Zero sequence
failure. The maximum frequency overshoot resistance - 0.326 ohms/km, reactance -
is 4.9%. The maximum bus voltage
overshoot during the synchronization is 3%. 1.588 ohms/km
The speed overshoot is 8%. Even though
these overshoots are little higher than the Transformer data: Capacity - 4MVA,
expected values, the system was stabilized Voltage ratio - 6.9kV/33kV, Impedance
within few seconds. voltage - 10%
268
Power Factor Correction and Harmonics Effect to an Industrial Load
S.K. Abeygunawardane, K.I.R. Prasanna, A. Arulampalam* and J.B. Ekanayake

Introduction were checked using oscilloscope. The

laboratory scale experimental setup is shown in
In the proposed long term development plan, Figure 1. The corresponding simplified
the Government of Sri Lanka has targeted to electrical circuit diagram is shown in Figure 2.
establish many new industries. To achieve this,
electricity generation should be increased. As shown in Figure 2, a three phase induction
Since we can not expect major power additions motor and a delta connected three phase
to the national system until proposed power inductor bank were connected to a three phase
projects are completed, effective energy supply. This is to represent industrial loads,
management is important. For higher mostly which are inductive in nature. Then
utilization of power, power factor has to be current and voltage waveforms were observed
maintained at closer to unity at every usage using the oscilloscope. Assume the lagging
point of electricity (Wang and Cheng, 2004). power factor of the system is cosϕ1.
At low power factor, transmission lines carry Three phase induction Inductive
both active power and reactive power and it
increases line current and line losses. On the
other hand CEB charges for high reactive
power consumption through kVA demand.
Therefore power factor correction is beneficial
to the supplier in terms of line loss and also to
the consumer in terms of bill payment.
However, the harmonic loads make sever
effects to the power factor correction capacitor Three phase Power factor
banks (Gajanayake et al., 2005; Shwedhi and rectifier loads correction capacitors
Sultan, 2000; Wagner et al., 1993). It has been
noted that several industries are suffering from Figure 1. Photograph of the experimental setup
burning capacitors.
This paper presents the power factor correction
method for inductive loads using capacitor
banks, and harmonic loads’ effect on the power
factor correction capacitors. All effects are
resonated with the simulation and experimental
results. To control harmonics in industries
passive filters, active filters or combined
systems can be used (Peng, 1990).
This paper proposes the Sri Lankan industries
to use harmonic filters in order to protect
capacitor banks from harmonics. Figure 2. Electrical circuit diagram of the
studied system
Methodology
Theoretically, a capacitor of Q kVAr can be
An inductive load supplied from three phase used to compensate same inductive power to
was modeled in EMTDC/PSCAD computer produce cosϕ = 1. But it is not a common
simulation package. This has also been made in practice as it is not much cost effective and
laboratory scale experimental setup. Power may result in overcompensation due to load
factor correction was carried out using a changes. Therefore it compensates to get a
capacitor bank. A three phase rectifier load was specified value; cos ϕ2, to which the power
used to produce the harmonics and its effects factor should be corrected.
269
Next, a three phase capacitor bank was S2, Q2 = Apparent power and reactive power
connected in parallel to loads to implement after power factor correction
power factor correction, and waveforms were QN = Reactive power compensated by the
observed. capacitor
QN A three phase rectifier which generates

S1 Q1 harmonics was connected in parallel to loads.
S2 The effect of the presence of harmonics in the
Q2 system to the capacitor bank was also
observed. Finally, a simulation study was
ϕ1 ϕ2 carried out for the above circuit and
P experimental results were compared with the
Figure 3. Power factor correction triangle simulation results.
P = Active power
S1, Q1 = Uncompensated apparent power and
reactive power
Vsupply ILoad*5
400
300
200
Volt, Amp 100
0
-100
-200
-300
-400
0.020 0.030 0.040 0.050 0.060
Figure 4. Waveform of the supply voltage and load current
Vsupply Isupply*5
400
300
200
Volt, Amp
100
0
-100
-200
-300
-400
0.020 0.030 0.040 0.050 0.060
Figure 5. Waveform of the supply voltage and supply current
Vsupply Icapacitor*5
400
300
200
Volt, Amp
100
0
-100
-200
-300
-400
0.020 0.030 0.040 0.050 0.060
Figure 6. Waveform of the supply voltage and capacitor current
Figure 7. Waveforms of the capacitor current and harmonic load current with supply voltage
270
Results capacitor and finally the capacitor will get

damage.
The experimental and simulation results are
shown in Figures 4, 5, 6 and 7. Experimental Conclusions
results are shown in left side while the
simulation results are on the right side. This study clearly explains the benefits of the
putting the power factor correction to the
Discussion industries and the CEB suppliers. Also it
proves that the harmonic current will increase
Power factor correction capacitor bank can be with harmonic load additions such as variable
used for power factor improvement in speed drives. Therefore it has given clear
industries, which are normally having highly explanation to the capacitor heating in
inductive loads. When the power factor industries when they installed more harmonic
correction capacitor bank is connected to the loads after installing the power factor
system with inductive loads total current drawn capacitors. Therefore proper monitoring of the
from the supply is reduced as shown in Figures harmonic content is important for proper
4 and 5. This confirms that the supplier current operation of the power factor correction
is reduced and thus the maximum kVA demand capacitor. To control harmonics in industries, a
also reduced. harmonic filter can be used. In the future we
plan to study the design of filters and
However, the capacitor bank introduces more practically implement a filter for harmonic
harmonics to the system. This can be observed control.
from the load and supply current waveforms
shown in Figures 4 and 5. This is mainly Acknowledgments
because of the already existing harmonics in
the supply voltage. This can be further confirm The authors are acknowledging Mr. M.G.H
when compare the capacitor current in Ranatunga, Mr. R.S. Abeythunga, Mr. T.C.
simulation and experimental waveforms shown Dissanayake and Miss. L. Karunanayake for
in Figure 5. Here the supply voltage had the their support in arranging the set up.
harmonics while simulation the harmonics was
not there. References
When a rectifier harmonic load is added to the Gajanayake, C.J., Ramtharan, G.,
system, it injects more harmonic current to the Samaraweera, G.K., Atputharajah, A. and
grid. In this case according to the Ekanayake, J.B. (2005) A survey of
characteristics of the power factor correction harmonic current at several industries in Sri
capacitors, they show low impedance to the Lanka, Journal of the National Science
harmonic current. Therefore the capacitor Foundation, Sri Lanka, 33(3), 205 – 217.
current waveform in Figure 7 is increased. Peng, F., Akagi, H. and Nabae, A. (1990) A
However, in this experimental set up a small new approach to harmonic compensation in
harmonic load was used and also the supply power system- A combined system of series
voltage already consisted harmonics due to active and shunt passive filters, Electrical
neighborhood harmonic loads. Therefore Engineering in Japan, 110(5), 88-98.
significant increment in the harmonic current Shwedhi, M.H. and Sultan M.R. (2000) Power
could not be seen when harmonic load was factor correction capacitors; essentials and
added. As a result it can be concluded that the cautions, Power Engineering Society
harmonic current increased in the power factor Summer Meeting, IEEE 3, 1317 – 1322.
correction capacitors when harmonic loads are Wagner, V.E., Balda, J.C., Griffith, D.C.,
added to the grid in neighborhood areas. McEachern, A., Barnes, T.M., Hartmann,
D.P., Phileggi, D.J., Emannuel, A.E.,
Recently many industries already placed Horton, W.F., Reid, W.E., Ferraro, R.J. and
several variable speed drives for energy saving Jewell, W.T. (1993) Effects of harmonics
purpose. Most of these are heavy harmonic on equipment, Power Delivery, IEEE
loads. Therefore the harmonic current drawn in Transactions, 8(2), 672-680.
to the power factor correction capacitors will Wang, D.H. and Cheng, K.W.E. (2004)
also be increased. An industry must consider General discussion on energy saving, First
about its already installed power factor International Conference on Power
correction capacitor, because this will heat the Electronics Systems and Applications, 298
– 303.
271
Modelling Sri Lankan Power System to Study the Effect on Dynamic Stability with
Large Scale Wind Power Integration
R.H.B. Ekanayake1, A. Arulampalam2* and J.B. Ekanayake2

1
Ceylon Electricity Board, Kandy
2
Introduction
In the next step, the generator data required for
To meet the increasing demand for electrical transient studies was inserted in to the
energy, the estimated need of new generating database. In first attempt, no typical data was
capacity to the Sri Lankan power system is used in place of missing data. This allows the
over 4400 MW in next 15 years (Ceylon system to run on IPSA default values. Dynamic
Electricity Board, 2003; Ceylon Electricity stability of the system was then studied to
Board, 2005). Studies have revealed that wind demonstrate the stability model of the IPSA.
is the most promising option of the available Then in second attempt, the default damping
renewable sources for grid connected power factor (which was zero in IPSA) was slightly
generation in Sri Lanka other than the adjusted together with minimum required
conventional larger generating stations. Wind transient data using typical values. This was
energy resource assessment study carried out in done for machines, which were not had
2002 has confirmed the availability of 20,000 sufficient data. These values were stored in a
MW of wind resources in north-western coastal different database thus leaving the database
region from Kalpitiya Peninsular to Mannar with real data untouched.
Island, Jafna Peninsular and the Central
Highlands. The following Stability criterion is used. The
system shall remain stable during and after a
However not enough studies are available to system disturbance for three phase faults at any
assess the transmission grid accessibility of O/H line cleared by the protection with
these wind resources. And also no system successful and unsuccessful auto re-closing
studies are carried out on routine basis for including a possible loss of generation and load
transmission connection proposal for non- transformer. Few marginal dynamic stability
dispatchable power including the large scale cases were identified for this study through the
integration of wind power. However the studies experience on the recent faults events in the
associated with large scale integration of wind CEB system and by considering the three phase
power are less complication than that of the fault levels at all the bus bars.
distributed power generation. Yet dynamic
stability is the concerning issue due to the In present Sri Lankan power system stability
intermittency of the wind power availability issues are more vulnerable during the periods
and also due to the limitations of supporting the of more concentrated heavy hydro generation.
fault current by wind generators. These periods are generally occurred in July-
August and November-December, for normally
Methodology anticipated weather patterns. Therefore within
The Sri Lankan transmission system is initially this paper the stability analysis was limited to
modelled using IPSA software, with data system peak loading occurred at 19:30 hrs on
sufficient for steady state analysis. The best 7th August 2006. The considered peak had
option would be to build the model from the 50% concentrated hydro 30% concentrated
beginning using the database, which will thermal and 20% dispersed mixed generation
accommodate the easy maneuverability of the [Ceylon Electricity Board, 2006]. All loads
model for different applications and users. It were modelled as fixed load as it represent
also helps the gradual upgrading of the worst case. In other words the motor loads
database with real data when available. The generally supports towards greater stability
model thus developed was run for steady state than the fixed loads.
analysis and the computed values were
compared with actual measured values for Finally, the impact on the dynamic stability of
different loading conditions. the Sri Lankan power system on integrating
272
moderately large wind power to the system at done for successful three phase re-closure after
identified Grids, were studied for the selected 300 ms and also for unsuccessful re-closure.
marginal stability cases. Study within this The fault clearing time was assumed as 100 ms.
paper was limited to 100 MW wind integration Four cases were studied in simulation and their
at Puttlam Grid Substation for a night peak waveforms are shown in Figure 1, 2, 3 and 4.
loading condition.
Case 1: Fault at Kps_220 bus bar cleared
Results through bus bar protection
Following bus bars are more vulnerable for
dynamic instability when three phase fault
occurs at the line with heaviest current, closest
to the bus bar. Measured and calculated
voltages and load flow are listed in the Tables
1, 2 and 3 (Ceylon Electricity Board, 2006).
Table 1. Comparison of voltage results
Voltage Voltage
Bus Bar measured calculated
(kV) (kV) Figure 1(a) Bus voltages Figure 1(b) SM rotor angle
Kotmale_220 225.0 223.3
Victoria_220 230.0 226.2 In Figure 1(a), around 165 MW generation is
Kalnya_132 130.0 129.4 loss from the system when clearing the Kps
Fort_132 128.0 129.2 220 bus bar for a bus bar fault. In Figure 1(b),
SapGS_132 132.0 129.8 KGT1 is a machine closer to the affected bus
LaxNew_132 132.0 133.9
bar and Victoriya G1 is a machine far away to
the affected bus bar. Both machines are
remaining in stability after the bus bar fault.
Table 2. High fault level 220 kV bus bars & Case 2: Double Faults on Biyagama Kotmale
heavily loaded lines with load flow 220 kV Lines at Biyagama end
comparison
Symmetri. Heavily loaded Calcula. Measur.
Bus Bar fault level line / load load
(pu MVA) Generator (MW) (MW)
Biygma_220 46.601 Kotmale_220 141.83 140
Kps_220 44.228 Kps_CCG 104.99 105
Kotmale_220 40.948 Biygma_220 141.83 140
Panni_220 39.409 Biygma_220 58.63 60
Ktgoda_220 37.226 Biygma_220 81.33 80
Victoria_220 36.167 Kotmale_220 91.25 90 Figure 2(a) with re-closing Figure 2(b) without re-closing
Biyagma 220 and Kotmale 220 are buses with

Table 3. High fault level 132 kV bus bars & heavy fault level and experiences system
heavily loaded lines with load flow collapse during double faults under certain
comparison loading conditions. Kps CCS closer to the
affected bus is critically stable on unsuccessful
Symmetric Heavily Calcula Measur. re-closing.
Bus Bar . fault level loaded line / load load
(pu MVA) generator (MW) (MW) This demonstrates the modelling capability of
Kalnya_132 40.845 SapGS_132 49.17 50 IPSA to study dynamic stability issues. It was
Fort_132 40.518 Kps_132 69.88 70 checked with 400 ms clearing time and with
SapGS_132 37.822 Biygma_132 69.78 70 longer clearing time without re-closing it
Polpitiya_132 37.450 Kotmale_132 61.76 60 shows the reaching critical stability on the
LaxNew_132 37.025 Polpitiya_132 50.50 50
Kollon_132 44.173 Mrdna_132 63.57 65
Kotmale machine closer to the fault.
The stability studies were done on the modelled

Sri Lankan power system network. This was
273
Case 3: ApuraNew line at Kotmale without re- that the wind is connected through a
closing 300 ms clearing delay representative synchronous generator. During a
disturbance wind generation will back off from
the system without supporting the fault current,
in worst case scenario.
Conclusions
Calculated load data through steady state load
flow analysis is tallied with measured data.
Instabilities shown in the system for
unsuccessful auto re-closing at Biyagama
Figure 3(a). No wind Figure 3(b). With wind Kotmale 220 kV double circuits for
simultaneous faults, is a known issue in the
system, which was instrumental on blackout of
Discussion
the system as well. Also few selected marginal
cases of instability were not worsened due to
The database approach is the most appropriate the introduction of 100 MW wind at Puttlam.
for power system model development in IPSA. This was evident from the case of three phase
The initial steady state and security analysis fault on ApuraNew line at Kotmale bus bar
was done through the partly populated without re-closing and 300 ms clearing delay.
database. Studying of the large power system Therefore the developed IPSA model of the Sri
was done in highly structured manner in the Lankan power system can be used for further
order of steady state load flow analysis, rate studies of the system.
exception handling and contingency analysis.
The dynamic stability of power system was References
studied only after solving and / or identifying
the unsolved issues in the order mentioned. In Ceylon Electricity Board (2003) Long Term
the process, the model is validated by Transmission Development Studies 2004 –
comparing to the measured load data and also 2013.
to the known instability issues. Finally the Ceylon Electricity Board (2005) Long Term
model was used to forecast the system stability Generation Expansion Plan 2006 – 2020.
for large scale wind integration at the most Ceylon Electricity Board (2006) System
promising site at Puttlam, where the base load Control & Operations – Monthly Review
coal power plant is also anticipated. In large Reports.
scale wind integration of wind, it is assumed
274
FACULTY OF SCIENCE
and
POSTGRADUATE
INSTITUTE OF SCIENCE
Structural Studies of Plant Pigments Used in Dye Sensitized Solar Cells
F.M. Hussain1, V. Sivakumar1* and K. Tennakone2

1
Department of Physics, Faculty of Science, University of Peradeniya
2
Institute of Fundamental Studies, Hanthana Road, Kandy
Introduction was extracted in a 50% methanol solution,

while pigments from pomegranate and spinach
In the modern world, there exists a high were extracted by squeezing the seed coats and
demand for pure and clean sources of energy. filtering the juice. Further, a purification
Solar cells can be identified as a good method was followed in order to isolate
candidate for this category. The use of natural anthocyanins from any impurities, which may
dyes as sensitizers for solar cells is justified by have been present in the extracted pigment.
the need to produce energy which is at the UV-Visible spectroscopy was used to identify
same time reliable, safe and eco-friendly the presence of anthocyanins in all three
(O’Regan and Gratzel, 1991). Generally, pigment samples.
anthocyanins are considered as suitable natural
pigments to be used in dye sensitized solar In order to analyze the pigment samples using
cells. DRIFT spectroscopy, they were converted
from liquid form to powder form by mixing
Anthocyanins are water soluble pigments with potassium bromide (KBr) powder
which can be found in most land plants with a followed by drying. Spectra corresponding to
few exceptions such as cacti and the group the pigment alone and the pigment adsorbed
containing the beet. These pigments reflect the onto TiO2 were separately obtained for each
red to blue range of the visible spectrum. sample. Hybrid HF/DFT calculations were
Therefore, they are responsible for the red, done using the B3LYP method within Gaussian
purple and blue colours in many fruits, 03 to quantify the vibrational properties of the
vegetables, grains and flowers. pure pigment and the pigment adsorbed to
TiO2.
Anthocyanins can be divided into sugar free
anthocyanin aglycons and anthocyanin Results
glycosides with sugar moieties attached. There
are many types of anthocyanins present in The cyanidin models in Figure 1 were used in
nature which are named according to the types the theoretical calculations carried out. Model
and positions of functional groups attached to A corresponds to the pure cyanidin molecule,
the central core of the anthocyanin molecule. while model B is the molecule after binding
The most abundant anthocyanin in nature is with Ti. In Figures 2, 3 and 4, experimental and
cyanin. calculated spectra corresponding to each
sample studied were compared.
The use of anthocyanins in dye sensitized solar
cells can be justified, as the structure of the The encircled area in the experimental spectra
molecule suggests possible anchorage to in Figure 2 shows the disappearance of the
titanium dioxide. band around 1077 cm-1, which corresponds to
the free OH bending mode. Similarly, the
This paper presents the structural study of encircled area of the calculated spectra in
natural pigments used in dye sensitized solar Figure 2 also shows the disappearance of the
cells with the aid of Diffuse Reflectance band around 1100 cm-1.
Infrared Fourier Transform (DRIFT)
spectroscopy and theoretical calculations of The encircled area of the experimental spectra
vibrational modes using hybrid Hartree- in Figure 3 shows the downward shift of the
Fock/density functional theory (HF/DFT). band around 1400 cm-1, which corresponds to
the OH bending and C-C stretching mode.
Materials and methods Similarly, the encircled area in the calculated
spectra in Figure 3 also shows the clear
Pigments were extracted from three sources downward shift of the band around 1400 cm-1
namely purple yam, pomegranate seeds and after adsorption onto TiO2.
spinach seeds. The pigment from purple yam
275
Figure 1. Cyanidin models used in vibrational mode calculations
Figure 2. Experimental DRIFT spectra for spinach (left) and calculated spectra for the cyanidin
models (right)
Figure 3. Experimental DRIFT spectra for purple yam (left) and calculated spectra for the
cyanidin models (right)
The encircled area of the experimental spectra Conclusions

in Figure 4 shows the downward shift of the
band around 1700 cm-1, which mainly From both experimental and theoretical results,
corresponds to the C=O stretching mode, after it can be concluded that:
adsorption onto TiO2. The encircled area of the
calculated spectra in Figure 4 also shows the 1. Experimental results for all the pigments
downward shift of the band around 1700 cm-1 well agree with the theoretical results
after adsorption onto TiO2. calculated for the cyanidin model.
276
Figure 4. Experimental DRIFT spectra for pomegranate (left) and calculated spectra for the
cyanidin models (right)
density of the cyanidin molecule upon

2. A band corresponding to the free OH adsorption to Ti.
bending mode around 1100 cm-1
disappears after adsorption to TiO2. This Acknowledgements
proves that the anchoring to Ti is
through hydroxyl groups of cyanidin. Financial assistance by the University of
Peradeniya (Research Grant RG/2006/44/S) is
3. The band corresponding to the OH acknowledged.
bending and C-C stretching around 1400
cm-1 shifts downwards upon adsorption References
to Ti. Similarly, another band around O’Regan, B. and Gratzel, M. (1991) A low-
1700 cm-1 mainly corresponding to C=O cost, high efficiency solar cell based on
and C=C stretching modes splits upon dye-sensitized colloidal TiO2 films, Nature,
adsorption. These shifts and splits are 353, 737.
mainly due to the change in electron
277
Layers – An Abstract Extension of Fields for Higher Dimensions
H.M. Nasir* and M.S.M. Waasim

Department of Mathematics, Faculty of Science, University of Peradeniya
Introduction is by itself a nice achievement in this endeavor.

Extensions of complex numbers have been an
We propose a new abstract algebraic system, active subject in the 19th century by many
which extends the notion of real and complex prominent mathematicians such as Hurwitz,
number systems. With the relaxation of some Clifford, Graves, Grassman and Hamilton. The
field axioms, we are able to extend the complex notable extensions in this period are the
number system to higher dimensions. This Clifford and Grassman algebras that have
extension gives ways to analyze many applications in physics. Hamilton’s quaternion
problems in physics and engineering. and the subsequent discovery of octonion were
considered big achievements in the search of
The study was motivated by considering the higher dimensional fields.
general solution of the Laplace equation. In a
three dimensional domain, the Laplace But all these extensions lacked one or more
important properties of multiplication, namely
equation is given by Δu = ∂ u + ∂ u + ∂ u = 0.
2 2 2
commutative and associative.
∂x 2
∂y 2
∂z 2
Separation of variables u = X ( x )Y ( y ) Z ( z ) Recently, Fleury et al., (1993) have extended
the complex number theory with these two
yields X " + Y " + Z " = 0. Since the terms in this properties intact to higher dimensional vector
X Y Z spaces and called them multicomplex numbers.
equation are dependent on only one variable, These multicomplex numbers mostly behave
each term equals to a constant, say, like complex numbers and most of the
algebraic and analytic properties were shown
X" Y" Z" by Fleury et al., (1995). Our definition is more
= −a 2 , = −b 2 and = −c 2 , where
X Y Z general and includes the multicomplex number
a, b, c satisfy a 2 + b 2 + c 2 = 0, and the solutions system as a simple example.
are given by u = e ax +by + cz . In fact, one may A New Abstract Set
easily see that for any function f (w) with
We define a new abstract space as follows:
f ' ' ( w) ≠ 0, the expression
u = f ( ax + by + cz ) is a solution. We seek a Definition 1: Let V0 ,V1 ,V2 , ...,Vn , ... be vector
space in which the constants might be with the spaces over the real field R with
conditions that a , b , c are linearly ∞
dim Vn = d n , V0 = R and V = U Vn . Then,
independent and quadratic dependent. In fact, n =0
there are no constants in the real and/or u , v ∈ V ⇒ u ∈ Vn , v ∈ Vm for some m, n .

complex fields that satisfy the above two Define multiplication of vectors in V
properties, because any three member in these
satisfying the following four axioms:
fields are linearly dependent. This observation
L1: uv ∈ Vm + n ⊆ V .
demands us to consider a number system,
which is other than the real and complex fields. L2: uv = vu , ∀ u , v ∈ V .
This motivation and application was presented L3: (uv) w = u (vw), ∀ u , v, w ∈ V .
in IWAMCS07 (Nasir et al., 2007).
L4: 1u = u, ∀ u ∈ V , where 1 ∈ V0 .
Literature review In this new construction, we relax the existence
The theory of numbers has always been a quite of multiplicative inverse. Addition between
fascinating and rich subject and seems to stem elements of different vector spaces is used for
from ancient Greece. Complex number theory symbolic purpose only. We call the abstract
278
space ‘Layer’; each vector space Vn ⊆ V a Definition: A Layer is called a Harmonic

Layer if there is a basis B1 = {a1 , a 2 , a3 , L a n }
layer of mode n; the space V0 the ‘unit layer’
for the base layer V1 such that ∑ ai2 = 0 .
n
which is R; the space V1 the ‘base layer’ and i =1
the dimension of V1 the ‘base dimension’. All

the zero vectors 0 m ∈ Vm are commonly called Theorem 2: Let V be a harmonic Layer with
base B1 = {a, b, c} . Then, the set of 2m+1
zero and are denoted by 0.
monomials of degree m given by
Example 1: Let D2 be the set defined by {a m , a m−1b, a m−2b 2 ,L, b m ;
D2 = {ax + by ; a 2 + b 2 = 0 , x , y ∈ R} and a m−1c, a m−2bc,L, b m−1c}
Vn = {a n −1 z | z ∈ D2 } for n>0 with V0 = R . is a maximal linearly independent set in Vm
∞ and hence dim Vm = 2m + 1.
Let V = U Vn . Then, V forms a Layer with
n =0
the usual multiplication. Here, dim Vm = 2 for An application
each m>0 and the Layer becomes a field One of the interesting applications of Layer
isomorphic to the complex field. concept is the representation of functions in
more than two variables by harmonic functions
Example 2: Let Vn = { pn ( x) ; deg pn ≤ n}. (Nasir, 2007). Harmonics are solutions of the
Laplace equation.
∞
Define multiplication on V = Un =0 Vn Try u = (ax + by + cz ) l for a solution, where
a, b, c are independent constants. Then a, b, c
pq = p n ( x)q m ( x), p n ∈ Vn , p m ∈ Vm . Here,
satisfy a 2 + b 2 + c 2 = 0. Hence, we see that the
we have Vn ⊂ Vm for n < m and solutions of the Laplace equations can be
deg Vn = n + 1. expressed as powers of the vectors from the
Example 3: Let pn be polynomials of degree base layer of some Layer V . Expanding the
power representation using the constraint and
less than or equal to n and define
by Theorem 2, we see that each term in the
Wn = {P = ( pn , pn−1 ) ; pn ∈ Vn , pn−1 ∈ Vn−1}, whe expansion is a solution of the Laplace equation.
re Vn are vector spaces of polynomials defined For example, with l = 2, we have,
∞
in Example 2 and let W = U Wn . Define a u 2 = (ax + by + cz ) 2
n =0
multiplication = a 2 x2 + b2 y 2 + c2 z 2
PQ = ( p n , pn −1 ).(q m , q m−1 )
+ 2abxy + 2bcyz + 2acxz
= ( p n q m − (1 + x 2 ) p n −1qm−1 , pn qm−1 + pn−1qm ) .
= a2 (x2 − z 2 ) + b2 ( y 2 − z 2 )
Here, dim Wm = 2m + 1.
+ ab(2 xy ) + bc(2 yz ) + ac(2 xz ).
Main Results Since, by Theorem 2, the monomial set
{a 2 , ab, b 2 ; ab, bc, ac} is a basis for the layer
Here we list the main theorems for this paper.
V2 . Applying Laplacian on u 2 , we deduce
Theorem 1: Let V be a Layer with the base that the functions
layer V1 and B1 = {a1 , a 2 , a 3 , L a n } be a basis x − z , y − z , 2 xy, 2 yz, 2 xz
2 2 2 2
are all
for V1 . Then, for each layer Vm , a basis can be solutions of the Laplacian equation. This is true
expressed in terms of the powers of total for arbitrary power l as well.
degree m of basis vectors from B1 .
Conclusions
We have constructed an abstract extension of
complex numbers which has a multiplication
279
with four properties. We called the abstract set trigonometry, Journal of Mathematical
‘Layer’ and showed that the real and complex Analysis and Applications, 181(2), 431-457.
fields are trivial and simple cases of a Layer Fleury, N., Detrauberg, M.R. and Yamaleev
called harmonic Layer. We presented an R.M. (1995) Extended complex number
application of our abstract setting in the analysis and conformal-like
construction of harmonic functions. The transformations, Journal of Mathematical
definition is restricted to be primitive to meet Analysis and Applications, 191(1), 118-136.
our immediate needs, but could be refined with Nasir, H.M. (2007) Spherical harmonics
further properties. Further research is needed to transform in a non-polar coordinate system
find other properties to be satisfied by the and application to Fourier series in 2-
Layers. Sphere, Mathematical Methods in the
Applied Sciences, John-Wiley, 30(14),
Acknowledgements 1843-1854.
Nasir, H.M., Faham, M.A.A.M. and Waasim,
This research was partially supported by the M.S.M. (2007) Power representation of
Peradeniya University research grant spherical harmonics and fast discrete
RG/2006/48/S. spherical transform on cubed sphere,
International Workshop on Applied
References Mathematics and Computational Science
Fleury, N., Detrauberg, M.R. and Yamaleev, (IWAMCS07) Sept. 25-29, 2007, The
R.M. (1993) Commutative extended University of Electro-Communications,
complex numbers and connected Tokyo, Japan.
280
Deriving Shrunken Estimators for the Variance in One-Parameter Natural

Exponential Families
A. Laheetharan1 and P. Wijekoon2*

1
Department of Mathematics & Statistics, Faculty of Science, University of Jaffna
2
Department of Statistics & Computer Science, Faculty of Science, University of Peradeniya
Introduction where, T ( X )= ∑ T (xi ) is a sufficient statistic,

and i =1
Exponential family of distributions is an A(η )= log ∫ ....∫ h( x ) exp[ηT ( X )] dx in the
important class of distributions in statistics. continuous case and the integral is replaced by
Estimation of mean and variance of the a sum in the discrete case.
distributions of this class is one of the problems
that the researchers are involved. Several Therefore, E (T ( X )) = A′(η ) , Var[T ( X )] = A′′(η ) ,
Statisticians have considered the estimation of and the moment-generating function
mean in one parameter exponential families ψ (s )= exp[A( s + η ) − A( η )] for s in some
when coefficient of variation is known, and an
improved method in this regard was given by neighborhood of 0, if it exists.
Wencheko and Wijekoon (2005). Morris
(1982) and Letac and Mora (1990) showed that Morris (1982) has shown that exactly six basic
the variance of some basic types of types of natural exponential families (NEFs)
distributions belong to the one parameter have quadratic variance function (QVF). He
exponential family is a polynomial function of considered normal, Poisson, gamma, binomial,
the mean μ with degree less than or equal to 3. negative binomial and the NEF generated by
The objective of this study is to derive an the generalized hyperbolic secant (GHS)
optimal shrunken estimator for these variance distributions. However, Letac and Mora (1990)
functions. have given variance functions for the above six
plus another six distributions that are inverse
Gaussian, Abel, Takacs, strict arcsine, large
One parameter exponential family and arcsine, and Ressel, which have cubic variance
variance functions function (CVF). In both these cases, it is clear
Consider the random vector X = (X1, . . . , Xn) that the variance is a polynomial function of
whose probability density function is a function the mean μ with degree less than or equal to
of the parameter θ, where θ ∈ Θ for some 3, which can be described by
interval Θ ⊆ ℜ. Then the family of V F (μ ) = ξ 0 + ξ1 μ + ξ 2 μ 2 + ξ 3 μ 3 (3)
distributions of a model {Pθ : θ ∈ Θ} is said to
be a one parameter exponential family, if there where, ξ 0 , ξ1 , ξ 2 , ξ 3 ∈ ℜ are constants.
exists real valued functions, η (θ ) , B(θ ) , T (x )
and h(x ) such that the probability density (or Methodology and results
mass) function f(x;θ) of Pθ can be written as
Gleaser and Hearly (1976) have considered the
f ( x;η ) = h( x ) exp[η ( θ )T ( x ) − B( θ )] (1) minimization of mean square error of linear
combination of two uncorrelated and unbiased
The parameter η (θ ) is called the natural estimators of θ having a known coefficient of
parameter of the distribution, and T (x ) is called variation. In the following theorem, their
the natural statistic. The family of distributions results were generalized by considering one
obtained by taking iid samples from one- estimator for the parametric function g (θ )
parameter exponential families are themselves when the ratio ν 2 = [g (θ )]−2 Var [T ( X )] is
one-parameter exponential families. A useful independent of θ . Note that in this case, the
reparametrization of the exponential family can
be obtained by setting η = η (θ ) . Then the estimator T ( X ) is not necessarily an unbiased
exponential family has the form estimator for g (θ ) .
Theorem 1
f \ (x;η )= h( x ) exp[ηT ( X ) − A( η )] , (2) Let X = ( X 1 , K , X n ) be a random sample
from a population with distribution f (x; θ ) and
g (θ ) be a real-valued function on Θ . Let T ( X )
281
be a point estimator of g (θ ) with is A′(η ) = nrp and A′′(η ) = nrp (1 − p )

E [T ( X )] = kg (θ ) where k ∈ ℜ , and without loss
of generality, assume that k > 0 . If the ratio respectively. Then α = 1 / r ( n + τ 2 ) ,
ν 2 = [g (θ )]−2 Var [T ( X )] is independent of θ , where τ is the coefficient of variation of the
then T * ( X ) = α *T ( X ) has uniformly minimum distribution, which is assumed to be known,
mean squared error (in g (θ ) ) among all
estimators that are in the and ν 2 = nr 2τ 2 . Thus, according to Theorem 1,
class CT (α ) = {αT ( X ) | 0 < α < ∞} , the optimal shrunken estimator of the
where α * = k /( k 2 +ν 2 ) . n
[
Proof: Since E T * ( X ) = α kg (θ ) , and ] parameter p is T * ( X ) = ∑X i / r(n + τ 2 ) .
[ ]
Var T * ( X ) = α 2Var [T ( X )] , the mean squared n
i =1
error ( MSE ) of T * ( X ) is Hence, ∑X i /( n + τ 2 ) is the optimal

[
MSE T * ( X ) ] = α 2Var[T ( X )] + (α k − 1)2 [g (θ )]2 .
i =1
shrunken estimator of the mean μ = rp , which
Hence, it can be easily shown that the estimator is precisely the estimator proposed by
(
T * (X ) = k k 2 + ν 2 )
−1
T ( X ) minimizes MSE Wencheko and Wijekoon (2005).
over CT (α ) , and the minimum MSE is given
Using the derivatives of,
by Ψ T ( t ) = exp[A(η + t ) − A(η )]
[
MSE T * ( X ) ] =ν 2 k 2 +ν 2 ( ) −1
[g (θ )]2 = ([ 1 + exp( η + t )] /[ 1 + exp( η )] )nr
Then it can be shown that which is the moment generating function of
MSE T [ *
( X ) < MSE[T ( X )] . T ( X ) and Theorem 1, it can be shown that the
Therefore, it is clear that the estimator T * ( X ) optimal shrunken estimator of the function
is uniformly better than the estimator T ( X ) , and p(1 − p ) is
that T ( X ) is inadmissible, and more generally ⎛ ⎞
( )
n n
T * ( X ) is uniformly better than any other T*(X) = r ∑ ∑
2
Xi ⎜nr− Xi ⎟/(nr−1) rτ +τ−1 +r(nr−2)(nr−3)
estimators in the class CT (α ) . ⎜ ⎟
i=1 ⎝ i=1 ⎠
Note that in this case k = nr ( nr − 1) and
The above theorem can be applied for
estimation of certain variance functions V F (μ ) , g ( p ) = p(1 − p ) . Hence,
for which the estimator is of the form T ( X ) ⎛ ⎞
( )
n n
∑ ∑
2
2 2 2
with ν = c( n) k τ , where c(n ) , is a known r Xi ⎜nr− Xi ⎟ /(nr−1) rτ +τ −1 + r(nr− 2)(nr−3) is
⎜ ⎟
i =1 ⎝ i =1 ⎠
constant depends on n , and τ is the coefficient
of variation of the probability distribution the optimal shrunken estimator of the variance
which is assumed to be known. V F (μ ) = rp (1 − p ). Similarly, the optimal
shrunken estimator of the variance functions of
Applications some basic types of NEF”s are given in the
The following applications illustrate the use of following Table 1.
the above results.
Conclusions
Binomial distribution: Let When the coefficient of variation τ of the
X i ~ Β (r , p ), i = 1L n , 0 < p < 1, and r be fixed. In distribution is known the above admissible
this case for an iid sample of B(r,p) one can shrunken estimators of the variance functions
identify have minimum mean squared errors in the
⎛ p ⎞ exp(η ) class CT (α ) = {αT ( X ) | 0 < α < ∞} .
η = log⎜⎜ ⎟,
⎟ p= , B ( p ) = −nr log (1 − p ) , A(η ) = nr log[1 + exp(η )].
⎝1 − p ⎠ 1 + exp(η )
Then the mean and variance for the natural References

n
Gleaser, L.J. and Hearly, J.D. (1976)
sufficient statistic T ( X ) = ∑X i Estimating the mean of a normal
i =1 distribution with known coefficient of
282
variation, Journal of the American Morris, C.N. (1982) Natural exponential

Statistical Association, 71, 977-981. families with quadratic variance functions,
Letac, G. and Mora, M. (1990) Natural The Annals of Statistics, 10, 65–80.
exponential families with cubic variance Wencheko, E. and Wijekoon, P (2005)
functions, The Annals of Statistics, 18, 1- Improved estimation of the mean in one-
37. parameter exponential families with known
coefficient of variation, Statistical Papers,
46, 101-115.
Table 1. Optimal shrunken estimators of the variance functions of several distributions, which
belong to NEFs
Name of the type V F (μ )

1 ( )
∑ (X )
2 n
Normal N μ , σ 2
i − X n /( n + 1)
i =1
2 Poisson Poiss (λ ) n
∑ X /(n + τ
i =1
i
2
)
3 Negative binomial ⎛ ⎞
( )
n n
∑ ∑
2
NB (r , p ) r2 Xi ⎜nr+ Xi ⎟ /(nr+1) rτ −τ −1 +r(nr+2)(nr+3)
⎜ ⎟
i =1 ⎝ i =1 ⎠
4 Gamma ⎛ n ⎞
2
Gam (r , λ ) r⎜
⎜ ∑ X i ⎟ /( nr + 2)( nr + 3)
⎟
⎝ i =1 ⎠
283
Major and Trace Element Composition of Bottom Sediments of the Malagane Tank:
Relationship with Sources
K. Mahatantila1,2, R. Chandrajith1* and H.A.H. Jayasena1,2

1
Department of Geology, Faculty of Science, 2Postgraduate Institute of Science,
Introduction samples were determined with Phillips PW-

2400 X-ray fluorescence spectrometer. The
Sri Lanka has one of the oldest traditions of recoveries of international reference samples
irrigation in the world, dating back as far as were within ±5% RSD for major elements.
300 BC. It was the basis of the Dry Zone
prosperity in ancient Sri Lanka. An Results and discussion
interconnected series of tanks within a small
watershed is called a Tank Cascade System The spatial distribution of mean grain sizes of
(TCS). In TCS, water from one tank flows to the Malagane tank shows the deposition of
the downstream tank, while it is utilized for medium to coarse sand in Thaulla, where the
agriculture and other domestic purposes. A inflow stream water enters the lake. Fine sand
tank has three basic components; the bund, and sandy clay have been deposited one after
tank body (wewa) and the upper periphery the other and silty clay is predominant in the
which is a gently sloping land locally termed middle of the tank. Rate of water flow most
Thaulla. probably controls the grain size in bottom
sediments of tanks. However, a gradational
Since tank sediments are formed mainly from variation has been observed from the middle of
material supplied from the terrestrial the tank towards the lake bund. Coarser sand
surroundings of the tank, the chemistry of layers are observed closer to the tank bund
sediment is a function of characteristics of the which may be due to scouring effects
catchment including events of pollution. The associated with hydraulic conditions caused by
composition of tank sediments reflects the water released to the downstream paddy fields.
chemical inputs from the surrounding
environments and the anthropogenic influence The pH of the sediment of Malagane tank
within a particular ecosystem. Therefore, our varies from 4.87 to 6.55 with the mean value of
main intention was to study the geochemical 5.50. Sediments may become slightly acidic
composition of tank bottom sediments in Sri due to intense leaching of base forming cations.
Lanka and to determine whether the sediments The LOI of the tank sediments varies from
represent average continental crust values or 4.8% to 16.9%. The organic matter
polluted material. concentrates at the centre of the tank with the
clay layers. The Thaulla contains low amounts
Methodology of organic matter (5.9%), which may be due to
low retention of organics in sandy soils.
The Malagane tank in the Deduru Oya river
basin located in the Intermediate Climatic Zone The mean P concentration of the sediment of
of Sri Lanka was selected for the study. Malagane tank is 1.44 mg/kg. The lowest value
Thirteen sediment samples were collected occurs closer to Thaulla and high contents
using a stainless steal auger at pre-defined occur associated with the clay sediments in the
locations. The pH of sediments was measured middle of the tank and closer to the tank bund
using 1:1 w/v sediment/water extractions. The area, which could be due to anthropogenic
percentage of organic matter in the sediments inputs. The mean nitrogen content of sediments
was determined as percentage loss on ignition of the Malagane tank is 51.8 mg/kg. The
(LOI) after drying the sediments at 550 °C. highest leachable N values were obtained
Available fraction of nitrogen and phosphorous closer to the tank bund and the content does not
in sediments was extracted using 1 mol dm-3 depend on the grain size. In Thaulla, where the
KCl and 0.5 mol dm-3 NaHCO3 (pH = 8.5), biological activities are prominent, the
respectively. The available metals are extracted denitrifying bacteria could convert the
using 0.5 mol dm-3 CH3COOH and measured sediment nitrates into gaseous nitrogen and
using atomic absorption spectrophotometry. escape from the system or allow the plants to
The total elemental contents of sediment take up nitrates for their metabolism.
284
The available metals considered are Na, K, Ca, including organic particles are flushed into the
Mg, Fe, Mn, Ni, Zn, Pb and Cr, and their mean tank body.
concentrations, in mg/kg, are 122, 170, 671,
2078, 1723, 240, 3.2, 5.2, 7.5 and 3.5, Conclusions
respectively. All the available metals show a
general distribution pattern which is an The analysis of sediments in the Malagane tank
association with clay sediments. The total emphasizes that the sediments are comparable
content of elements of bottom sediments was to the upper continental crust composition and
compared with that of the Upper Continental therefore mainly derived from the upper
Crust (UCC) values in order to determine the catchment of the tank. Apart from the
anthropogenic influence to the tank sediment. terrestrial materials, geochemical processes
Since the average elemental levels of the associated within the sediments also play a
terrain were not available, the bulk chemical major role. The total metal concentrations and
composition of the sediments of Malagane tank distribution indicates though extensive paddy
was compared with the UCC values proposed cultivations are practiced in the tank watershed,
by Rudnick and Gao (2003) (Figure 1). With the anthropogenic heavy metal pollution levels
few exceptions, the major and trace element are not significant in the study area.
compositions of Malagane tank sediments are
either similar or slightly depleted (alkali and Acknowledgements
alkaline earth elements, P, Mn and Cu) to that Authors of the paper like to express their
of the UCC composition. As and V are sincere acknowledgement to the National
enriched in sediments in the main tank body Science Foundation of Sri Lanka for the
and sediments close to the bund. The Zr and Ce financial support given throughout the research
contents are enriched in the Thaulla and in the project.
tank body, whereas Hf, Pb and Th are enriched
throughout the tank compared with that of the
UCC values. Since the Thaulla of the tanks References
acts as a sediment trap, heavy minerals Rudnick, R.L. and Gao, S. (2003) Composition
supplied from the watershed are deposited of the continental crust, Treatise on
mainly at Thaulla and only fine grains Geochemistry, 3, 1-64.
Figure 1. Average upper continental crust normalized elements from the Malagane tank
285
An Econometric Model for Hyper Inflation
H.G.K. Dineshanrathna* and U.N.B. Dissanayake

Introduction between inflation rate and unemployment rate.

In this study, we shall analyze the multi-
Short-Run Philip curve provides useful dependence of the inflation I w.r.t. the above
information for policymakers to reduce the mentioned twelve socio-economic factors
unemployment rate temporally. But, according (www.cbsl.gov.lk).
to the non-accelerated inflation rate versus
unemployment model (NAIRVUM), this Increasing in unemployment rates, external
reduction below the “Natural Rate” will be debit servicing and growth rates of GDP are
temporally and in the long run it leads to higher expected to decrease the inflation rates;
inflation, (en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Philips_curve) increasing in money supply, nominal interest
again. rates, real exchange rates, government
expenditure, population and domestic credits
Our objectives are to model the interaction of are expected to increase the inflation rate. With
inflation with socio-economic variables in an this prior information for nine factors, we set
abstract setup and to investigate its functional the mathematical grounding of the model in the
behavior via econometric analysis (EMA). This following format: I=ƒ﴾U, M, N, F, G, E, R,
study is based on Sri Lankan economic factors P, C, ε ﴿ ; ε=g(Y, W, T ) and linearizing the
and our aim is to investigate the geometrical functional form as the preliminary step with
significance of the explanatory variables partial regression slopes βi ; where i = 0, 1, 2,
against the β - weights of the crucial variables 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9 and 10, we get I = β0 + β1 UR
which may generate hyper inflation. + β2 MS + β3 NIR + β4 FER + β5 GE + β6 EDS +
β7 GDP + β8 POP + β9 DC +β10 ε ; where β1 ,
Materials and methods β6 , β7 < 0 ; β2 , β3 , β4 , β5 , β8 , β9 > 0. Using
Inflation is the persistence increase in the level the data in the matrix format Y13×1 = X 13×11 β11×1
and assuming εi ≈ N( 0,σ 2 ) for 1 ≤ i ≤ 13 , we
compute the column vector β = (X T X ) (X T Y ) .
of consumer price or a persistence decline in −1
the purchasing power of money, caused by an
increase in available currency and credit Exogenous parameters in the model are
beyond the proportion of available goods and expected to have sign and size, which conform
services. In a non-abstract setup, measuring to the theory and practice. The significance of
inflation is a mere arithmetic exercise. This is the estimates of parameters will be carried out
done by subtracting last year consumer price at the level of 0.05 (standard significant level).
index (CPI) from this year consumer price
index and converting it to percentage with Results
respect to (w.r.t) the last year CPI.
H0 : βi = 0 for ∀ i
In this study, inflation rate (inflation) is the (Null Hypothesis)
explanatory variable and in the local context,
the variables used to explain the inflation rate I H1 : at least one βi ≠ 0
are , UR=unemployment rates-U, MS=money
supply-M, NIR=nominal interest rates-N, (Alternative Hypothesis)
FER=foreign exchange rates-F,
GE=government expenditure-G, EDS=external F-test
debt services-E, GDPGR=GDP-growth rate-R,
POP=population-P, DC=domestic credits-C,
PI=political instability-Y, WE=war F- value = MSR = 8.846 (Figure 1);
expenditure-W, RUM=rural-urban migration- MSE
T. Here, we use pooled data, and the data n = 13, p = 10.
source is Socio-Economic Survey Department
of the Central Bank of Sri Lanka. Most of the F9,3 (0.05) = 8.81 < 8.846. Hence, the null
available models constructed via casual hypothesis H0 is rejected and the functional
modeling predict an inverse relationship
286
relationship for I is valid at the 5% significant

level. 0.92 < R2 = 0.9209 <1
i.e R2 ≈ 1
Thus, the functional model is appropriate and

the regression hyper plane representing the
inflation function I take the following format in
a MATLAB output (Table 1).
F 9,3 (0.05) = 8.81 8.846
Figure 1. Probability distribution graph (F-test)
t-test
H0 : βi = 0 (Null Hypothesis)
H1 : βi ≠ 0 (Alternative Hypothesis)
ˆ
T = βi − βi ≈ t13 −10 ;(Figure 2) Figure 2. Probability distribution graph (t-test)
ˆ
Var ( β i )
T values corresponding to β values are given

by (Figure 2) Conclusions
Tβ = − 10.1253
0 Component of the β-vector indicates that
Tβ 4 = − 4.0801 unemployment rates, exchange rates,
government expenditure, external debit
Tβ7 = − 3.191 services, GDP growth rates and increase in
Tβ9 = − 2.0367
population are key-factors in the functional
form for I at the 95% confidence level.
Tβ 2 = 2.0221 According to our model, we infer that β-
Tβ 3 = 2.9552 weights of UR, EDS and POP are major
contributors for the hyperinflation; but, money
Tβ 8 = 3.203 supply, nominal interest rates, domestic credits
do not appear as accelerators for the hyper
T β1 = 4.5837 inflation.
Tβ 5 = 6.096
References
Tβ 6 = 6.182
Gujarati, D.N. Basic Econometrics
Null hypothesis is valid for the coefficients of http://www.cbsl.gov.lk/
MS, NIR and DC. Thus, we infer that at the http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Phillips_curve
standard significant level, the coefficients β2, β3
and β9 must vanish and moreover, we get
Table 1. Inflation function
Inf = -94.5658 + 1.7213 UeR - 0.7812 RER + 0.2782 GoE + 2.0309 EDS - 0.6988
GDPGR + 13.1975 Pop
287
Integer Solutions of Non - Linear Diophantine Equations Using Continued Fractions
A.G.K.N. Alupotha and A.A.I. Perera*

Introduction
(a) The positive integer solutions of
The origin of continued fractions is
traditionally placed at the time of the creation x 2 − dy 2 = 1 are (x, y ) = ( p is −1 , q is −1 ) for i ≥1
of Euclid's Algorithm. Euclid's Algorithm is when s is even and (x, y ) = ( p 2 is −1 , q 2 is −1 ) for
used to find the greatest common devisor (gcd) i ≥ 1 when s is odd.
of two numbers. However, by algebraically
manipulating the algorithm, one can derive the (b) The positive integer solutions of
simple continued fraction of a rational number x 2 − dy 2 = −1 are nonexistent when s is even
p q as opposed to the gcd of p and q. It is and (x , y ) = ( p(2i−1)s−1 ,q(2i −1)s−1 ) for i ≥ 1 when s is
well-known that integer solutions of a linear odd, where the two sequences {pn } and {q n } are
Diophantine equation ax + by = c, where given by,
a , b, c ∈ Z, can be obtained by expressing a b
as a simple finite continued fraction. This idea p0 = a0 , p1 = a 0 a1 + 1 , p k = a k p k −1 + p k − 2 ; k ≥ 2 and
can be generalized for the general linear
q0 = 1 , q1 = a1 , q k = a k q k −1 + q k −1 ; k ≥ 2.
Diophantine equation;
a1 x1 + a 2 x 2 + ... + a n x n = b , where (Anderson and Bell, 1997)
a1 , a2 ,..., an , b ∈ Z, can be solved by using
continued fractions. Here, when n is large we This can be extended to find the integer
need more conditions to solve the above solutions to x 2 − dy 2 = n by writing
Diophantine equation using continued
fractions.
[
n = 1.n = (x * ) − d ( y * ) (r 2 − ds 2 )
2 2
]
A Non-linear Diophantine equation of the form
x 2 − dy 2 = n , where d and n are integers, is
( )
2
(
= x * r ± dy * s − d x * s ± y * r , )2
known as the more general Pell’s equation, where (r, s ) is a particular solution to
which can be solved for integer solutions by
using continued fractions with additional two
( )
x 2 − dy 2 = n and x * , y * is an integer solution
to x 2 − dy 2 = 1 . Thus r * = x * r ± dy * s and
conditions. Further, this work has been s * = x * s ± y * r is an integer solution to
generalized to a Non-linear Diophantine
x 2 − dy 2 = n . Since we have infinitely many
equation of the form integer solutions for x * and y * , infinitely many
ax 2 + bxy + cy 2 + dx + ey + f = 0 , where integer solutions to our original Pell’s equation
a, b, c, d , e, f ∈Z. can be obtained.
Integer solutions to this equation can be Now consider a Non-linear Diophantine
obtained subject to three more conditions. equation of the form
ax 2 + bxy + cy 2 + dx + ey + f = 0 , where
Method a, b, c, d , e, f ∈ Z. Integer solutions to this
Use Pell’s equation; x 2 − dy 2 = n , where equation can be obtained with the following
d , n ∈ Z. Find integer solutions to Pell’s conditions:
equation when d >0 and d ≠ m for all m ∈ N.
(a) a, c ≠ 0
The following theorem can be used to find the
integer solutions to x 2 − dy 2 = 1 . (b) b 2 − 4ac >0
Theorem: Assume that d (> 0) is not a square (c) 4(b 2 − 4ac ) ≠ m for all m ∈ N.
of an integer and that pk /qk is the kth convergent
of d . Let s be the period of the simple Reduce this equation into a Pell’s equation of
continued fraction representation of d . the form z 2 − Mω 2 = N , and then obtain the
288
integer solution for it. Hence, infinitely many will be an integer solution to z 2 − 20ω 2 = 256.
integer solutions for x and y can be obtained.
Hence, y = − B ± z1 = − 26 ± 144 = −17 or 118 .
Result 2A 10 10
Therefore, y = y1 = −17 and hence,
− by1 − d ± ω1
Consider ax 2 + bxy + cy 2 + dx + ey + f = 0 . x= = 7 and 39.
2a
Solution − (by + d ) ± L , Then, (39,−17 ) and (7,−17 ) are integer
x=
2a solutions to x 2 + 3xy + y 2 + 5 x + y + 1 = 0.
where L = (by + d )2 − 4a(cy 2 + ey + f ) .
Take L = ω 2 = (by + d )2 − 4a (cy 2 + ey + f ) for Thus, we can find infinitely many integer
solutions for given Non-linear Diophantine
some integer ω . Then Ay 2 + By + C = 0, equation.
where A = b 2 − 4 ac , B = 2bd − 4 ae ,
Discussion
C = D − ω and D = d 2 − 4af .
2
Take z 2 = B 2 − 4 AC = B 2 − 4 A(D − ω 2 ). If d = m for some m ∈ N in x 2 − dy 2 = n , then

Then, z 2 − Mω 2 = N , where M = 4 A and s = 0. Since p −1 and q−1 are not defined d
N = B 2 − 4 AD. Solving this Pell’s equation, cannot be a natural number.
integer solutions for z and ω can be obtained. Integer solutions of the Diophantine
Hence, we can find infinitely many integer equation ax 2 + bxy + cy 2 + dx + ey + f = 0 , can be
solutions for x and y . obtained using continued fraction under some
For an example, consider conditions. Further, we have proved that these
x 2 + 3xy + y 2 + 5 x + y + 1 = 0. conditions are necessary to obtain the solutions.
Then, a = 1, b = 3, c = 1, d = 5, e = 1 and f = 1. References
Since, b 2 − 4ac = 5 (>0) and Anderson, J.A. and Bell, J.M. (1997) Number
4(b − 4ac ) = 20 ∉ N, the above method
2 theory with applications, Prentice-Hall,
New Jersy.
can be applied, where
A = 5, B = 26, C = 21 − ω 2 , D = 21, M = 20 and
N = 256. Next we shall find integer solutions
to z 2 − 20ω 2 = 256. Then, ( z1 , ω1 ) = (144, 32)
289
Geochemical Characterization of Surface Water and Groundwater in Some Areas of

Northcentral and Northwestern Sri Lanka
S.M. Young1, A. Pitawala2* and J. Gunatilake2

1
Postgraduate Institute of Science, 2Department of Geology, Faculty of Science,
Introduction
Results
In the Northcentral and Northwestern regions
of Sri Lanka, groundwater is a limited resource The results show that the stream and canal
and is the main source of drinking water. The waters are rich in Ca and Mg (Figure 1)
area which is of flat terrain receives relatively although the other ions are considerably low. In
low rain fall with high seasonal and spatial contrast, lake water is characterized by many
variations, and has high evapotranspiration. dissolved ions except Ca and Mg (Figure 2).
The main groundwater bearing formations in The most interesting feature is that the highest
the area are the fractured crystalline bed rock values of Fe and Mn are in lake waters. The pH
and the weathered overburden. The alluvial is also more towards alkaline in lakes (4.68 –
deposits along the streams present in the area 9.40) compared to that of streams and canals.
also play a vital role in water supply. Almost
all the groundwater comes from precipitation, The dissolved ions in ground waters are
which soaks into the soil and passes down to comparably high. However, the deep
the aquifer. The regolith aquifer coincides with groundwater has more dissolved ions and the
the areas where there exists the small tank shallow ground water is markedly
cascade system since ancient periods. These characterized by higher K levels (Figures 3 and
aquifers are closely linked with the surface 4). In general, the concentrations of Fe and Mn
water in streams, canals and tanks. The geology are low in groundwater compared to surface
of the area is dominated by Precambrian waters. The pH is more alkaline in the
metamorphic rocks. The main metamorphic agricultural wells and dug wells while it is
rocks of the area are charnockites, charnokitic more acidic in the tube wells. The agricultural
gneiss, quartzite and calcgneiss. The objective wells are unusually high in Na.
of the study was to characterize the ground and
surface waters found in Northcentral and Discussion
Northwestern Sri Lanka.
During field investigations it was found that
Materials and methods the water table is shallow. In lake waters, the
high iron concentration gives rise to reducing
For the relevant study, the groundwater and the conditions and the other ions which show high
surface water was categorized as (a) Lakes (b) concentrations are due to high
Canals and streams (c) Shallow groundwater evapotranspiration (Guo and Wang, 2004).
(Dug wells, Agricultural wells) and (d) Deep However, Na concentration is dramatically
groundwater to study the variation of ions. The high due to mineral dissolution. The low Ca
pH, temperature and the conductivity of 296 and Mg values in lakes may be caused by the
samples were measured during the sample precipitation of calcite and dolomite (Guo and
collection in the field using the pH meter (PH Wang, 2004). The canal and stream water
320/Set 1) and the conductivity meter (Model chemistry is complex and has no relationship
CM-7B, cell type CG-201PL instrument), with natural conditions.
respectively. Dissolved cations such as Na, Ca,
Fe, Mn, K and Mg of the water were measured When one compares the dug wells and the
in triplicates using the Perkin Elmer Atomic agricultural wells, the latter has high water soil
Absorption Spectrophotometer (AAS). To interaction. Therefore, the dissolved ion
minimize analytical errors, appropriate concentrations may dramatically increase. In
standard techniques were followed. Statistical that case, due to the recycling of the same
software Minitab, Origin and Arc/GIS were water, the saline condition can be developed
used to carry out chemical data analysis. and increased with time.
290
In the case of tube wells, there is no clear Further, the data obtained will enable to
correlation with the geological formation. characterize the water in the area and be
However, in the areas that have quartzite, helpful to understand the water pollution due to
dissolved ion content is low. Thereby, it can be natural and anthropogenic activities.
suggested that the chemistry of groundwater
depends on the geological conditions and the References
flow direction.
Guo, H. and Wang, D. (2004)
Conclusions Hydrogeochemical processes in shallow
quaternary aquifers from the northern part
The water chemistry of the area is principally of the Datong Basin China, Applied
controlled by the redox conditions, pH, intense Geochemistry, 19, 19–27.
agricultural practices, hydrological conditions,
climatic conditions and underlying geology.
Figure 1. Cation variation (ppm) in canals/streams Figure 2. Cation variation (ppm) in lake water
Figure 3.Cation variation (ppm) in tube wells Figure 4. Cation variation (ppm) in dug wells/
agricultural wells
291
High-Speed Counter-Current Chromatography for the Isolation of

Proanthocyanidins from Tea Flush
W.M.A.M.B. Wijekoon1, N.S. Kumar1* and P.A.N. Punyasiri2

1
Department of Chemistry, Faculty of Science, University of Peradeniya
2
Biochemistry Division, Tea Research Institute, Talawakelle2
Introduction
Extraction of proanthocyanidins
Monomeric flavan-3-ols (catechins) and
oligomeric proanthocyanidins are important An extract of PA’s in aqueous 70% acetone
constituents of tea (Camellia sinensis) flush. was prepared from 1 kg of fresh tea leaves
Proanthocyanidins (PA’s) are formed by the according to the procedure described
formation of inter-flavan links between previously (Tammer et al., 1994) and purified
monomeric catechins such as (+)-catechin and by solvent partition and chromatography on
(-)-epicatechin. PA’s are widely distributed Sephadex LH-20. The effluent from the column
plant defence compounds, and have a general was concentrated on a rotar vapor and freeze
toxicity towards fungi, yeast and bacteria dried to give the PA extract.
(Dixon et al., 2004). It has been postulated that
the composition and nature of PA’s may be
related to the increased resistance of some tea HSCCC - Solvent systems for HSCCC
cultivars to infection of tea flush by the fungus
Exabasidium vexans (Punyasiri et al., 2005), Four different two phase solvent systems
that causes Blister Blight leaf disease, the most containing different ratios of hexane, EtOAc,
serious leaf disease of tea in Sri Lanka. Tea is MeOH and water were prepared. The two
cultivated for its leaf, and tea flush is phase solvent system Hex : EtOAc : MeOH :
particularly susceptible to attack by E. vexans H2O (1:5:1:5) was selected for the separation of
which attacks young and succulent tea leaves the PA extract on the basis of the partition
and stems. coefficient and settling time.
High-speed counter-current chromatography HSCCC Model CCC-100 Pharma–Tech

(HSCCC) is a support-free liquid-liquid Research Corporation was used for the
partition method that has been used for the separation. The PA extract (200 mg) was
separation of diverse groups of natural injected into the HSCCC through the injection
products. It is particularly useful for the port and samples were collected at an elution
fractionation of labile polyphenolic compounds speed of 2.0 ml/min.
which may undergo either spontaneous
oxidation or oxidation by polyphenol oxidase. High-Performance liquid Chromatography
Pure samples were required for the assays of (HPLC)
fungitoxic activity of PA’s towards E. vexans.
A method involving HSCCC was developed The fractions collected were monitored by
for the separation of PA’s from tea flush. The HPLC. HPLC instrumentation consisted of
present study resulted in the separation of five Waters Alliance 2690XE Separation module
pure proanthocyanidin samples after a single coupled to a Waters 996 photodiode array
HSCCC run. detector (PDA) and Waters Millennium 32 data
system were used along with a Luna-5 µm
Materials and methods Phenyl-Hexyl column, 4.6 mm × 250 mm
(Phenomenx Inc, USA) with a guard column
made of the same material. A linear gradient
Collection of plant materials program of mobile phase A (9% acetonitrile
Fresh tea shoots (two leaves and a bud) were containing 2% acetic acid) and mobile phase B
collected from the experimental tea garden at (80% aqueous acetonitrile) was used for the
the Tea Research Institute in Talawakelle. analysis. Flow rate was 1.00 ml/min and the
column oven temperature was maintained at
35 °C.
292
Results and discussion Conclusions

Stationary phase retention of the solvent HSCCC is a fast and efficient method for the
system [(Volume of the Stationary phase in the separation of proanthocyanidins from tea flush.
HSCCC column/Total volume of the HSCCC
column) × 100%] selected was found to be 60- Acknowledgments
65% and gave a good separation. A single
HSCCC run resulted in the separation of six The authors acknowledge financial support
fractions PA-1, PA-2, FL-X, PA-3, PA- 4 and from SIDA-SAREC.
PA-5. HPLC of the fractions indicated that
PA-2, FL-X, PA-3, PA-4 and PA-5 References
proanthocyanidin fractions separated were very Dixon, R.A., Xie, D.-Y. and Sharma, S.B
pure (> 95%) while PA -1 was a mixed fraction (2004) Proanthocyanidins - a final frontier
(Figure 1). HPLC retention times (given in in flavonoid research? New Phytologist, 1-
minutes, within parentheses) indicated that PA- 20.
1 (24.856), PA-2 (25.519), PA-3 (26.498), PA- Punyasiri, P.A.N, Abeysinghe, I.S.B and
4 (27.315) and PA-5 (26.669) were Kumar, V. (2005) Performed and induced
proanthocyanidins. The nature of the FL-X chemical resistant of tea leaf against
(23.921), fraction has not been established as Exobasidium vexans infection, Journal of
yet. The samples isolated are to be used to Chemical Ecology, 1315-1323.
assess fungi toxicity. The five PA fractions are Tammer, G.J., Moore, A.E. and Larkin, P.J.
sufficiently pure for structure elucidation using (1994). Proanthocyanidins inhibit
spectroscopic methods of analysis and for fungi hydrolysis of leaf protein by rumen
toxic assays. microflora in vitro, British Journal of
Nutrition, 71, 947-958.
Absorbance (254 nm)
Time (hrs)
Figure 1. HSCCC of crude extract of proanthocyanidin
293
Combined Catalytic Activity of Cation-Exchanged Montmorillonite and

Camphorsulfonic Acid in the Preparation of Cumene from Benzene and 2-Propanol
S. Wijeratne1,2, R.M.G. Rajapakse1, D.T.B. Tennakoon1, H.M.N. Bandara1 and

B.M.R. Bandara1*
1
Department of Chemistry, Faculty of Science, 2Postgraduate Institute of Science,
Introduction
Isopropylation of benzene
Montmorillonite clay belongs to smectite
family and has an expandable layer structure of 2-Propanol (50 mmol), benzene (100 mmol)
aluminosilicate. The layered structure and Mn+-montmorillonite (0.5 g), 10-
facilitates the uptake of cations such as Zn2+, camphorsulfonic acid (0.5 g) were placed in a
Al3+ and Fe3+. Cation-exchanged clays show two necked flask equipped with a Dean-Stark
high Bronsted acidity due to protons in the apparatus. The reaction was maintained at
interlamellar zone formed by polarization of reflux temperature for 48 h. The mixture was
coordinated water molecules. Such clays can then allowed to reach room temperature and
function as solid acid catalysts in organic filtered to separate the clay catalyst. The filtrate
reactions (Richard, 1992). was distilled under reduced pressure to collect
the fraction containing cumene. The effect of
Cumene, the starting material for the industrial reaction time, molar ratio of reactants and
preparation of phenol, has been formed in 26% amount of catalyst on the yield of cumene was
yield by alkylating benzene with isopropanol in investigated. The product was characterized
the presence of Al3+-montmorillonite using an authentic sample of cumene (FT-IR,
1
(Wijeratne et al., 2006); isopropyl carbocation H-NMR, gas chromatography).
formed from isopropanol undergoes an
electrophilic aromatic substitution reaction. Results
With a view to improving the yield of cumene,
we envisaged facile generation of isopropyl Effect of different catalysts on isopropylation of
carbocation from an intermediate sulfonate benzene
ester, and examined the reaction of isopropanol
and benzene in the presence of metal-cation- As expected, camphorsulfonic acid alone did
exchanged montmorillonite and not produce cumene from the reaction of
camphorsulfonic acid. benzene with isopropanol. However, the
reaction mixture of camphorsulfonic acid,
Materials and methods benzene, isopropanol and Mn+-montmorillonite
(Mn+ = H+, Al3+ or Fe3+) furnished cumene in
Preparation of catalyst 60% yield; with Mn+-montmorillonite (Mn+ =
Zn2+, Cu2+ or Cd2+) the yield was 50%. The
Na+-Montmorillonite clay (5 g) was stirred reaction mixtures containing Na+ or Ce4+-
overnight with a 0.5 M solution of cation montmorillonite did not produce cumene.
chloride (pH 3.5, 200 ml) to obtain Mn+-
montmorillonite clay catalyst (Mn+ = H+, Na+, Effect of amount of clay catalyst
Zn2+, Cd2+, Cu2+, Al3+, Fe3+, Ce4+). The clay
was then centrifuged and washed with distilled Isopropylation of benzene in the presence of
water repeatedly until washings showed camphorsulfonic acid was carried out with
negative test for chloride ions. The clay sample varying amounts of Al3+-montmorillonite (0.1–
was then dried under ambient air for a week 1.0 g). With small amounts (0.1 or 0.2 g) of the
and ground to pass through a mesh of size 100. clay, the yield of cumene was 20%; with 0.3 g
The clay samples were characterized using the yield increased to 40%. Cumene was
their XRD patterns and FT-IR spectra. The isolated in 60% yield when 0.5 g or more (0.8,
catalyst was activated at 150 0C for 2 h prior to 1.0 g) clay catalyst was used.
the study of its catalytic activity.
294
Effect of reaction time reaction mixtures containing Na+ or Ce4+-

montmorillonite could be accounted for by the
The highest yield (60%) of cumene was low polarizability of Na+ ions and the oxidation
obtained when the reaction time was 40 h or of isopropanol by Ce4+.
more (50 h). At 10 h, 20 h and 30 h of reaction
time, the yield of cumene was 0, 20% and 30%, Conclusions
respectively.
Cation-exchanged montmorillonite and
Discussion camphorsulfonic acid serve as catalysts in the
reaction of benzene and isopropanol to give
Alkylation of benzene to provide alkyl benzene cumene under mild conditions.
is generally carried out by a Friedel-Crafts Camphorsulfonic acid potentiates the catalytic
reaction using an alkyl halide and a Lewis acid activity of Mn+-montmorillonite enhancing the
such as AlCl3, FeCl3, ZnCl2 and SnCl4. Alkyl yield of cumene from 26% to 60% (with Mn+ =
halides, their precursors and Lewis acids are H+, Al3+ or Fe3+) or 50% (with Mn+ = Zn2+,
hazardous to the environment. Industrial Cu2+ and Cd2+). The clay catalyst is cheap and
preparation of isopropylbenzene (i.e., cumene) reusable and does not produce hazardous by-
employs high temperatures and pressures products in the reaction. Low temperatures and
(250°C, 30 atm) in addition to Lewis low pressures make this process not only eco-
acids/phosphoric acid. We have prepared friendly but also economically viable.
cumene in 26% yield from isopropanol and
benzene under mild conditions (80 °C, 1 atm) Acknowledgements
using the clay catalyst, Al3+-montmorillonite
(Wijeratne et al., 2006). Financial assistance by the National Science
Foundation, Grant RG/2005/FR/04 is
In the present study, we observed that acknowledged.
introduction of camphorsulfonic acid in
catalytic amounts to the reaction mixture References
considerably increased the yield from 26% to
60%. Mn+-montmorillonite presumably Richard, W.M. (1992) Inorganic Materials,
catalyzes the initial formation of isopropyl Wiley.
camphorsulfonate from isopropanol and Wijeratne, S., Perera, W.G.M.S., Bandara,
camphorsulphonic acid. The sulfonate group B.M.R, Rajapakse, R.M.G, Bandara,
being a good leaving group, Mn+- H.M.N. and Tennakoon, D.T.B. (2006).
montmorillonite readily generates the Electrophilic alkylation of Benzenoids with
carbocation for subsequent isopropylation of 2-Propanol and Al3+- Montmorillonite clay
benzene. In the latter step, camphorsulfonic catalyst, Proceedings of the Peradeniya
acid is released. The absence of cumene in the University Research Sessions, 11, 182.
295
Adsorption of Chromium (III) on Fired Brick Particles
N. Priyantha* and C. Seneviratne

Introduction
Research design
Chromium is present in the environment in
both trivalent and hexavalent oxidation states. The amount of Cr(III) adsorbed by brick was
Cr(III) occurs naturally and is an essential determined by treatment of standard Cr(III)
micronutrient that is involved in metabolizing solutions of concentration varying from
sugar, protein and fat (Park and Jung, 2001). 1.00 mg dm-3 to 50.0 mg dm-3 with brick
Heavy metals such as chromium are not samples fired at each temperature. These
decomposed through biological means, and measurements were then used for adsorption
they are toxic to aquatic organisms as well as isotherm analysis. Comparison between the
humans if exposure levels are sufficiently high. percent Cr removal from aqueous solutions and
Chromium compounds are present in many the turbidity of aqueous brick suspensions was
types of industrial effluents, including also investigated.
electroplating, metal finishing, leather tanning,
pigments and photography. In order to comply Results and discussion
with the tolerance limits, it is essential that
industries treat their effluents to reduce the The amount of Cr(III) ions (in µg) adsorbed on
chromium to acceptable levels before discharge a unit mass (1.000 g) of laboratory fired brick
in order to maintain environmental quality and clay samples (d < 1.0 mm) varies linearly with
human health. Ion exchange, electrochemical the initial concentration of Cr(III) in solution
precipitation, chemical precipitation and for samples fired up to 400 °C. Samples fired at
adsorption are some acceptable treatment higher temperatures show less extent of
methods practiced worldwide (Kocaoba and adsorption at all concentrations investigated,
Akein, 2004). Most of these methods suffer and further they obey Type I adsorption
from drawbacks such as high capital and isotherm (amount adsorbed vs. concentration),
operational cost and/or problems associated reaching saturation at higher concentrations.
with the disposal of sludge. The objective of This observation supports monolayer coverage,
this research is to investigate the removal of suggesting the formation of inner sphere
Cr(III) species from aqueous solution, through complexes between Cr(III) and surfaces of
adsorption, by brick particles fired at different minerals containing Fe, Al and Si present in
temperatures, and to optimize the firing brick matrix. Change in the extent of
temperature for the most efficient removal. adsorption with temperature is probably due to
phase changes and chemical processes that
Materials and methodology would occur at high temperatures.
An interesting feature observed thorough these
Materials measurements is that the percent removal of
Standard solutions of Cr(III) were prepared Cr(III) by brick generally increases up to a
using Cr2(SO4)3 (98% assay). Unfired, dry certain intermediate temperature followed by a
brick clay samples obtained from Gelioya, decrease at high temperatures. However,
Kandy, were first sieved to obtain particles of turning points of percent removal –
diameter < 1.0 mm, and fired in the laboratory temperature curves, and the shape of the curves
at 100 °C, 200 °C, 300 °C, 400 °C, 500 °C, depend on the initial Cr(III) concentration
600 °C, 700 °C, 800 °C and 900 °C. (Figure 1).
Instrumentation Aqueous suspensions prepared using brick

particles fired at temperatures between 200 °C
The Carbolite CTF 12/100/900 furnace was and 600 °C are very clear while those at lower
used to fire brick clay samples. GBC 933AA and higher temperatures are not.
model Atomic Absorption Spectrometer was
used to measure Cr(III) concentration, while
DRT-model ISCE turbidity meter was used for
turbidity measurements.
296
This is evident through turbidity measurements

shown in Figure 2, where the turbidity is
100 initially decreased from 1200 NTU, then
leveled off at a value less than 50 NTU, and
80 finally increased up to 800 NTU. When Cr(III)
is introduced to brick particle suspensions,
% Removal
60 turbidity is decreased for all concentrations

higher than 10 mg dm-3 Cr(III). Nevertheless,
40
the general shape of turbidity – temperature
20
relationship is not changed significantly.
0 When both turbidity and percent removal are

0 300 600 900 considered, brick fired at intermediate
temperatures range results in low turbidity and
Temperature/ 0C high Cr(III) removal. This behavior although
depends on the initial concentration of Cr(III),
a firing temperature of 400 °C is selected as the
Figure 1. Percent removal – temperature optimal temperature for the most efficient
relationship for (♦) 10 ppm removal and the lowest turbidity.
Cr(III) and (■) 50 ppm Cr(III)
Conclusions
The adsorption behavior of Cr(III) on brick
particles highly depends on the initial Cr(III)
1200 concentration and the firing temperature of
1000
brick. Although the Cr(III) /brick system obeys
both the Langmuir and Freundlich adsorption
Turbidity/ NTU
800 isotherms, brick treated at higher temperatures

tend to follow monolayer adsorption.
600
Comparison of turbidity of brick particle
400 suspensions to which Cr(III) are added and the
percent Cr(III) removal clearly indicates that
200 the optimum temperatures for the highest
0 removal and lowest turbidity is 400 °C. Such
0 300 600 900
finding would be extremely important in
designing effluent treatment methodologies
Temperature/ 0C using fired brick particles, a low-cost and a
readily available material.
Figure 2. Turbidity of aqueous suspensions of
References
brick particles fired at different
temperatures. (♦) no Cr(III) (■) 10 Kocaoba, S. and Akein, G. (2004) Adsorption
ppm Cr(III) (▲) 50 ppm Cr(III) Science and Technology, 22, 401-410.
Park, S. and Jung, W. (2001) Carbon Science,
2, 15-21.
297
Chemical Reactivity of Mica, K-Feldspar and Apatite in Organic Acids and Water
T.H.N.G. Amaraweera1,3, A. Pitawala1,2* and G.W.A.R. Fernando2,4

1
Postgraduate Institute of Science, 2Department of Geology, University of Peradeniya
3
Department of Science and Technology, Uva Wellassa University
4
Department of Physics, The Open University of Sri Lanka
Introduction
Mineralogical characteristic of minerals and
biogeochemical processes in nature are the key
factors controlling the chemical weathering
process that leads to the release of ions from
the mineral which provide the essential
elements for higher plants, with the exception
of nitrogen. Therefore, study of the short term
stability of mica, feldspar and apatite in
different geochemical conditions leads (1) to
identify the least stable mineral under natural
conditions, (2) to estimate the possible Figure 1(b) Biotite
potential for use as fertilizer and (3) to
understand the stability of mineral mixtures.

Different proportions of powdered minerals (<
125 µm) were mixed with (1) organic matter
with water, (2) water and (3) 2% citric acid.
The mixtures were kept under ambient
conditions while controlling the moisture
content. The water soluble ionic concentrations
of each mixture were measured and their
variations with the time were studied.
Results Figure 1(c) Organic matter and apatite (5:1

w/w)
According to Figures 1 and 2 both mica and
feldspar release higher values of potassium Figure 1. Variations of concentrations of
compared to other ions when they are in water available ions of treated minerals
or in moist organic matter. with organic matter
Figure 1(a) Feldspar

298
Figure 2(b) Biotite

Figure 3(b) Biotite
Figure 2(c) Apatite

Figure 3(c) Apatite
Figure 2. Variations of concentrations of
available ions of treated minerals Figure 3. Variations of concentrations of
with water available ions of treated minerals
with 2% citric acid
The trend shows that the calcium, magnesium,
sodium gradually increase from all the mineral
– organic matter mixtures although potassium
released is decreased except from the mixture
containing mica. Magnesium, iron and
manganese contents in water is constant
throughout the period in all the mixtures while
the potassium and the sodium content appear to
be reaching to a constant value. Mixture of
water and biotite is characterized by the highest
iron concentration compared to others. Calcium
Figure 4(a) Feldspar (10 g) + biotite (10 g)
content in water shows irregular variation in
the systems containing apatite.
Figure 4(b) Feldspar (10 g) + apatite (10 g)

299
stable than the tectosilicates feldspars and

hence feldspars are more stable in both natural
solutions and citric acid medium.
Under the higher acidic conditions, all minerals
release more ions than natural conditions since
process of chemical weathering is more rapid
than the number of biogeochemical reactions in
natural systems. Release of higher
concentrations of iron from the biotite in acidic
medium inhibits the release of Ca from the
apatite and the feldspars due to formation of
Figure 4(c) Apatite (10 g) + biotite (10 g) complexes.
Figure 4. Variations of concentrations of Conclusions
available ions of treated mineral
mixtures with 2% citric acid Dissolution of minerals is controlled by their
mineralogical characteristics and the chemical
Release of ions from the mineral and the nature of solutions. Mica and apatite can be
mixture of minerals in the acidic media (pH = used as multi-nutrient fertilizers for long term
2-3) is illustrated in Figure 3 and 4. Mica crops growing on acidic soils.
releases considerably higher amounts of iron
while the apatite releases higher amount of Acknowledgements
calcium. Rapid increases of calcium from the Financial support from the NSF research grant
apatite and the iron from biotite were noted. RG/2005/EB/01 is acknowledged.
The results clearly indicated that the amount of
calcium releases from apatite and feldspars are References
affected by the presence of biotite under the
acidic conditions. Weerasuriya, T.J., Pushpakumara, S. and
Cooray, P. I. (1992) Acidulated pegmatitic
Discussion mica:A promising new multi-nutrient
mineral fertilizer, Nutrient Cycling in
Systems with biotite release more ions into the Agroecosystems, 34(1), 6.
systems as the interlayer ions were easily
leached from the mica structure. Apatite
containing phosphate anionic complex is less
300
Deterioration of Groundwater Quality in Tsunami Affected Coastal Aquifers in

Sri Lanka and Complexities in Natural Recovery
H.A. Dharmagunawardana1*, A. Welagedara1, A. Pitawala1 and M.N.A. Mubarak2

1
Department of Geology, Faculty of Science, University of Peradeniya
2
Industrial Technology Institute, Colombo 07
Introduction
In December 2004, tsunami inundated and
thereby contaminated about 40,000 dug wells
and a considerable number of surface water
bodies. Therefore, potable water supply
systems that were based on groundwater
became unusable. Contamination of
groundwater became a massive problem to be
solved in the affected areas. In general, deep
sea sediments contain a large variety of organic
and inorganic chemical compounds including
heavy metals, some of which can be toxic
(Jacobs et al., 1987).
The present study was carried out in the west
coast of Sri Lanka, between Ambalangoda and
Rathgama towns in the Galle district
(Figure 1). This highly variable nature of
geology and environmental conditions within
short distance makes groundwater quality
highly variable. The purpose of the present
study is to understand the natural processes of
ground and surface water quality improvements
with time, under the influence of prevailing Figure 1. The study area showing the soil
environmental conditions. types and surface environmental
conditions
Sixty five sampling points, including dug Results and discussion
wells, tube wells and surface water bodies were The concentrations of the heavy (trace) metals
selected, and sampling was done at four appear to be significantly low and are mostly
occasions during the period between below the detection limits. This indicates that
December, 2005 and December, 2006. Water the possible effect on water quality by the
samples were analyzed for heavy metals, (analyzed) heavy metals that were brought by
nutrients. pH, electrical conductivity (EC), tsunami water or the agitated sediments, is not
salinity, total dissolved solids (TDS), dissolved significant at most places. One out of five tube
oxygen (DO) and temperature. A portable wells sampled showed contamination by
multi-parameter meter and ELE portable nutrients. The dug wells in marshy
turbidity meter were used for determining environment where the water table was very
general chemical parameters. Heavy metals shallow were also showed contamination by
(Hg, As, Cd and Pb) were analyzed using nutrients.
Varian atomic absorption spectrophotometer
(AAS) while phosphate and nitrate levels were Based on the groundwater salinity levels
determined using standard methods (APHA, observed in December, 2005, the dug wells
20th edition). could be arranged in the order from low to high
salinity (Figure 2). When comparing the results
of subsequent salinity measurements in the
same wells, interesting behavioral patterns can
be seen (Figure 2). The wells with high salinity
301
as seen in Figure 2 have shown rapid decrease Figure 4 that there is no definite trend of
with time. Majority of these wells were situated temporal or spatial salinity variation other than
close to the coast and had inundated by the slight shrinking of the high salinity zones with
tsunami water. Wells with originally moderate time. This situation can be attributed to the
and low salinity on the other hand (Figure 2) previously mentioned diversified geological
do not show a fast or a significant change with and environmental conditions of the area.
time. These wells thus could be assumed to be Water quality also appears to be dependent on
saline even prior to tsunami. recharge conditions, sandy, peaty, or lateritic
soil compositions, local morphology and
presence of marshy conditions of the area. This
can be seen when compared to the geographic
distribution of salinity with the surface
geological and environmental conditions
(Figure 1) of the area. High evaporation
associated with shallow groundwater level in
the vicinity of marshes can retard the rate of
decrease of salinity created by the tsunami. In
addition, intrusion of saline water from
brackish water streams and other surface water
bodies can further complicate and mask the
natural salinity decreasing processes.
Conclusions
Figure 2. Salinity variation in dug wells Ground waters in the tsunami affected coastal
areas have been faced quality problems of
diversified nature. Increase in salinity has
become the most significant problem while
contamination with respect to nutrients has
been evident mostly in marshy areas with
shallow groundwater table. Heavy metal
contamination however, is not significant.
Groundwater quality has shown a slow
recovery with respect to salinity. Complex
geological and environmental conditions in the
area however, complicate and mask the natural
rates of recovery.
Acknowledgements
Financial support from NSF research grant
Figure 3. Salinity variation in tube wells RG/05/DMM/03 is acknowledged.
The salinity levels of the tube wells have References
shown an increasing trend with time (Figure 3).
Of these tube wells, TW100 is located near the Jacobs, L., Emberson, S. and Huested, S.S.
tsunami boundary, TW 101 and 103 within the (1987) Trace Metal Geochemistry in the
tsunami flood zone and TW102 and 104 Cariaco, Trench, Deep-sea Research,
outside the tsunami zone. Royaume University, Oxford: Pergamon.
265-284.
The area wise distribution of the salinity of
groundwater at different times is shown in
Figure 4. It is seen from the salinity maps of
302
(a) (b) (c)

Figure 4. Variation of Salinity of ground water with time (a) December 2005, (b) August 2006
and (c) December 2006
303
Synthesis of a Novel Copper (II) Complex Capable of Trapping Hazardous Cations

Present in Water
A.M.K.S.P. Adhikari and M.Y. Udugala-Ganehenege*

Introduction 0.0042 mol) was dissolved in distilled water

(70 cm3). Recrystallized dithiooxamide (1.000
Coordination complexes containing g, 0.0084 mol) was dissolved in methanol (140
macrocyclic ligands play a significant chemical cm3) and this solution was added into the blue
role in biological systems. Recently, a novel colored Cu(CH3COO)2.H2O solution. A portion
dicopper macrocyclic complex synthesized has (50 cm3) of the resulting greenish black colored
shown a significant affinity towards trapping mixture was decanted off and the precipitate
halide ions (Udugala-Ganehenege et al., 2001). (Complex-a) was filtered, washed with
Extension of such a study to synthesize a new, methanol and distilled water, and dried.
simple metal macrocyclic system capable of Acetylacetone (5 cm3) was added into the
trapping hazardous molecules and ions present remaining mixture and refluxed for two hours.
in the environment was the major objective of After refluxing, it was kept at room
the present study. It was found that there were temperature for 30 min. Then the resulting
wide varieties of medicinally important black colored precipitate (Complex-b) was
transition metal complexes synthesized by filtered, washed with methanol and distilled
using dithiooxamide (rubeanic acid) as a macro water, and dried.
ligand. Many of these complexes have been
polymeric due to the fact that dithiooxamide is
being a tetradentate ligand. It has been reported
that a polymeric structure is formed by
chelating the N and S ends of the
dithiooxamide with metal ions such as Hg(II),
Pb(II), and Pd(II). However, N, N chelation is
preferred for metal ions such as Ni(II) and
Cu(II). Further, macro ligands such as N,N-
bis(2-aminoethyl)-1,3-propanediamine are first Figure 1. Possible structures for the Cu(II)
coordinated to divalent metal ions (M2+) such complex (Complex-b)
as Cu(II) and Ni(II), followed by condensation
reactions with acetylacetone to form Ion exchange study
M(II)ATH2 type macrocyclic complexes during
the template synthesis (Martin and Cumming, A column with a 0.5 cm diameter and a 5 cm
1973). In the present study, we attempted to height was packed by Complex-b. An aqueous
synthesize a similar monomeric complex by Ag(I) ion solution [0.01 mol dm-3 (M), 3 cm3 at
using dithiooxamide for preparing a time with a flow rate of 0.8 cm3 min-1] was
corresponding dimeric or polymeric complexes passed through the column. The effluent was
of the type reported previously by the author. tested with aqueous NaCl (1.0 M) and conc.
Due to the unusual insolubility of the complex ammonia. Similarly, aqueous solutions of
formed, the research was focused towards Pb(II), Cd(II), Ni(II) and Zn(II) were passed
trapping cations into the complex. This through separate columns packed by Complex-
research report describes the synthesis and the b and precipitated with suitable reagents.
specific ion trapping capacities of the Cu(II) Atomic absorption (AAS) and cyclic
complex of which the possible structures are voltammetric (CV) data were collected for the
shown in Figure 1. effluents after passing dilute solutions of the
above cations.
Results
Synthesis Physical Properties of the complex is shown in
The chemicals used in the synthesis were of Table 1. FTIR and XRD spectra of Complex-b
reagent grade. Cu(CH3COO)2.H2O (0.831 g, are shown in Figure 2 and Figure 3,
respectively.
304
Table 1. Physical Properties of Complex-b b may be due to the loss of intensity as a result
of scattering of radiation between the pores
Colour and Shiny, black solids present in the particles. The particle sizes
Appearance calculated using XRD data and the Debye-
Hardness 2.5-3.0 (Mohs scale) Scherrer formula is 13.24 nm, which is 3 nm
Solubility Insoluble in almost all solvents smaller compared to that of the corresponding
except conc. HNO3 and HCl dithiooxamido complex. Interestingly, the
M.P. > 280 ºC reduction in the size of the new complex
together with the reduction in intensity of the
Streak colour Dark gray
XRD peaks compared to the copper(II)
dithiooxamido complex may also be indicative
of the packing of the molecule to form a
0.6 macrocyclic configuration. Analysis of the data
obtained in Tables 2 and 3 implies an
0.5
interesting affinity of the complex towards
0.4
Ag(I) ions. However, the test results reveal that
the ions such as Pb(II), Cd(II), Zn(II) and
Ni(II) neither trap nor release Cu(II) ions by
Intensity
0.3
the complex. According to the AAS data

shown in Table 3, the copper complex used has
0.2
0.1 trapped Ag(I) up to 20 ppm solutions without

releasing Cu(II) ions. When the concentration
0.0
500 1 000 15 00 200 0 25 00 300 0 3 500 of the Ag(I) ions exceeds 20 ppm, it starts to
W a ve N u m b e r cm
-1
release Cu(II) ions from the complex while
trapping Ag(I) ions into the complex. This
Figure 2. FTIR spectrum of Complex-b observation is consistent with the XRD data
which indicates the presence of some pores
with the sizes compatible to the size of Ag(I)
ions.
200
180
160
140
120
Table 2. Testing for Ag(I) ions using AAS
Intensity
100
80
60
Concentration of Absorption Absorption
40 the Ag(I) solution for Ag(I) for Cu(II)
20
10 20 30 40 (3 cm3) passed
2 - th e ta v a lu e
5 ppm - -
10 ppm - -
Figure 3. XRD spectrum of Complex-b
20 ppm - 0.002
Discussion 20 ppm - 0.004
The hardness of the complexes is between 20 ppm - 0.005
finger nail and calcite according to the Mohs 100 ppm - 0.029
hardness scale. IR data show significant
differences in spectra of free dithiooxamide 100 ppm - 0.046
and metallo-derivatives in the region of N-H 100 ppm - 0.065
absorptions. The band at 3137 cm-1 attributed
0.001 M - 0.092
to N-H stretching frequency is sharper and
higher in frequency in metallo-derivatives 0.001 M - 0.122
compared to that of free dithiooxamide. The 0.001 M - 0.141
presence of additional strong bands at 872 cm-1
and 1518 cm-1, and the absence of a strong 0.002 M - 0.172
band at 1577 cm-1 corresponding to the C=O 0.002 M - 0.233
stretching frequency of Cu(acac)2 fragment
confirm the formation of a macrocyclic 0.002 M - 0.254
complex. The decrease in the intensity of the 0.010 M - 0.614
major band of the XRD spectrum for Complex-
305
Table 3. Ion exchange ability (Complex-b) solution of Ag(I) ions through a column packed
by the copper(II) complex shows a substitution
Aqueous Precipi- Precipi Effluent with of Cu(II) ions of the complex only with Ag(I)
solution tating -tate conc. ions specifically and not with other ions such
passed agent with ammonia as Pb(II), Cd(II), Ni(II), Zn(II) at
effluent concentrations above 20 ppm. The unusual
0.01 M Ag (I) NaCl - Blue solution behavior of the new complex may be used for
the application of this type of systems for
0.01 M Pb (II) NaCl White No change
specific trapping of some other noble ions such
0.01 M Cd (II) NaOH White No change as Au(I).
0.01 M Ni (II) DMG Red No change
0.01 M Zn (II) K2CO3 White No change Acknowledgements
Financial support given by NSF (Grant No
Conclusions RG/2006/FR/02) is appreciated.
In summary, a blackish shiny Cu(II) complex
with the particle size of 13.2 nm and hardness References
of 2.5-3.0 has been synthesized by treatment of
Cu(II), dithiooxamide and acetylacetone. It is Martin, T.G. and Cumming, S.C. (1973)
difficult to study the solution chemistry of the Square-planar nickel(II) and copper(II)
compound because it is extremely insoluble in complexes containing 14- and 15-
almost all the solvents. IR and XRD data reveal membered macrocyclic ligands, Inorganic
that the structure of the new compound is Chemistry, 12, 1477-1482.
different from both copper(II) dithiooxamido Udugala-Ganehenege, M.Y., Jane, M.,
and copper(II) acetylacetonato complexes, and Hryhorczuk, M., Wenger, I.O.E. and
the N-end of dithiooxamide is primarily Endicott, J.F. (2001) Electron/atom transfer
bonded to the metal center showing a in halo-bridged homo-bimetallic
possibility of having pores in the complex. complexes, Inorganic Chemistry, 40, 1614-
AAS of the effluent collected by passing a 1625.
306
Learning Chemistry Using Analogies
M.M. Jamila1 and S. Karunaratne2*

1
Postgraduate Institute of Science, 2Faculty of Science, University of Peradeniya
Introduction In the third phase of the study, four classrooms

were selected from four other urban schools.
In Sri Lankan schools, students in the GCE Two classrooms were treated as the control
advanced level science classes study chemistry group (n=45) and the other two classrooms
as a subject. They generally consider chemistry were treated as the experimental group (n=45).
as a difficult subject to learn because of its A pre-test was administered to all classes in
abstract nature of the concepts. The content of both control and experimental groups. The two
chemistry deals with chemical processes and teachers in the control group classrooms used
entities that are submicroscopic, which make their own teaching method. Developed lessons
the subject difficult for students who do not were tried out by the two teachers in the
readily visualize or think at abstract levels. In classrooms of the experimental group. They
the normal classrooms, teachers generally do also used the same number of periods used by
not use audio visual aids or other teaching the teachers in the control group. The
techniques to make the content easier to classrooms were observed while implementing
understand. Frieedal et al., (1990) found that the prepared lessons to identify how analogical
the use of analogies in teaching chemistry at strategies help students in learning. A post-test
secondary level enabled to help students in was administered to all four classes after the
their learning process. The aim of this study completion of teaching the unit. Data were
was to use analogies in teaching chemistry at analyzed using the results of the pre-test and
GCE advanced level to promote learning the post-test using the two sample t-test.
without encountering problems.
Methodology
It was found out that most of the time, the
The study was conducted in three phases. In the students in the control group classrooms only
first phase, one classroom was observed in an listened to their teacher passively with no
urban school when teaching chemistry lessons questioning or without doing any activity in the
on the sub-topic, “Chemical Equilibrium” of learning process. They were conscious in
the twelfth unit of the GCE advanced level taking down notes given by the teacher.
chemistry syllabus in order to understand the Discussions with the teachers on developed
problems faced by teachers and students in the lessons revealed that they were enthusiastic in
classroom. After studying several research using analogies. They enjoyed practicing the
reports on analogies, lessons with activities analogies in their teaching and expressed that
based on analogies were developed in the they wanted to try analogies for some other
second phase of the study to provide units too. Teachers were also able to give some
visualization of the abstract nature of concepts other analogies with the practice for individual
relating to real world applications and to students who indicated lack of understanding.
encourage the teachers to consider students’ According to the teachers, analogies helped
prior knowledge. Some of the analogies used them to explain easily the difficult or
were a boy and an escalator, a man swimming challenging ideas and to present abstract nature
against the current, ants and a meter ruler, and of concepts in a simple way. Student interviews
a sailor and a boat, to build up the concept of revealed that they felt comfortable in learning
dynamic equilibrium. As a part of the chemistry as analogies helped them to
teaching/learning process, assessment activities understand and remember the lesson more
were also developed using new analogies for easily than they would be without the
which the students were not familiar in the analogies. For example one student said, “I like
class. This enabled the researchers to gauge the the analogies. They break up the class. We do
level of understanding of students. Further not want just to look at the blackboard and
discussions were also made with teachers who take down notes. They help me learn difficult
were going to implement the planned lessons in ideas easily. It’s really fun.” Another student
order to get a clear understanding of analogies.
307
said, “I think it’s really important to give an difference at p=0.05 between the control group
analogy without explaining more and more and the experimental group.
when we get confused.” Pictorial analogies
seemed to clear up confusion about the Conclusions
analogue concept that teachers were using. The
students also thought that analogies would be Analogies had a motivational impact on the
useful to explain or describe objects or students. Students could be made interested to
processes that are too small that they cannot be learn abstract concepts in chemistry by using
seen with the naked eye. One student said, analogies in classroom teaching. Analogies not
“Whenever the concepts that the teacher only help to explain or introduce difficult
teaches at a level that we actually cannot see concepts in chemical equilibrium but also to
what’s going on, it’s good to use analogies.” make students attentive and actively involved
At the end of the lessons some students were in the lessons. In addition, use of analogies
able to make some analogies based on concepts enables to have high interaction between the
relating to their real world experiences. teacher and students, and among students. It is
recommended that teachers need to develop a
Analysis of the pre-test results showed that personal set of useful analogies in their
there was no difference between mean values teaching. It is necessary to select appropriate
of control (49.2) and experimental groups analogies that could be related to students own
(49.0). Standard deviations were 12.8 and 14.4, experience without misleading or confusing
respectively. Using the two sample t-test, it was them. Otherwise they may lead to
found that there was no significant difference at misconceptions. Therefore, teachers should pay
p=0.05 between the control group and the more attention in selecting analogies for their
experimental group of the pre-test results. explanations.
Analysis of the post-test results showed that
there was a difference between mean values of References
the control (32.29) and experimental groups Frieedal, A.W., Gabel, D.L. and Samuel, J.
(83.07). Standard deviations were 10.48 and (1990) Using analogies for chemistry
9.43, respectively. Using the two sample t-test, solving: Does it increase understanding?
it was found that there was a significant School Science and Mathematics, 90, 674-
682.
308
Determining the Optimal Order Quantity Using a Simulation Model
T.H.K.R. De Silva and W.B. Daundasekara*

Introduction
Results
Simulation models are logical descriptions of
the interrelationships among elements of a
decision problem or the sequence of events that Regression analysis
occur in a system over time. The major The expected quarterly demands for each
advantage of a simulation model is its ability to quarter in 2007 given in Table 1 were
incorporate uncertainty in one or more input calculated with the use of the summary output
quantities. It captures probabilistic behavior obtained from the linear regression analysis
and allows one to estimate probability method (Utts and Heckard, 2004). Next, the
distributions and key statistics such as mean, error in this quantity was taken to be normally
variance, etc. that cannot be derived distributed with mean (μ) = 0 and standard
analytically. deviation (σ) = standard error obtained in the
summary output given in Table 2. As shown in
Due to the fluctuation of the sales according to Table 3, the actual demand for each quarter in
the market demand, effectiveness of the 2007 was taken to be the (expected demand) +
company promotional activities, seasonal (error), where error ~ N(0,σ).
variations and competition with other suppliers,
the quantity of sales in any given period is not Table 1. The expected quarterly demands
fixed. Therefore, the company has to make an
order under certain uncertainties. Quarter Exp demand
Quarter 1 336931.4 m
This paper uses a simulation model to
determine the optimal order quantity for a Quarter 2 296937.2 m
wholesale supplier for a certain period of time Quarter 3 294826.7 m
by analyzing the quantified risk involved in Quarter 4 459949.5 m
each demand quantity decision.
Methodology Table 2. Error for each quarterly demand

The past sales data of the item, non-woven μ σ
interlining, were analyzed using the method of
linear regression analysis to find an Quarter 1 0 24029.04 m
approximate quarterly sales distribution for Quarter 2 0 15612.01 m
year 2007. Furthermore, with the help of Quarter 3 0 29491.02 m
@Risk simulation package (Albright et al.,
2002), the risk involved in each demand Quarter 4 0 15196.34 m
quantity was analyzed to predict the optimal
stock for each quarter in 2007 which satisfies
the company requirements. Table 3. The actual demand for 2007
Data collection and preprocessing Quarter Predicted actual demand(m)

Quarter 1 336931.4 + Error
Monthly sales data of the non-woven
interlining for the past 5 years were used. Since Quarter 2 296937.2 + Error
our objective is to find the optimal order Quarter 3 294826.7 + Error
quantities for each quarter of the year 2007, the Quarter 4 459949.5 + Error
quarterly sales in the past 5 years were
calculated using the collected data. Then, by
categorizing these data according to the
quarters, the respective quarterly sales for 2007
were obtained.
309
Simulation model spreadsheet expressing the company sales

process logically (Evans, 2000). Next, by
With respect to the possible range for error, the assigning different values for order quantity
actual demand will also fall into a range. and by simulating the demand values given in
Therefore, as shown in Table 4(i), Table 4(ii), Table 3, the respective profit distributions were
Table 4(iii), Table 4(iv) and Table 4(v), a found.
simulation model was built using the Excel
Table 4(i). Cost data

Unit cost(c) Rs 20.5
Unit price(p) Rs. 23.575
Table 4(ii). 2007 demand distribution (assumed to be Normal with the following parameters)
μ σ
First quarter 336926.6 m 24050.88 m
Second quarter 296930.2 m 15626.32 m
Third quarter 294827.6 m 29435.96 m
Fourth quarter 459950.5 m 15188.3 m
Table 4(iii). Possible order quantities (xn) (in thousand meters)

(Decision variable)
First quarter 250 270 290 310 330 340 350 370 390
Second quarter 230 250 270 290 300 310 330 350 370
Third quarter 190 210 230 250 270 290 300 310 330
Fourth quarter 400 420 440 450 460 480 500 470 480
Table 4(iv). Decision variable (xn)

order quantity (m) Loan interest rate (r)
First quarter 250000 0.18
Second quarter 230000
Third quarter 190000 Depreciation rate(d)
Fourth quarter 400000 2%
Cash balance/Budget(A)
Rs 1000000
Table 4(v). Simulated quantities
Interest
Demand Revenue Cost Bank loan for the Profit
(m) (Rs) (Rs) (Rs) loan(Rs) (Rs)
First quarter 335626.1 5893750 5125000 4125000 185625 583125
Second quarter 296776.3 5422250 4715000 3715000 167175 540075
Third quarter 297992.9 4479250 3895000 2895000 130275 453975
Fourth quarter 458860.3 9430000 8200000 7200000 324000 906000
Net profit 2483175
310
Mathematical model of the simulation model charts for the profit distributions, the risk
for the nth quarter : involved in each order quantity was quantified
and the order quantities given in Table 5 were
Let taken as the optimal order quantities which
Unit cost = c , Unit price = p , gave a relatively high profit for each quarter in
Demand = Dn , Order quantity = xn , 2007.
Revenue = Rn , Cost = Cn , Profit = Pn
Budget = A , Amount of loan = Ln , Discussion
Annual loan interest rate = r ,
Interest for the loan = In , As shown in Table 5, even with the best values
Depreciation rate of the remaining quantity = d for mean profit, there is a risk of getting
negative profit. But these preferred outputs
Decision variable : xn have a relatively a few number of influential
Input variables : Dn , c , p inputs compared to the other simulations for
each quarter. Also, these order quantities give a
Objective : Max Pn = Rn – Cn – (In + Ln) relatively high mean and a small standard
subjected to a minimum risk , deviation for the profit. Hence, the values
where 310,000 m, 270,000 m, 250,000 m and 440,000
Rn = c * min (Dn , xn) , Cn = c * xn , m can be considered as the optimal order
Ln = Cn – A , In = ( Ln * r) ÷ 4 quantities for the non-woven interlining in the
1st, 2nd, 3rd and 4th quarters for the year 2007,
For the year 2007 respectively.
Unit cost (c) = Current unit cost + cost
increment References
Unit price (p) = Unit cost * (1 +expected Albright, Winston, Zappe (2002) Data analysis
Profit percentage) and decision making with Microsoft
Current unit cost = Rs. 20, EXCEL, Duxdury Press, 891-977.
d = 2% , r = 18% Evans, J.R. (2000) Spreadsheets as a Tool for
Increment in cost ~Triang (0.30 , 0.50 , 0.80 ) Teaching Simulation, Volume 1, University
Expected profit percentage ~ Uniform (14.5%, of Cincinnati, Cincinnati,
15.5%) Utts, J.M. and Heckard, R.S. (2004) Minds on
Statistics, Second edition, Thomson, 492-
By analyzing the summary statistics report, 512.
sensitivity analysis report and the tornado
Table 5. The order quantities with the maximum mean for the profit
Quarter Simulation Order Minimum of Mean of the Maximum of
No. Quantity (m) the profit profit (Rs) the profit(Rs)
(Rs)
1 4 310,000 -568242 674806.7 755428.2
2 3 270,000 -77841.7 619493.9 663760.1
3 4 250,000 -541476 560140.5 613019.3
4 3 440,000 161871.1 975908.3 1053350
311
Synthesis and Characterization of Layered Double Hydroxide (LDH)/Sugar

Nanocomposites for Pharmaceutical Applications
S. Indrasekara, V. Karunaratne and N. Kottegoda*

Introduction pH 10, under flowing N2 environment. The

resulted slurry was filtered and oven dried.
Drug excipients are inert additives included in
drug formulation to help in the manufacturing, Exfoliation and refoliation
administration, and adsorption processes.
Typically, most of the drug excipients used in 0.1 g of parent lactate LDH was dispersed in
pharmaceutical industry are crystalline solids 100 cm3 of water and stirred until forms a
due to the high level of purity and stability in stable colloidal solution. A few drops of the
this thermodynamically stable state of matter. exfoliated LDH were casted on a glass plate
Although, amorphous drug excipients are and allowed to refoliate.
preferred over crystalline materials, they are
thermodynamically unstable leading to Preparation of exfoliated LDH/sugar
chemical instability, enhanced dissolution rates nanocomposites
and greater hygroscopicity, (Ahlneck and
Zografi, 1990). 0.5 g of 5% (w/w LDH/sugar, referred to as 5%
nc) was prepared by adding 0.45 g of the sugar
Layered Double Hydroxides (LDHs) also precursor to a dispersion of 0.05 g LDH in 50
known as anionic clays or hydrotalcite like cm3 of water, stirred for 24 hrs and the product
materials, are a class of lamellar hydroxides was separated by freeze drying. Sucrose (suc.)
that is suitable for stabilising the amorphous and maltose (mal.) were used as sugar
drug excipients. The structure of LDHs is precursors. Similarly 10% and 20%
based on the stacking of positively charged nanocomposites were prepared.
layers with hydrated anions within the
interlamellar domain, (Roy et al., 2001). LDHs The products have been characterised by
may act as nano fillers to enhance the powder X-ray diffraction (PXRD), fourier
mechanical, thermal and barrier properties of transform infared spectroscopy (FTIR) and
the parent amorphous drug matrix. In this scanning electron microscopy (SEM) and the
contribution we describe the preparation, properties of the composite materials have been
characterization and properties of studied using thermogravimetry (TGA) and
nanocomposites based on MgAl-lactate LDHs differential scanning calarimetry (DSC).
and amorphous sugar precursors (sucrose and Additionally, the particle size of the exfoliated
maltose), which are commonly used in LDH was studied by dynamic light scattering
pharmaceutical industry. experiment.
Methodology Results and discussion

All reagents used in this synthesis were The PXRD pattern of the parent material
purchased from British Drug Company and (Figure 1) represents a typical LDH consisting
were of analytical grade and used without of relatively sharp and intense basal reflections
further purification. at low 2θ values and broad and asymmetric
reflections at high angles. The first basal
Synthesis of MgAl–lactate LDH reflection of the parent LDH leads to an
interlayer spacing of 1.7 nm, suggesting a
MgAl–lactate LDH was prepared by co- bilayer arrangement of the anion within the
precipitation method as described by Hibino interlayer region. The formation of an LDH
and Kobayashi (2005). 50 cm3 of an aqueous with lactate anion is further evidenced by
solution containing Mg(NO3)2.6H2O and FTIR, SEM and elemental analysis results.
Al(NO3)3 .9H2O, (Mg: Al=1:3) was prepared Stirring 0.1 g of the MgAl-lactate LDH in
and added drop wise to a 50 cm3 solution 100 cm3 of water resulted in a clear colloidal
containing the lactate anion (Al:lactate=1:10) dispersion. The particle size of the exfoliated
under vigorous stirring conditions, at 65 ºC and MgAl-lactate LDH is in the range 70-140 nm
312
as determined by the dynamic light scattering

experiment and thus, suggests the presence of Exfoliated LDH
ultra fine nanolayers in the LDH dispersion.
Upon solvent evaporation, dried fractions
restacked forming a disorganized LDH.
Principally, the formation of nanocomposites
In te n sity
002
with exfoliated clay materials is suggested by
003
the absence of basal reflections associated with
the LDH, in the PXRD patterns. Introduction 001 Parent LDH
of exfoliated LDH into the amorphous sugar
matrixes improved the glass transition
temperature of the parent sugar. The LDH 10 20 30 40 50 60
nanolayers give the LDH filled nanocomposites
better thermal stability than the pristine sugar 2θ/degrees
due to differences in the chemical structure of Figure 1. The PXRD patterns of parent and
the two components and the restricted thermal exfoliated LDH
motion of the sugar molecules in the inorganic
matrix. On the other hand, the LDH/maltose
nanocomposites were stable for more than six
months. However, such thermal property
enhancement was not observed with
LDH/sucrose nanocomposites.
Conclusions
The nanocomposites prepared using maltose,
are amorphous and the glass transition
temperature of the composite materials, are
superior to the pristine maltose. The higher Figure 2. The SEM images of parent LDH
degree of hydrogen bonding and the restricted
thermal motions of the sugar molecules within
LDH nanolayers may improve the thermal
stability of the LDH/maltose nanocomposites
than pristine maltose, thus stabilize the 20% mal-nc
amorphous maltose by increasing the glass
transition temperature. Thus, we expect this 10% mal-nc
new finding may open up a new application of
LDH/sugar nanocomposites as drug excipients
Intensity
in pharmaceutical industry. 5% mal-nc
Amorphous maltose
Table 1. Glass transition temperatures (Tg) of Parent LDH

LDH/maltose nc
10 20 30 40 50 60
2θ/degrees
Sample Tg / ºC
Figure 3. The PXRD patterns of
Amorphous maltose 43
LDH/maltose nanocomposites
5% mal-nc 49
10% mal-nc 50
313
Acknowledgements
20% suc -nc The University Research Grant is
acknowledged for the financial support.
Intensity
10% suc -nc

References
Ahlneck, C. and Zografi, G. (1990) The
5% suc -nc molecular basis for moisture effects on the
physical and chemical stability of drugs in
cry. suc. the solid-state, International Journal of
Pharmacology, 62, 87-95.
10 20 30 40 50 60 Hibino, T. and Kobayashi, M., (2005)
2 θ /degrees Delamination of layered double hydroxide
in water, Journal of Materials Chemistry,
15, 653-656.
Roy, A. De., Forano C. and Besse, J. P. (2001)
Figure 4. The PXRD patterns of LDH/sucrose Layered double hydroxides. In V. Rives,
(Ed.) Layered Double Hydroxides: Present
nanocomposites and Future, New York, Nova Science
Publishers, Inc.
314
Computational Efficiency of Weakly Orthogonal Spherical Harmonics in

Cubed Sphere
M.A.A.M. Faham1, H.M. Nasir2* and T. Kaneshalingam1

1
Postgraduate Institute of Science, 2Department of Mathematics, Faculty of Science,
University of Peradeniya2
Introduction ⎛ ∂2 ∂2 ∂2
Δ s = s t ⎜⎜ (1 + t12 ) + 2 t1 t 2 + (1 + t 22 )
⎝ ∂ t12
∂ t1 ∂ t 2 ∂ t 22
Numerical computations in solving problems
defined on the sphere suffer from many + 2 t1
∂
+ 2 t2
∂ ⎞
⎟
difficulties near the poles, known as the ‘pole ∂ t1 ∂ t 2 ⎟⎠
problems’, when using spherical polar
coordinate system for the spherical surface. For and st = 1 + t12 + t22 , is given by pl(m,n) ,
yl(m,n) = l
example, in the computation of global weather st 2
prediction models, concentrated grid points m+n=l-1,l, where pl( m ,n ) are polynomials in t1
near the poles increase the amount of
computations in the pole region where and t2 satisfying the differential equation
quantities of interest are of less important than (1 + t 12 )
∂2p
+ 2 t1 t 2
∂2p
+ (1 + t 22 )
∂2p
the other parts of the globe. ∂ t 12 ∂ t1 ∂ t 2 ∂ t 22
⎛ ∂p ∂p ⎞
Avoiding pole problems has attracted some − ( l − 1 ) ⎜⎜ 2 t1 + 2 t2 − l p ⎟⎟ = 0
researchers in the recent past (Nasir and ⎝ ∂ t1 ∂ t2 ⎠
Faham, 2006). Among the recent developments
in this direction, one of the present authors has and are explicitly given by the non-zero real or
constructed weakly orthogonal and orthogonal imaginary parts of
spherical harmonics in a non-polar spherical m n
⎛ ( m − p + n − q) / 2 ⎞ ⎛ l ⎞ p q (l-p-q)
co-ordinate system based on the ‘cubed sphere’ ∑ ∑ 2 2 ⎜⎜ ⎟⎟ ⎜⎜ ⎟⎟ t1 t 2 i , i = −1
p = m1 q = n1 ⎝ (m − p ) / 2 ⎠ ⎝ p, q ⎠
defined from the surface of a unit cube (Nasir,
2007). with m1 = m mod 2, n1 = n mod 2 and the
subscript 2 in the summation indicates that the
Computational efficiency is also one of the index variables increases with step 2.
main targets in spherical transforms, which has
been considered for spherical harmonics in A set of continuous spherical harmonics can be
spherical polar coordinates by some constructed from the eigen-functions for one
researchers (MohlenKamp, 1999). In this work, face forming a six-tuple of functions
more properties and results for the orthogonal
Y ( t 1 , t 2 ) = ( y (t 1 , t 2 ), y ⎛⎜ −t 1 , t ⎞⎟ ,
−t 2
and weakly orthogonal spherical harmonics on ⎝ ⎠ 1(1) 1
cubed sphere are established. Computational y ⎛⎜

− t1
, −t 1 ⎞⎟ , y (t 1 , − t 2 ), y ⎛⎜ −t 1 , t2 ⎟⎞ , y ⎛⎜ t 1 , −t 1 ⎞⎟
t t
)
efficiency of using weakly orthogonal spherical ⎝ t2 2 ⎠ ⎝ 1 1⎠ ⎝ 2 2 ⎠
harmonics verses its orthogonal counterpart is
analyzed. The Fourier series computations where, each component is an eigen-function.
using the weakly orthogonal spherical The spherical harmonics Yl ( m , n ) are weakly
harmonics are considered. orthogonal in the sense that they are orthogonal
for distinct l, but are not orthogonal among the
Weakly orthogonal and orthogonal spherical 2 l + 1 functions for a mode l.
harmonics
Following the method of Kwon et al., (2001)
A set of solutions for the eigen-value with some modifications, a set of completely
problem Δ su (t1 , t2 ) = −l (l + 1) u (t1 , t2 ) , where orthogonal spherical harmonics can be
constructed from the eigen solutions in the
form
Ql(,kr)
zl(,kr) (t1 , t2 ) = l
, k = 0,1
st 2
315
with Q l(,kr ) = p r( k ) ( t1 ) ρ l − r ( t 1 ) q l − r ( l ; λ ), polynomials of degree l-1. The order of the

column vectors is chosen so that their relations
where ql−r (l ; λ ) and p (k )
r satisfy the differential have a simple structure.
equations
d 2q dq and The column vectors of the weakly orthogonal
(1 + λ2 ) − ( 2 l − 1) λ + (l − r )( l + r ) q = 0 and orthogonal spherical harmonics are then
d λ2 dλ
given respectively by
d2p dp
(1 + t12 ) − 2 (r − 1) t1 + r (r − 1) p = 0 Pl Q
d t12 dt1 Yl = , Z l = l /l2 .
S tl / 2 St
1
respectively and ρ ( t1 ) = (1 + t12 ) 2 and
λ = t 2 / ρ (t1 ) . The polynomials pr(k ) are given
by the real and imaginary parts of (t1 + i) r and Linear relations:
the polynomials ql − r (l ; λ ) are given by We find that the relationship between the two
l −r set of polynomials is given by
q l − r (l ; λ ) = ∑ 2 a l(,ln− r ) λ n , 1 l −r l −r −n
⎛ l−n ⎞ ( l −n , n )
Ql(,0r) = l − r ∑ ( −1) 2 2 n ⎜ ⎟ Pl and
n = r1
2 ⎜ (l − r − n ) / 2 ⎟
n = r1
⎝ ⎠
where the coefficients al(,ln−r ) satisfy 1 l −r l −r −n
r ⎛ l−n ⎞ (l −1− n, n )
Ql(,1r) = ∑ (−1) 2
2 n
⎜ ⎟ Pl
l − n ⎜⎝ (l − r − n) / 2 ⎟⎠
al(,ln−r ) = −[(n + 1)(n + 2) /(l − r − n)(l + r − n)] al(,ln−+r2) , 2 l −r n = r1
where Ql(,kr) , k = 0, 1 are orthogonal polynomials

with n = l − r − 2, l − r − 4, L , r1 and r1=(l-r) mod of degree l and l-1 respectively. In matrix form,
2. we can write Q l = Tl Pl and hence for the
We normalize the polynomials such that the spherical harmonics
leading coefficient is a l(,ll−−rr ) = ⎛⎜⎜ l ⎞⎟⎟ . Zl = Tl Yl (2)
⎝l − r ⎠
The orthogonal spherical harmonics are then Linear relations among functions in the Six
given by the six-tuple formed by Z l(,kr ) (t1, t 2 ) as faces
in (1). Since each function in the six-tuple are eigen-
functions of the Laplace-Beltrami eigen-value
We define the column vector Pl of size 2l+1 of problem, each term is linearly related by
the polynomials Pl ( m , n ) for mode l and the functions defined on one face. To find these
relations, we first derived the relation between
column vector of polynomials Ql yl( m , n ) (t1 , t2 ) and y l( m ,n ) ( 1 / t 1 , t 2 / t1 ) ,
corresponding to the orthogonal spherical ⎛1 t ⎞
yl( m ,n ) ⎜⎜ , 2 ⎟⎟ where
harmonics as follows: ⎝ t1 t1 ⎠
(2,l −2) (l −l1,l1 ) n ⎛ ( m − m1 + n − q ) / 2 ⎞ ( l - m1 − q ) ( l - m1 −q ,q )
Pl = [Pl (0,l )
, Pl ,L, Pl ; = ∑ 2 ⎜⎜ ⎟⎟ i yl ( t1 ,t2 ),
q = n1 ⎝ ( m − m1 ) / 2 ⎠
(1,l −1) (3,l −3) (l −1+l1,1−l1 )
Pl , Pl ,L, Pl ;
m + n = l − 1, l . Relations for the functions in
(0,l −1) (2,l −3) (l −2+l1 ,1−l1 )
Pl , Pl ,L, Pl ; the six-tuple can then be obtained in view of
Pl(1,l−2) , Pl(3,,l−4) ,L, Pl(l −1−l1,l1) ]T the symmetric properties. The components of
and the six-tuple are then can be calculated.
Ql = [Ql(,00) ,Ql(,02) ,L,Ql(,0l−)l ;
Inner product
1
Ql(,01) ,Ql(,03) ,L,Ql(,0l−)1+l ; 1

The norms of the orthogonal system of
Ql(,11) ,Ql(,13) ,L,Ql(,1l)−1+l ; 1 spherical harmonics are given by
Ql(,12) ,Ql(,14) ,L,Ql(,1l)−l ]T 2 2 2 r +1 (l!) 2 ⎧π , r>0 (3)
1
Z (k ) = ⎨
2l + 1 (l − r )!(l + r )! ⎩2 π ,
l, r
where l1 = l mod 2. r=0
Each column vector of polynomials has four Fourier series

sets of components such that the first two sets The Fourier series of a spherical function f(t1;
correspond to the polynomials of degree l, t2) is written in terms of the weakly orthogonal
while the second two sets correspond to the spherical harmonics as
316
∞ weakly orthogonal spherical harmonics is

f ( t1, t2 ) = ∑ Al Yl computationally cheaper than using its
l =0
orthogonal counterpart. We also derived the
linear relations between the eigen-functions in
where Al is a row vector of size 2l + 1 of
−1
the six-tuple. Finally, norm of the spherical
coefficients given by Al = f , Yl Yl , Yl , where harmonics is found.
−1 −1
Yl , Yl = TlT Zl , Zl Tl by the use of (2).
Acknowledgements
We note that the vector of coefficients Al is This research was partially supported by the
easily computable since the inner product Peradeniya University research grant
matrix involving Zl is diagonal and hence its (RG/2006/48/S).
inverse is obtained directly by the reciprocals
of the inner products of Z l(,kl −) r in (3). References
Computational efficiency Faham, M.A.A.M. and Nasir, H.M. (2006)

Orthogonal spherical harmonics in cubed
Computations of the Fourier series spherical Coordinates and applications to
representation of spherical functions involve poisson equation in 2-sphere, Proceedings
truncation of the Fourier series to a finite series of the PURSE, University of Peradeniya.
and computing it at discrete points. Computing Nasir, H.M. (2007) Spherical harmonics
the Fourier coefficients 〈 f , Yl ( m , n ) 〉 is also done transform in a non-polar coordinate system
by quadrature rules that require evaluation of and application to Fourier series in 2-
the spherical harmonics at discrete points. sphere, Mathematical Methods in the
Here, we see that computing weakly Applied Sciences, John-Wiley, 30(14),
orthogonal spherical harmonics for a direct 1843-1854.
computation of discrete spherical harmonics Kwon, K.H., Lee, J.K. and Littlejohn, L.L.
requires less than 3 percent of total (2001) Orthogonal polynomial
computational and storage cost. eigenfunctions of second order partial
differential equations, Transactions of the
Conclusions Mathematical Society, 353(9), 3629 3647.
MohlenKamp, M.J. (1999) A fast transform for
We have established the linear relation between spherical harmonics, Journal of Fourier
weakly orthogonal and orthogonal spherical Analysis and Applications, 5, 159-184.
harmonics. Hence, it is concluded that use of
317
Preliminary Investigation of the Liquid Crystal Behaviour of

β-sitosteryl-β-D-glucopyranoside
G.L.A.D. Liyanage, A.D.L.C. Perera and D.N. Karunaratne*

Introduction Dichloromethane (50 cm3) was added, stirred

for three hours and the dichloromethane layer
Glycolipids are a very important class of was removed using a separating funnel. The
molecules having liquid crystal properties crude product (2.170 g, 55.69%) was obtained
which are abundantly found in biological after washing, drying and evaporating the
membranes. Although most glycolipids seem to organic extract. Finally, the residue obtained
show liquid crystal properties, their liquid was recrystallized from ethanol (1.675 g,
crystalline behaviour is not well understood. 42.95% , m.p. 85-105 °C).
Liquid crystals are a state of matter that has
properties between those of a conventional Synthesis of Tetra-O-acetyl-β-D-
liquid and those of a solid crystal. For instance,
a liquid crystal may flow like a liquid, but the glucopyranosyl chloride
molecules in the liquid are arranged and /or β-D-glucopyranose pentaacetate (5 g) was
oriented in a crystal like way (Wikipedia). reacted with crushed anhydrous aluminium
Carbohydrates are a new, but a very important chloride (1.8 g) in chloroform. Dry benzene
source for liquid crystals (Vill et al., 1998). (50 cm3) and dry silicic acid (1.25 g) were
Normally, mono-, di- and oligosaccharides added, filtered and the precipitate was washed
substituted with an alkyl chain having more with benzene (6.25 cm3). The product was
than six carbon atoms show liquid crystal recrystallized using a 1:1 mixture of ether and
properties. Their amphiphilic nature leads to pet ether. (1.200 g. 25.44%, m.p. 93-95 °C).
the formation of liquid crystals via microphase
separation (Smits, 1969). β-sitosteryl-β-D- Synthesis of β-sitosteryl-2, 3, 4, 6-tetra-O-
glucopyranoside is found to occur naturally in acetyl-β-D-glucopyranoside
some plants (Vill et al., 1998). The commercial
potential of the use of this compound as a β-sitosterol (2.180 g), tetra-O-acetyl-β-D-
liquid crystal has not been investigated. In this glucopyranosyl chloride (1.105 g), finely
study, we attempted the synthesis of β- powdered silver oxide (0.75 g) and powdered
sitosteryl-β-D-glucopyranoside starting from anhydrous calcium sulphate (1.25 g) in ether
glucose and β-sitosterol via Koenigs-Knorr were stirred for 24 hrs at room temperatrue.
synthesis. Its thermotropic liquid crystalline The solids were removed by filtration and ether
properties were investigated using polarizing was evaporated. Washing with cold methanol
microscopy. It was found that, this glycolipid yielded pure β-sitosteryl-2,3,4, 6-tetra-O-
has hexagonal columnar phase. acetyl-β-D-glucopyranoside in the crystalline
form (0.766 g, 33.6%, 131.7 °C). The product
Materials and methods was checked for mesogenic properties.
D-glucose was purchased from Seelze- Synthesis of β-sitosteryl-β-D-gluco-pyranoside
Hannover Ltd. and β-sitosterol was purchased
from Koch-Light Laboratories Ltd. All β-sitosteryl-β-D-glucopyranoside was
reagents used were of Analar grade. synthesized by the deacetylation of β-
Identification of the optical texture was done sitosteryl-2, 3, 4, 6-tetra-O-acetyl-β-D-
using a polarizing light microscope and the glucopyranoside using excess sodium
determination of phase transitions was done methoxide in methanol and dichloromethane
using a temperature controller. (1:1, 2.5 cm3). The product (0.056 g, 72.72%)
was checked for mesogenic properties.
Synthesis of β-D-glucose pentaacetate
A mixture of D-glucose (10 mmol, 1.8 g) and
acetic anhydride (60 mmol, 5.75 cm3) was In a thin liquid crystal sample placed between
stirred at 0 °C while adding one drop of two crossed polarizers under an optical
sulphuric acid in 5 cm3 of acetic anhydride. microscope, a variety of textures and
318
birefringence colors can be observed. A

thermotropic hexagonal columnar phase was
observed on cooling β-sitosteryl-2, 3, 4, 6-
tetra-O-acetyl-β-D-glucopyranoside, after it
was heated to melt (Figure 1).
Figure 2. Schematic diagram of side view

of the 2D array of hexagonal
columnar mesophase
Conclusions
The glycolipid synthesized via Koenigs-Knorr
Figure 1. Texture of β-sitosteryl-2, 3, 4, 6- synthesis has thermotropic liquid crystalline
tetra-O-acetyl-β-D-glucopyranoside properties.
in the thermotropic hexagonal
columnar mesophase under crossed Acknowledgements
polarizer and analyzer
The authors thank the University of Peradeniya
The compound β-sitosteryl-2, 3, 4, 6-tetra-O- for providing funding for this work.
acetyl-β-D-glucopyranoside started to melt at (RG/2006/50/S).
131.7 °C. When cooling, it started to solidify at
127 °C forming the hexagonal columnar phase. References
This texture was clearly observed when the
temperature was around 28 °C. Jimmy, W. and Larry, S. Wikipedia: The free
encyclopedia [online], Available at;
Although the compound appears to be solid at http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Liquid_crystal
room temperature, it can exist in the liquid [Accessed 10 September 2006].
crystalline phase due to super cooling on the Smits, E. (1969) The sweet world of liquid
cooling cycle, and the transition from the crystals: the synthesis of non-amphiphilic
anisotropic liquid crystalline phase to carbohydrate-derived liquid crystals,
crystalline solid may occur below ambient [online]. Groningen, University of
temperature. Groningen, Available at:
http://dissertations.ub.rug.nl/faculties/scienc
This molecule consists of a rigid moiety which e/1998/e.smits/ [Accessed 21 July 2006]
is also called as mesogenic core (sugar group) Vill, V., Demus, D., Goodby, J. and Gray, G.,
to which several flexible alkyl chains are (1998) Handbook of Liquid Crystals. LCI
connected. Such kind of molecules have the [online]. 1(2A,2B), p.3. Available at:
ability to form discotic liquid crystals which http://liqcryst.chemie.uni-
can be stacked into columns (Figure 2). hamburg.de/lcionline/article/oldarticles/arti
According to the texture obtained under cle_0698/article_2.htm [Accessed 4
polarizing light microscopy, the compound November 2006].
synthesized in this study seems to arrange in a
hexagonal array forming hexagonal columnar
phase.
319
Equilibrium Studies on Cadmium (II) Interactions with Aspirin and Vitamin C in

Aqueous Medium
H.H.M.C.U. Herath and C.V. Hettiarachchi*

Introduction containing ligands (weak acids) and metal

solutions in various concentrations and ratios
Cadmium has been recognized as a toxic metal were titrated against standard sodium
and can be poisonous to human beings, because hydroxide solutions in the presence of a strong
it can directly influence the metabolic acid (HCl) at a constant temperature (37.0 ±
processes in the body. Cadmium, in various 0.2) ºC. Sodium chloride was used to maintain
ways, can enter and accumulate in different the constant ionic strength (0.15 mol dm-3) in
body parts like kidney, liver, bones, etc. during the reaction mixture which ensured constant
the life time, as it has an exceptionally long activity coefficients. Each reaction mixture
biological half-life. Short-term exposure to contained a constant volume (20.00 cm3) in the
moderate concentrations (200-500 μg/m3) of beginning of the titration. When [A-] and ñ
freshly generated cadmium fume during less were calculated to obtain average log K1 and
than 1 hour can cause symptoms similar to log K2 values for each binary and ternary
those of the metal fume fever. complex, volume change was corrected at each
(www.euro.who.int) Though, cadmium toxicity point. The equations given below were used for
in low levels can cause breathing difficulties, the calculation of stability constants (Irving and
cough, fever and pains in body joints etc., Rossotti, 1953).
accumulation of cadmium in very high
concentrations in the body can cause renal ~
failure, cancers, weakened immune system, n
K1 =
anemia etc. (Kain and Schwederski, 1994) [ ]
(1 − n ) A −
~ for ML 1 type
Some of the drugs among analgesics,

stimulants, and antibiotics, and vitamins have (~
n − 1)
K2 =
been identified as chelating agents, because of
their ability of being good ligands. Although [ ]
(2 − ~n ) A −
for ML 2 type
we take these drugs and vitamins to be healthy,

they can form complexes with the metals in the
body fluid as well. However, the conditions [A-] = Free ligand concentration in the reaction
such as pH range, ionic strength and the medium.
temperature control the formation of stable
complexes between ligands and metal ions. ñ = average number of ligand molecules bound
Aspirin and vitamin C are very popular and to the metal ion.
frequently bought drugs over the counter
without medical prescription for the symptoms K1 and K2 = stability constants.
that are similar to those of cadmium toxicity
and it is also possible that vitamin C can come
from natural vegetables and fruits to our Results and discussion
bodies.
Table 1 reveals the summary of the most
The main objective of this research was the important results. However, when the ligand
investigation of the interactions in cadmium- and metal concentrations were 1.0 × 10-4 mol
aspirin, cadmium-vitamin C and cadmium- dm-3 and 0.5 × 10-4 mol dm-3, respectively, both
Aspirin-Vitamin C complexes under vitamin C and aspirin did not form complexes
physiological conditions. under any acidic conditions.
Materials and methods When both ligands were present in the reaction
mixtures, either in 1:1 or 1:2 or 2:1 ratios with
Calvin type pH titrations were carried out using different metal concentrations (0.5 × 10-4 – 1.0
a Biochrom C18 pH meter. The mixtures × 10-2 mol dm-3), ternary complex systems of
320
MLX type were formed via either ML or MX remove toxic cadmium in the body by forming
binary complexes. In the statistical comparison more stable cadmium – aspirin – vitamin C
of the stabilities of ternary systems over binary complexes which are water soluble and hence
systems, it was found that the formation of they can be excreted from the body.
ternary complexes was much more stable than
that of binary complexes at all concentration References
conditions, as the values of Δ log Km were
greater than - 0.6, the reference value (Sigel, Irving, H and Rossotti, H. S. (1953) Journal of
1975). Chemical. Society, 3397-3405.
Kain, W. and Schwederski, B., (1994)
Conclusions Bioinorganic Chemistry: norganic
Elements in the Chemistry of Life,.
Both aspirin and vitamin C alone and together Chichester, UK: John Wiley and Sons.
can be chelated with trace amounts of cadmium Sigel, H. (1975) Angewante Chemie, 14, 394-
under physiological conditions. The results 402.
explain that there is a higher possibility of www.euro.who.int/document/aiq/6_3cadmium.
forming more stable ternary complexes in this pdf
environment. According to these results, it can
be suggested that vitamin C and aspirin
together in suitable concentrations be used to
Table 1. Summary of results
pH [HCl]/ [Aspirin]/ [Vit. C]/ [NaOH]/ [Metal]/

range mol dm-3 mol dm-3 mol dm-3 mol dm-3 mol dm-3 log K1 log K2
2.9 – 6.5 1.0 × 10-2 1.0 × 10-2 1.0 × 10-2 0.5 × 10-2 4.1
7.7 – 11.0 3.8
3.0 – 6.2 1.0 × 10-2 1.0 × 10-3 -2
1.0 × 10 0.5 × 10 -3
4.4
8.4 – 10.8 3.9
3.9 – 6.7 1.0 × 10-3 1.0 × 10-2 -2
1.0 × 10 0.5 × 10 -2
6.9
7.7 – 11.0 5.6
4.1 – 6.3 1.0 × 10-3 1.0 × 10-3 1.0 × 10-3 0.5 × 10-3 4.3
9.8 – 10.0 4.7
4.2 – 6.1 1.0 × 10-2 1.0 × 10-2 1.0 × 10-2 0.5 × 10-2 7.0
7.4 – 11.2 7.1
4.3 – 7.0 1.0 × 10-2 1.0 × 10-3 1.0 × 10-2 0.5 × 10-3 4.3
7.3 – 11.2 3.4
5.3 – 7.2 1.0 × 10-3 1.0 × 10-2 -2
1.0 × 10 0.5 × 10 -2
5.5
7.7 – 11.0 5.2
3.9 – 7.2 1.0 × 10-3 1.0 × 10-3 -3
1.0 × 10 0.5 × 10 -3
5.3
7.4 – 10.2 4.6
3.9 – 6.2 1.0 × 10-2 1.0 × 10-2 1.0 × 10-2 1.0 × 10-2 1.0 × 10-2 7.0
8.2 – 9.1 8.5
3.5 – 8.5 1.0 × 10-2 1.0 × 10-3 1.0 × 10-3 1.0 × 10-2 1.0 × 10-3 6.8
8.9 – 9.8 7.1
3.1 – 6.1 1.0 × 10-3 1.0 × 10-2 1.0 × 10-2 1.0 × 10-2 1.0 × 10-2 6.6
6.6 – 9.8 7.1
3.8 – 5.8 1.0 × 10-3 1.0 × 10-3 1.0 × 10-3 -3
1.0 × 10 1.0 × 10 -3
7.4
6.0 – 9.0 8.7
6.0 – 7.6 1.0 × 10-3 1.0 × 10-4 1.0 × 10-4 -3
1.0 × 10 1.0 × 10 -4
3.5
8.0 – 9.2 3.5
321
Attempted Synthesis of a Glucofuranose Derived Carbohydrate Liquid Crystal
L.S. Widanapathirana, A.D.L.C. Perera* and D.N. Karunaratne

Introduction 1) Synthesis of diacetone glucose

Liquid crystal state is a distinct state of matter Dry acetone
observed between the crystalline solids and Anhydrous CuSO4
isotropic liquids. Carbohydrates are an
innovative and promising source for the Room temperature
synthesis of liquid crystals as they have easy D-glucose Stir 30 hours
Diacetone glucose
accessibility and availability, less toxicity,
degradability, chirality, low melting 2) Synthesis of decanoyl chloride
temperatures, good solubility in water and
organic solvents and clearly defined 1. SOCl2
thermotropic and lyotropic mesophase behavior 75 oC/ Reflux
(Vill, 1998). Mono-, di- or oligosaccharides
substituted with one or more alkyl chains 2. Fractional
containing more than six carbon atoms can Decanoic acid Decanoyl chloride
distillation
create structures with very promising liquid + HCl + SO
crystal properties. The sugar moieties can be 2
cyclic or acyclic but should have several free
hydroxyl groups. The alkyl chain can be linked 3) Synthesis of 3-O-decanoyl-1,2 : 5,6 -di-O-
to the carbohydrate moiety directly or via an isopropylidene-α-D-glucofuranose
ether, thio ether, ester, amino, amide or
glyceryl linkage (Smits, 1969). Selective
acylation of sugar derivatives is of increasing Decanoyl chloride
importance in the field of carbohydrate liquid
crystal chemistry. Herein, the synthesis of 3-O- 0 0C
decanoyl-1,2 : 5,6-di-O-isopropylidene-α-D- Dry pyridine
glucofuranose by the selective acylation of + HCl
diacetone glucose with a non-traditional 4) Synthesis of 3-O-decanoyl-α-D-
acylating agent decanoyl chloride as well as the glucopyranose
synthesis of 3-O-decanoyl-α-D-glucopyranose
and the investigation of liquid crystal 0.1N H2SO4
properties of each is presented.
70-80 0C
Materials and methods 3 hours
Glucose was purchased from Seelze-Hannover
Ltd. and decanoic acid was purchased from Results and discussion
Searle Company. All solvents were of Analar
grade. Identification of optical texture was The compound 3-O-decanoyl-1,2 : 5,6-di-O-
carried out using a polarizing microscope. isopropylidene-α-D-glucofuranose is a
Phase transitions were observed using the furanose sugar with a long non-polar side chain
temperature controlling device. connected to the rigid polar core via an ester
linkage, which is the requirement to form a
The following reaction scheme was utilized for lyotropic liquid crystal. It shows microphase
the synthesis of 3-O-decanoyl-α-D- separation (Figure 1(a)). With chloroform,
glucopyranose. which is non-polar, inverted micelles may be
formed. Increasing concentration of the
compound may assemble the inverted micelles
one on top of the other in columns, which are
packed parallel on a two-dimensional lattice
having a hexagonal symmetry (Figure 2). Thus,
322
the phase comprises of orientational order as mesophase with inverted micelles

well as some positional order. (Daoud, 1998)
The deprotection of 3-O-decanoyl-1,2 : 5,6-di-

O-isopropylidene-α-D-glucofuranose yields 3-
O-decanoyl-α-D-glucopyranose. Here, no
liquid crystal phases were observed.
Conclusions
(a) (b)
The carbohydrate liquid crystal 3-O-decanoyl-
Figure 1. Texture of 3-O-decanoyl-1,2 : 5,6- 1,2 : 5,6-di-O-isopropylidene-α-D-
di-O-isopropylidene-α-D- glucofuranose was shown to form a lyotropic
glucofuranose in the (a) lyotropic hexagonal columnar phase with chloroform, as
hexagonal columnar mesophase (b) well as a thermotropic hexagonal columnar
thermotropic hexagonal columnar phase. According to the polarizing microscope
studies, the product may be an amphotropic
mesophase at room temperature liquid crystal.
under crossed polarizer and
analyzer. Acknowledgements
Thermotropic liquid crystal properties were The authors thank the University of Peradeniya
observed by heating a small amount of the for providing funding for this work
sample in a temperature controlling device. The (RG/2006/50/S).
solid melts immediately to an isotropic liquid
on heating (117-124 °C), yielding a colorful References
texture which might correspond to a hexagonal
columnar phase, on cooling (55.7 °C) (Figure Daoud, M. (1998) Matter diffusion in
1(b)). The texture remained unchanged even at hexagonal columnar phases. Brazilian
room temperature. Thus, although the Journal of Physics [online], 28. Available
compound appears to be solid at room at:
temperature, it may be super cooled and the http://www.scielo.br/scielo.php?pid=S0103
transition from anisotropic liquid crystalline -7331998000400005&script=sci_arttext
phase to crystalline solid phase may occur [Accessed 1 June 2007].
below ambient temperature. Smits, E., (1969) The sweet world of liquid
crystals: the synthesis of non-amphiphilic
carbohydrate-derived liquid crystals
[online]. Groningen, University of
Groningen. Available from:
http://dissertations.ub.rug.nl/faculties/scienc
e/1998/e.smits/ [Accessed 11 July 2006].
Vill, V. (1998) Carbohydrate Liquid Crystals.
LCI [online]. Available at:
http://liqcryst.chemie.uni-
Figure 2. Schematic diagram of a cross hamburg.de/lcionline/article/oldarticles/arti
section of the two-dimensional cle_0698/article_2.htm [Accessed 4
array of hexagonal columnar September 2006].
323
FACULTY OF ARTS
Geography in Practice: ‘Conceptualizing Space’ in Print Media in Sri Lanka
S.K. Hennayake and N. Hennayake*

Department of Geography, Faculty of Arts, University of Peradeniya
Introduction backward regions and cities), cultural (e.g.,

heartlands) and social (safe havens, refugee
The objective of this paper is to explore how camps) etc. These spaces once ingrained in the
spaces are produced and reproduced in the print minds of people can get re-transmitted through
media and to understand the implications of the political system into the decision-making
this process. In modern society where spatial process, leading towards substantive material
friction over information flow has all but impacts. The differential treatment of spaces in
ceased, the print media plays a key role in this process can further fortify and/or tear off
taking messages across the entire spectrum of spatial uniqueness and inequalities.
society quickly and effectively. In literate and
politically attuned societies like Sri Lanka, Methodology
print media inspires as well as prejudices
people into conceptualizing spaces in various This research has attempted to identify various
forms and certain ways. At one level this is abstract spatial concepts publicized in the Sri
done intentionally for politico-ideological Lankan dailies and weeklies through a content
reasons through carefully defined and analysis. They are grouped according to their
orchestrated propaganda and manipulative political, economic, cultural and social
mechanisms and at another level it occurs meanings. Spaces that appear to be prominent
inadvertently as a ceaseless of process among them in the print media coverage are
involving repetitive use, interpretation and subjected to in -depth analysis tracing their
reification of spaces in the print media. origin and extent. This is followed by a detailed
critical analysis to ascertain the ideological
All spaces are socially constructed. People are groundings, reflecting on the potential political
phenomenologically involved in this process as implications of these concepts and how they
their social, cultural and political life is manipulate the imagination of the people.
intimately embodied in various spaces. Or in
other words, people are involved in this process Discussion
because spatiality is a fundamental fact of life.
Although people are born into certain spaces, What is clear from the content analysis is that
during the course of life, they, through the newspapers are not innocently reporting events
process of structuration, are constantly engaged taking place in spaces; rather they are
in making and unmaking these spaces first by responsible for the making and unmaking of
interpreting and reinterpreting them and second these spaces leading towards significant
by both intentional and unintentional uses of impacts. For example, “border village” as a
these spaces. new space which emerged with the ethno-
political conflict was publicized in the print
Print media plays a significant role in this media to such an extent that people no longer
process of social construction of space. In day question whether such a space actually exists or
to day news coverage as well as in detailed not. The “boundary village” is now replaced by
news reports, feature articles and editorials etc., yet another space, “threatened village” in the
a variety of spaces are referred to; existing recent times. Spaces such as “traditional
spaces may be reinterpreted and, most of all, homeland”, “cleared and uncleared areas”,
new spaces may be constructed. A spatial “northern-eastern region”, “south”, “poverty
category that is used, for example, in a political pockets” etc. are all constructed within
speech, may gain popularity and acceptance particular political or economic contexts, and
due to the prominence given to it in the media. they are reproduced and added to everyday
vocabulary through the print media. While
A variety of spaces are made and unmade in these are politically constructed spaces in the
the print media and they can be identified in context of changing political, economic and
several categories such as political (e.g. state, security situations, they have gained currency
provinces, uncleared areas), economic (e.g., through print media publicity ascertaining the
325
fact that conceptualizing space is as much a effects as mentioned above. In other words,
political as a social process. certain spaces are used in the print media
without any critical inquiry about the origin of
Repeated use of such spatial categories in the such spaces or any evaluation about their
print media allows them to be accepted as potential social and political ramifications.
‘normal’, ‘given’ spatial entities. Thus, the Such uncritical endorsement of spaces
mere fact that certain spaces are frequently fundamentally conceals the fact that these
used in the print media can itself be a plausible spaces are, by all means, contested spaces. The
factor of their reproduction. The important repeated and frequent use together with the
point that should be highlighted here is that uncritical usage of space within the print media
such frequent use can ascertain an existence thus allows them to be considered as
that a particular space does not actually have unproblematic spatial categories. We thus
and policy decisions can be made on that basis. conclude that making decisions based on
uncritically publicized spaces and by
Further, it appears that not only the frequent implication disregarding their contested nature,
and repeated usage, but also uncritical usage of may lead to further social and spatial
such spaces in the print media and their consequences.
unquestioned acceptance by the
readership/audience can also produce similar
326
Preparation of a Zoning Plan for the Madu Ganga Special Management Area
E. Vidanapathirana1*, P. Wickramagamage2 and S.P. Nishshanka3

1
Postgraduate Institute of Agriculture, 3Department of Crop Science, Faculty of Agriculture,
2
Introduction a vital role. 1:10,000 topographic maps of the

Survey Department (2001) were used and those
The Madu Ganga estuarine lagoon is famous were updated using geometrically corrected
both nationally and internationally due to its satellite imageries (IKONOS images, 2005).
aesthetic value and rich biodiversity. It is This paper explores the application of fuzzy set
located in Balapitiya and Karandeniya theory in Multi Criteria Decision Making
Divisional Secretary’s Divisions. Four previous (MCDM) and GIS for zoning. These
studies related to Madu Ganga can be techniques were used for demarcating the most
identified. The wetland site report prepared by compatible zoning map according to the critical
the Central Environmental Authority (CEA) in issues of the study area. The criteria used were
1997 (CEA and EUROCONSULT, 1997) was 1) environmental protection, 2) flood retention,
the first extended study on this. In 1997, the 3) economic development, 4) socio-cultural
Special Area Management (SAM) Plan for importance and 5) residential suitability which
Madu Ganga estuarine lagoon was done by a were selected using an extensive literature
management committee to develop an survey and field work.
integrated management approach to conserve
Madu Ganga. IUCN, Sri Lanka carried out a Using expert knowledge and stakeholder
systematic assessment on biodiversity for consultation, criteria maps were produced by
safeguarding ecological functions, resources ranking. Using a pair-wise comparison matrix
and values of Madu Ganga estuary for following the analytic hierarchy process,
conservation and future sustenance of bio- weights for each criterion were calculated.1 to
diversity (Bambaradeniya et al., 2002) In 2002, 9 ranges were used for weighting. Nine implies
Central Engineering Consultancy Bureau extremely important and one implies the least
(CECB) conducted a study to identify the important. In accordance with the level of
process that results in the formation of sand bar importance, weights were given by expert
in the lagoon mouth (CECB, 2003). Many of judgment comparing a pair of criteria at a time.
these studies (SAM Plan 1997, Bambaradeniya The weighted value of each criterion was
et al., 2002) have pointed out the necessity of multiplied by ranks of each map layer. The
the preparation of a zoning plan for better maps were created for each criterion using new
management of the SAM. Coastal Resource values. Then, polygons with the highest one
Management Project (CRMP) has recognized third of each criterion were separated using a
zoning as a strategy for the protection and query process. The final zoning map was
enhancement of this site. created by union of separated areas of each
criterion map.
The general objective of this study was to
prepare a zoning plan for Madu Ganga SAM Results and discussion
based on environmental principles and
stakeholder views obtained through stakeholder According to the selected criteria, a zoning
consultation. The specific objectives are to map with five zones was produced with
guide development activities within the socio- recommendations for each one. Zones are
cultural context and in a sustainable manner, to protection, flood retention, economic,
conserve ecologically important natural residential and socio-Cultural (Figure 1). If
habitats and to improve economic potential of adequate time and financial resources were
the estuary and surrounding area. available it would have been possible to refine
or further subdivide this zoning plan. This is a
Methodology limitation of this study.
In this study, primary, secondary and tertiary The zoning plan identified series of zones with
data were used. Geographical Information various restrictions and permitted activities.
System (GIS) and remote sensing information The Madu Ganga estuary and its mangrove
were considered as primary data which played
327
estuary. Soil conservation methods should be

mandatory for upland agricultural lands.
In the Socio-Cultural Zone, there are many
ancient Buddhist temples, churches and a
mosque. It is possible to improve eco-tourist
activities without harming the socio-cultural
values of this area. The Residential Zone
consists of the habitat of local population and
areas which are potential for expansion of
habitats in the future.
Conclusions and recommendations

According to the overall findings, the following
recommendations can be presented to facilitate
sustainable use of Madu Ganga estuary. They
are establishing a single policy formulation
institutional structure covering Madu Ganga
SAM, establishing an information centre within
Figure 1. The Zoning map for Madu Ganga Madu Ganga SAM for educational and
awareness activities and integrating local
SAM people in planning and monitoring activities of
conservation area. If more detailed information
covered border area were defined as Protection is available, more refined zoning maps can be
Zone. Since it is sensitive, the highest developed using the same methodology. There
conservation value should be given. Especially is a possibility of further subdivisions of these
mangrove area in north eastern part of the zones using the participatory GIS approach by
estuary should be strictly protected and access integrating local knowledge.
restricted to permit holders only. The estuary
can be used for recreation and eco-tourism References
purposes with a certain amount of restrictions.
Motor boats should not be permitted to go Bambaradeniya, C.N.B., Ekanayake, S. P.,
closer to the mangrove vegetation. Kekulandala, L.D.C.B., Fernando,
R.H.S.S., Samarawickrama, V.A.P. and
The buffer area between the lake and the Priyadharshana, T.G.M. (2002) An
upland unit comprises the Flood Retention Assessment of the status of Biodiversity in
Zone. This zone is subjected to flooding due to the Madu Ganga Mangrove Estuary, IUCN,
constriction of the mouth of the estuary by the Colombo.
formation of a sand bar. This is a very sensitive CEA and EUROCONSULT (1997) Wetland
area and there is a need to prevent all site report conservation management plan:
constructional activities. Economic Zone Maduganga Estuary, CEA, Colombo.
consists of agricultural lands, commercial and CECB (2003) Engineering Study on the
service centers. Feasibility study on the preventing the
formation of sand bar at the outlet of the
Cinnamon cultivation is prominent among Maduganga, CRMP.
upland crops in this area and there is SAM Plan (1997) Special Area Management
considerable demand for this in the market. Plan for Madu Ganga Estuarine Lagoon,
The excessive use of agro-chemicals in Madu Ganga Lagoon Special Area
cinnamon plantation should be restricted to Management Committee and Coordinating
protect water quality in the Madu Ganga Committee, Colombo.
328
Virtual Peradeniya :A GIS System for the University of Peradeniya
R. Alagan*, D. Weragodetenne, U. Jeyaraman and C. Premaratne

Department of Geography, Faculty of Arts, Center for Environmental Studies,
Introduction input from university as well as outside

communities. The ability to move toward
Geographic Information System (GIS) matters, virtual systems and to embed multimedia
and currently universities, businesses, within an Internet GIS environment promises
governments, schools and hospitals, nonprofit significant advances in publicizing and provide
organizations, and natural resource access to information about Peradeniya
management experts are taking advantage of it. University.
Today, all around the world, people and
institutions are working more efficiently and This research employs Virtual GIS
effectively because of GIS. Information that methodology to develop a model for
was limited to offices, spreadsheets, and Peradeniya University. In the past, there were a
databases is being unleashed in new and number of times cartographic technologies
exciting ways all using the GIS. Currently, have been adapted to develop a land use map
traditional cartography has been motivated into for Peradeniya University. On the one hand it is
“Virtual GIS” to explore the environment more vital to appreciate the traditional mapping
efficiently and support spatial decision-making technologies that were used to capture the past
more vigorously. of Peradeniya University. On the other hand
these technologies are limited in their ability to
The combination of GIS and remote sensing facilitate spatial decision-making. In addition,
(RS) provide a virtual model to Peradeniya it is noted that the traditional mapping
University. The digital mapping exercise technologies are static practices for dynamic
emphasizes the potential of remote access to decision-making. The proposed “Virtual
Peradeniya University resources for Peradeniya University” model employed GIS
undergraduates, graduates, parents, well- on a high scale to develop land use patterns,
wishers, local and international communities. administrative departments, information, and
Using historical maps and modern geo- other infrastructural systems of the university.
informatics technologies, land use patterns, The digital Virtual Peradeniya University
academic departments, administrative model would support the university
information, and other infrastructural resources administration to make better decisions.
are captured and integrated within the World
Wide Web (WWW) for easy access and Virtual GIS helps to identify university
communication to local and remote resources such as faculties and departments,
communities. staff quarters, security facilities, medical
amenities, transportation networks, sports
Spending nearly one year in GIS and GOOGLE facilities, open spaces, recreational services,
EARTH methodologies, and participatory and other land information. The Virtual
methods a group of GIS experts from the Peradeniya University project not only
Center for Environmental Studies were able to supports university communities but also
develop this virtual model for spatial decision- integrates international communities who are
making. This study will present some of the interested in exploring this higher education
key developments of the virtual GIS stand facility at Peradeniya.
point.
Case study
Although the value of traditional technological
approaches (such as 2DGIS, cartography, Peradeniya University and its land premises
survey maps, etc) have been clearly illustrated were selected for case study. The proposed
by a number of projects for Peradeniya Virtual Peradeniya University model covered
University mapping, newer techniques in the entire university land premises which
Virtual GIS offers significant enhancement to extend from the north (the current Dental
display cartographic information and solicit Faculty at Peradeniya Road) to the south (to
329
Mahakanda Gal-bungalow). From the east it for Environmental Studies. This project has
covers the Hantana Mountain peak to the west integrated participatory mapping method to
up to the Gampola – Kandy railway line integrate local knowledge in the Virtual
(behind the Faculty of Engineering). Peradeniya University. The GIS mapping and
participatory mapping techniques include very
Methodology comprehensive spatial layouts of university
land information with infrastructure conditions.
Under the broad methodological approach of
Virtual GIS there are five methods that have Currently, there is no GIS mapping system
been adapted to develop the Virtual Peradeniya exist in the university to explore and access of
University. These methodologies are: the administrative or physical infrastructural
information. The lack of spatial information on
1. Introduction of the latest digital image the university limits many stakeholders to
technology on the World Wide Web of participate in the correct decision-making. The
Google Earth as base information for the study also highlights that it is not the lack of
Virtual University of Peradeniya. expertise or facilities which limited such model
2. Integration of Global Positioning Systems, development rather it is the lack of interests
GIS, and Google Earth for land use and VISION of people to build such robust
mapping. virtual model of Peradeniya University.
3. Integration of participatory GIS approach Therefore, it is suggested that it is vital to
into university land use mapping. develop a virtual model of the university where
4. Introduction of the technology of digital not only locally but also globally interested
image processing (GIS and Remote people can participate in higher education.
Sensing) for future land use monitoring.
5. Development of a Virtual GIS technology Result of Virtual Peradeniya University
to publish Faculty of Arts and its
departmental information through WWW The GIS mapping project has gathered
for wider audience data access such as necessary basic information from diverse
staff members, outsiders, international sources. The information includes remote
community, and students around the world sensing images using GOOGLE EARTH
using Web-GIS. technology, Global Positioning System for
locational information, Survey Department
Maps, ground truth information from the GIS
Project objectives team, administrative knowledge from the
There are a number of project objectives that university communities, university map
were identified. These are, to: archives, and information from maintenance
department. The project developed two large
1. Develop Virtual Peradeniya University scale digital maps for the wider community
Maps for the Faculty of Arts to support access and two other large scale analogue maps
monitoring future land-use changes, for university community use.
updating data of, and to enhance spatial
decision-making procedures within and Future training and discussion
outside the faculty
2. Develop an integrated database with GIS It is expected to have a preliminary training
for the entire university administrative and discussion with the key members from the
system Faculty of Arts to share ideas and comments
3. Develop spatial knowledge on location of for further development of the GIS mapping.
university premises and provide university Once we receive comments and suggestions
community and outside community to from the Arts Faculty, then the second level
search and explore university facilities project (university mapping) will be submitted
through Web-GIS. to the Vice Chancellor and other senate level
4. Expose Peradeniya University to a wider decision-makers’ opinions. Subsequently, with
community through WWW. a small training session the virtual GIS
mapping will be handed over to the Dean Arts
and Vice Chancellor to display in the relevant
Discussion, relevance and result of the study buildings for public access.
During the last one year four members team
engaged in a variety of map development, data
collection, and model development of the
Virtual Peradeniya University from the Center
330
Conclusions university system and it has great potential to

improve stakeholders to communicate and
Currently, a comprehensive GIS database and participate in spatial decision-making from
information system of Peradeniya University is different part of the world. The Virtual
limited. The lack of spatial information limits Peradeniya University mapping project could
diverse stakeholders from progressive be a GATEWAY to a wider audience to
decisions about Peradeniya University. The publicize the prestigious university.
proposed Virtual Peradeniya University is a
comprehensive digital GIS database about the
331
Farmers` Perceptions Towards Climate Change and Farm Management Practices
K.W.G.R. Nianthi
Introduction
Material and methods
Climate change (CC) may adversely affect the
water availability and management problems, To understand the reality of CC and its impact
thus in turn affecting agricultural production. on paddy cultivation in the DZ, a questionnaire
As the Dry Zone (DZ) of Sri Lanka is a water survey was carried out with particular reference
deficit area, its agriculture is highly vulnerable to farmers’ response to CC and its effects on
to CC. The economic disruption, social communities and their livelihood systems.
dislocation and human suffering caused by Discussions were also held with officers and
drought, among DZ communities have often the village communities. The 03 villages are
been described in historical chronicles. In the located close each other, are small in size and
modern time too, almost every year, there have have no remarkable differences among them
been media reports on rainfall failure in many and therefore, were analysed together with a
parts of the country especially in the DZ. total sample of 99 households. The sample was
Farmers` attitudes and perceptions towards CC drawn by using the random sampling method.
and adjustment of farm management practices The field survey was carried out during the
were examined in this paper. To understand the Maha season (MS) (October to March) 2003-
reality of CC and its impact on the paddy 2004. In addition to the questionnaire survey,
community in the DZ; Kekirawa division (with temperature and rainfall data were collected
03 villages) in the Anuradhapura district was from the Meteorology Department in Colombo
selected for this study. The main objectives of and the trends and fluctuation of rainfall and
the study are; to examine the present CC and temperature variation have been analyzed using
fluctuation of rainfall and temperature since linear trend analysis.
1960 and to study the responses of paddy
farming communities to perceived threats of Results and discussion
CC and its consequences. The study revealed
that the study area is heavily dependent on the Currently, 07 rain-fed small tanks are
availability of water and timely rainfall and the functioning in the study area; but invariably
dry spells are often caused by the failure of there is no water in the YS in all these tanks.
Northeast monsoon (NEM) rainfall. Such Therefore, none of the farmers has been able to
failure leads to a continuous decline in the cultivate paddy during the YS. Even in the MS,
availability of water resulting in the reduction during the period of the field survey, water had
of rice production. During the last two decades, dried up in all the tanks due to insufficient
rainfall has decreased drastically in the study rainfall from NEM. Therefore, the Maha
area. The irrigation system consisted of 07 cultivation was not possible due to inadequate
rain-fed tanks but these small tank systems do rainfall. The preceding YS cultivation had also
not protect the farmers from severe water failed due to inadequate rainfall. Next to paddy
shortages. Climatic factors have significantly cultivation, shifting cultivation (Chena slash
affected paddy production, its extent and yield, and burn cultivation) has been the main source
particularly under rain-fed conditions in the of livelihood for paddy farmers in this area.
field area. Due to the uncertainty of timely Due to the uncertainty of timely rainfall, there
rainfall, there is an increasing trend on the part is an increasing trend for farmrs to engage in
of farmers to engage in ‘Chena Cultivation’ ‘Chena cultivation’ than in paddy cultivation
than in paddy cultivation especially in the especially in the YS. None of the tanks are
‘Yala’ season Farmers have noted a variety of linked to any major irrigation schemes and
changes in climate affecting their paddy farms: therefore, water availability is vulnerable to
including an increasing general warming of the local rainfall failure. Although almost all the
climate with reduced rainfall and a shift in the farmers had cultivated paddy during the MS,
seasonal pattern of rainfall. the crop was completely damaged due to
inadequate rainfall during the NEM. The
332
farmers` perception of cc is reported to be based on a highly variable rainfall. The

influenced by a number of factors. The rainfall increasing temperature conditions in the last
fluctuations have also affected average yields two decades were combined with decreasing
and consequent adoption by paddy farmers of rainfall during the NEM. According to farmers’
poor management practices. The poor views, due to uncertainty of timely rainfall
economic status of the farming families was there is an increasing trend to engage in ‘Chena
obviously caused by the failure of crops due to cultivation’ than for paddy cultivation
weather changes or disturbances. According to especially in the YS. None of the tanks are
farmers’ remarks, during the last two decades, linked to any major irrigation schemes and
rainfall has decreased drastically. Weather therefore, vulnerability to local rainfall has
disturbances, warming and heat in summer increased. Particular attention should be placed
have also been increasing. All the households on the cultivation of drought resistant crops and
indicated that they were very vulnerable to the the development of irrigation water supply and
failure of the rainfall and water scarcity in their management practices. The dependence on rice
agricultural activities. They do not get timely has to be reduced and other crops less
rainfall to undertake paddy cultivation during susceptible to droughts could be promoted. The
the MS. Therefore, it affects cultivation of elements of such a strategy should include: the
paddy or other seasonal crops during the YS development of rice varieties with high yields
too. The reasons for non-cultivation of large which are drought resistant and use less water,
tracts of paddy land during the last MS and YS, agricultural practices which use less water,
were mainly due to the uncertainty of rainfall, cultivation of alternative crops and various
both Northeast and Southwest monsoons. cropping patterns. In the long term the
Farmers have noted a variety of changes in introduction of agricultural systems which are
climate affecting their paddy farms with less dependent upon the monsoon cycle may be
increasingly erratic weather patterns, general necessary. There is also a need to promote rain-
warming of the climate with reduced rainfall fed farming and the efficient utilization and
and a shift in the seasonal pattern of rainfall. conservation of water through the development
Particular attention should be placed on high of an integrated farming system by taking
drought -resistant crop varieties and the account of climate change. Finally, there is the
development of irrigation water management need to create community awareness by means
practices. No doubt, much of this requires a of farmers’ educational programmes on climate
proactive position of the Government and the change and its possible hazards. A wide variety
district administrations to enable the farming of adaptive actions may be taken to overcome
communities to come to terms with the risks adverse effects of climate change on
involved in their chief occupations and agriculture at the level of farms adjustments.
livelihood system. There is a need for revising existing
agricultural policy by taking into account the
Conclusions impacts of climate change.
The livelihood of paddy communities in this
area is largely dependent on paddy cultivation,
333
Changing Landscape of Kandy
A.S.M. Nawfhal
Introduction area. During the time of the Portuguese and the

Dutch, the city was destroyed by arson more
The planning process of Kandy is continuing, than four times.
the road frontages as well as the buildings that
are listed as heritage monuments are on the The British changed the face of the city by
verge of destruction or being defaced with constructing buildings such as 06 schools, 05
modern architecture. Some buildings have churches, 06 company buildings, and hotels.
already been demolished. Except the Esala Some old residences were changed for their
Perahera, many other cultural events like administrative or trade functions. The prison
Kandyan dance and handicrafts are losing their complex located within the core of the city is a
heritage value as a result of urbanization and miniature of a fortress in Europe. In the post
modernization. Consequently, the entire city is independence period, many houses and
under the threat of losing its heritage buildings were built in the core area without
importance. This is a very unfortunate situation proper planning. As a result, the city centre and
in view of the fact that every element of the its surrounding areas have buildings that are
city has been designed to illustrate the legacy not in harmony with the cityscape or not
of royal patronage extended to Buddhism for compatible with the heritage buildings.
the purpose of maintaining the supremacy and
the legitimacy of the rulers of the past. After opening 4 main arterial roads, the flow of
commodities to the city from outside increased
Methodology rapidly, and it became a multi-functional urban
Through a literature survey, a profile of the centre. Administrative functions of missionary
historical landscape was extracted. Data and activities, trade or commercial functions,
information were collected from relevant transactions related to tea and other local
authorities involved in planning and produce were expanded. British companies
implementation process of the city. A established their branches, hotels and
comprehensive questionnaire survey was restaurants, where liquor was served.
conducted to collect information from the Consequently, the cultural impact of the British
occupants of 24 randomly selected buildings was severely felt. All these converted the
named as heritage buildings by the KMC. religio-political environment of Kandy into a
Additionally, samples from haphazardly commercial one in central Sri Lanka. The
developed shops were also taken into British however, preserved some of the cultural
consideration. The spatial data and information monuments like the Temple of the Tooth relic
of the city were processed by employing GIS and its peripheral and traditional functions like
technology to develop models of the lost the Perahera.
heritage.
The changes that have taken place in the recent
past are reflected by large shopping complexes,
Changes in cityscape under-passes, commercial and bank buildings,
Kandy city has gone through several phases of car parks, new roads, school buildings, and
change in its physical and cultural landscape. other new structures. Further changes have
After the establishment of the Kingdom, the begun to take place along new roads. The result
city was made the capital by its first king in of all these obviously change the heritage and
1592. The city landscape had been laid out by cultural values of the façade of the road.
taking account of the physical features, security
requirement, and also the social hierarchy of Kandy was declared a World Heritage city by
the kingdom. The cityscape at that time was virtue of the fact that it possesses rich cultural
unique because of the grid street layout of the mixed historic buildings, monuments,
city which is still visible. In addition to the structures and living traditions of the past. This
Maligawa complex there were other can be observed from the list of 440 buildings
monuments within the landscape of the sacred comprising old houses, business places, office
334
buildings and monuments in the core/built up The challenges ahead for Kandy city can be
area gazetted by the government. A considered in terms of this increasing demand
systematically demarcated zoning plan has also for services, controlling traffic, waste
been gazetted to control the pressure on land management and minimizing natural disasters.
use. The need also has been recognized to In order to protect and safeguard the city and
protect paddy lands, unstable lands, stream and its socio-cultural heritage from the internal and
road reservations. These measures are expected external pressure or modernization, careful
to minimize the damage to the existing planning is required.
landscape.
335
Vessagiriya: Epigraphy and Palaeography
A.M.P. Senanayake
Department of Archaeology, Faculty of Arts, University of Peradeniya
Introduction basis of the material found in all of the

collected data.
This is a very important archaeological site
known as Vessagiri located in the southern Results
section of the ancient City of Anuradhapura.
Inscriptions and monuments from the pre- It was possible to discover and record quite a
Christian era till about the 10th century AC are number of new symbols and inscriptions found
found at this site. However, before the present at the site. Symbols were mainly non-Brahmi
study, this site has not been explored properly in character. The number of new inscriptions
and completely. The archaeological was ten. Out of them, three were early Brahmi
explorations and excavations began here in cave-inscriptions, while two belonged to 2nd
2006, under the supervision of Prof S.D.S. century AC (After Clenit). There were also
Seneviratne and with financial support from the four inscriptions attributable to the 5th and 6th
Central Cultural Fund (CCF). This exploration centuries AC. Finally there was one inscription
was launched as a joint project of the CCF and belonging to 7th century AC.
the Government’s Department of Archaeology.
This paper is based on the epigraphic material Discussion and conclusions
found during the course of the investigations of
the above project. On the eastern side of one (rock A) of the three
rocks at Vessagiriya, there appeared several
Aims and objectives non Brahmi symbols. Some of them may
represent close connections with pre Buddhist
(a) Critically examining the published rituals and they may be attributed to the Proto-
epigraphic records found at the site being historic period. The majority of inscriptions
investigated. (b) Recoding inscriptions which that have been found were at the rock (B),
have not yet been published. (c) Establishing which was fully associated with architectural
the historical significance attributable to the remains. Out of them, one inscription specially
site. (d) Making use of the available epigraphic mentioned the families which arrived in Sri
records on site for training university students Lanka with the Sri Maha Bodhi.
specializing in archaeology.
This study enabled the investigator to edit and
Methodology reinterpret the inscriptions formerly published.
The estampages of all the symbols and
A literature survey was conducted preliminarily inscriptions were made for the purpose of
before the ground work. The site was initially preserving them for future studies. There is a
divided into 10 x 10 square grids to facilitate view that this place called Vessagiriya was no
the investigation. Estampages were prepared other than a part of the site known as
for all symbols and inscriptions. At the same Isurumuniya. The present investigations made
time, they were photographed using digital under this project proved the above view which
cameras. Hand written copies were also made. was presented by Senarat Paranavitana to be
Finally, an interpretation was attempted on the acceptable on fairly reasonable grounds.
336
Characterization of Soils at the Vessagiriya Archaeological Site in Relation to Past

Settlement Sites
A.M.C.P.K. Attanayake1, R.B. Mapa1* and S. Seneviratne2

1
Department of Soil Science, Faculty of Agriculture, University of Peradeniya
2
Introduction in a closed vessel to determine total P content

(Hossner, 1996). Available P, occluded P in Fe,
The study of archaeology is based on artifacts Al oxides and hydroxide and Calcium
and ecofacts retrieved from explorations and Phosphate were extracted by using standard
excavations. In the past two decades fractionation schemes as described by Kuo
environmental archaeology has come to play a (1996). Extracted P fractions were determined
crucial role in data collection and by the Ascorbic acid method (Kuo, 1996).
interpretation. The application of Organic matter content was determined using
archaeological sciences has introduced the use the Walkley & Black method (Nelson and
of multidisciplinary studies in archaeology. It Sommers, 1996). These results were used to
is in this context we wish to argue that complement information on archeological
information from soil, insects and pollen could findings.
be integrated with investigative and interpretive
archaeology. When a particular human activity Results
related to land use is carried out on the earth’s
surface for a sufficient time span, it produces The texture of soils in all five layers was sandy.
certain imprints on the soil. Therefore, Fine sand / silt and medium sand / silt ratios
information on past cultural activities can be were different among the layers. The organic
complemented by analyzing soil characters that matter percentage of soil gradually reduced
are mainly influenced by human interventions. with depth. The maximum organic matter
content was 1.2% in the D1 layer.
This paper describes a preliminary soil
characterization carried out at the Vessagiriya As shown in Figure 1, layers of D1 and D2
archaeological site. The objective was to showed the highest total P concentration which
characterize soils at the Vessagiriya excavation were five times higher than the minimum in the
site to relate them with past cultural events in D4 layer. In D3 and D5 there was no
the site. significant difference in total P concentrations,
which were two times higher than the
Methodology minimum. Table 1 shows that the D5 layer has
comparatively extreme proportions of soil
Soil samples were collected from one of the inorganic P fractions. Layers of D3 and D4
excavation sites in Vessagiriya located at expressed similar signature in inorganic P
Anuradhapura. Soil samples were obtained fractions. The D1 and D2 layers showed
from five layers at depths of 0 – 25 cm (D1), similar inorganic P fractions.
25 – 37 cm (D2), 37 – 55 cm (D3), 55 – 89 cm
(D4), and 89 – 170 cm (D5). Sand (diameter, Discussion
0.05-2 mm), silt (diameter, 0.002-0.05 mm)
and clay (diameter, less than 0.002 mm) Different fine sand / silt and medium sand / silt
proportions in each layer were determined by ratios indicted that the soil profile was
the pipette method (Gee and Baurder, 1986). disturbed by external factors. When the
The sand fractions were oven dried and landscape evolution of the site is considered,
fractionated into five groups by mechanical siltation could be the most possible natural
sieving. The five groups were the particles external factor. The sandy texture and the
having diameter of 1-2 mm, 0.5-1 mm, 0.5-0.3 organic matter variation along the profile
mm (medium sand), 0.3-0.1 mm (fine sand) showed that there has been no siltation process
and 0.1-0.05mm. Fine sand / silt and medium in the past. Therefore, human influences could
sand / silt ratios were derived. Soils were be the major reason for the disturbance of soil
digested with aqua regia and hydrofluoric acid at the Vessagiriya site.
337
that they were under the same land use system

but in different intensities and durations.
According to the archaeological findings D3
T o ta l P (p p m )
300 and D4 layers belong to the Early Iron Age

200 dating to 1000 BC – 400 BC. The deepest layer
(D5) showed remarkably different proportions
100 of P fractions, expressing that this soil layer
was subjected to different cultural phase.
0 According to archaeologists D5 represents the
0-25 25-37 37-55 55-89 89-100 Prehistoric culture that had a hunting and
(D1) (D2) (D3) (D4) (D5) gathering economy. As P fixed in Fe, Al oxides
Depths (cm)
and hydroxide content increases with time of
soil development, this fraction of soil P can be
used to determine the relative age of soils. This
Figure 1. Total Phosphorus concentrations in theory was correlated with chronological
soil layers sequences developed by archaeologists using
artifacts at the Vessagiriya excavation site.
Table 1. Percentage of different fractions of
inorganic P in soil layers In the above context, it can be shown that
results of soil analysis complemented
F1% F2% F3% archaeological interpretations. The soil P
Depths (cm) * ** *** fractionation result was a valuable tool to
demarcate past cultural phases to show that the
0 - 25 (D1) 2 74 24 Vessagiriya archaeological site was under
25 - 37 (D2) 2 74 24 different human settlements at different eras.
37 - 55 (D3) 7 24 69
References
55 - 89 (D4) 9 22 69
Gee, G.W. and Baurder, J.W. (1986) Particle-
89 - 100 (D5) 4 83 13 size analysis, Methods of Soil Analysis,
* Easily extractable P Part 1 and 2, American Society of
** Tightly bound or occluded P Agronomy, Madison, WI, USA.
*** Calcium phosphate and apatite Hossner, L.R, (1996) Dissolution for total
elemental analysis, Methods of Soil
Different levels of total P among the layers Analysis, Part 3, American Society of
confirmed that diverse cultural phases existed Agronomy, Madison, WI, USA, 49-63.
in the site as interpreted by archaeologists. Kuo, S. (1996) Phosphorus, Methods of Soil
Varying proportions of P fractions demarcate Analysis, Part 3, American Society of
the soil layers, which were subjected to various Agronomy, Madison, WI, USA, 869-917.
land use systems. Similar proportions of P Nelson, D.W. and Sommers, L. E. (1996) Total
fractions in D1 and D2 layers indicated that carbon, organic carbon and organic matter,
these layers were subjected to the influence of Methods of Soil Analysis, Part 3, American
the same land use system. Similar proportions Society of Agronomy, Madison, WI, USA.
of P fractions and different total P
concentrations in D3 and D4 layers indicated
338
Functional Uses of Stone Outcrops at Anuradhapura Vessagiriya:

An Environmental Archaeological Study
T. Wagalawatte
Rock formations of the earth are categorized planes in all of the rock outcrops at the
into different types based on their natural Vessagiriya archaeological site.
characteristics. The rocks in Sri Lanka are also
classified by geologists based on the basis of The layering of rocks are formed during the
many factors. For an archaeologist, it is metamorphic or sedimentary processes and
important to have a scientific knowledge about layers are markedly shown be their different
rocks in making logical explanations and colors. Rocks having dark light colors had been
interpretations about environmental selection used for constructions at the Vessagiriya site.
of sites, historical constructions using rocks as For example, metamorphosed limestone was
raw material and the functional use of used to construct the moon-stone
technologies in relation to raw material. sandakadapahana, steps etc. This indicates that
the artist had applied his knowledge and
Vessagiriya archaeological site, which was technical skills for constructions considering
investigated since the 19th Century, is located at naturally available raw materials.
the southern end of the heritage city of
Anuradhapura. The central feature of the site is Ancient constructions of large dimensions
represented by three relatively large and which can be seen even today were exploited
scenically beautiful rock out crops, named by through simple techniques. These techniques
archaeologists as Rock A, B and C. Recent were applicable, since the raw material existed
investigations indicated that the rock outcrops in a controllable manner in the environment.
were used from the pre historic period. The pre For example, they made shila puwaru (stone
historic people used it as a protective safe slabs) from naturally layered rocks. A location
haven. The Early Iron Age folk used the lower near Rock C in the southern part of the
outcrops as a natural foundation for their Vessagiriya displays such shila puwaru that
settlements. The Early Historic (3rd Century had been separated from the parent rock.
BC) devotees chiseled the rocks and carved out
shelters for forest dwelling Buddhist monks. In order to separate the rock, it had been
They carved out drip-ledges to prevent rain broken along the holes created in the rocks.
water seeping into the caves and to engrave the This was evident by the drill holes found on the
earliest inscriptions of Sri Lanka. The advanced edges of the main rock. Metal equipment that
period of rock usage at Vessagiriya commences were used to separate the rocks by creating
from the Middle Historic period (4th to 10th pressure inside the holes were unearthed by
Century AC). It was noted during the 2007 archaeological investigations. Six of such
archaeological investigations that the ancient equipment are exhibited in the archaeological
people had an in-depth knowledge on the museum in Anuradhapura and two are
physical characteristics of rocks in selecting registered under Nos. C. 7.12 and C. 7.10. This
rocks as raw material, with special reference to method is yet utilized to break rocks. The only
the built environment. A whole range of difference between the ancient and present
architectural art representations were fashioned practices is the use of metal pegs and chemicals
out of rock during the Middle Historic Period. to create pressure at present.
Metamorphic rocks are the most abundant As described above, the main reason for the
rocks found in Sri Lanka. Due to the pressure built environment activity around Vessagiriya
and temperature changes, protoliths of these area (including Isurumuniya and Ranmasu-
rocks have been subjected to mineralogical and uyana) is the availability of natural resources
structural changes. Most of these rocks can be suitable for constructions and art
easily broken through the foliation plane which representations.
was formed from the metamorphic process.
We can identify well developed foliation
339
The Ecological Values Reflected in the Buddhist Vinaya (Discipline)
M. Gnanananda
Department of Pali and Buddhist Studies, Faculty of Arts, University of Peradeniya
Introduction tested in the sea, which is another major

problem.
Although the object of Buddhist discipline
(vinaya) is to regulate the activities of monks it Protection of the flora and fauna enhances the
also has great relevance to society especially in beauty of nature and also promotes physical
its involvement with the environment. Some and mental healthiness. Khandhaka Vinaya
problems that affect modern society globally, explains how to maintain the senasana (sylvan
and require urgent attention are pollution and abodes: dwelling of the monks) and its
wastefulness. While pollution causes health neighborhood in a clean and eco friendly
problems, wastefulness causes poverty. These manner. Especially Sekhiya shows the value of
problems are aggravated when adequate cleanliness. Destroying of forests is a threat to
attention is not paid to them. Therefore, the aim living creatures and it also causes damage to
of this paper is to discuss ways and means to the environment and this has created secondary
find a common solution to minimize some of problems such as floods, famine and drought
these problems through an understanding of the etc. Bhutagama Pacittiya (destroying of plants)
vinaya rules. claims that wiping out flora and fauna is
prohibited for Bhikkus. Khandhaka explains
Methodology that even constructing the senasana (dwelling
A detailed study of the Buddhist discipline places) should be done with care to protect the
(vinaya) is of utmost importance to understand environment. In the present day, with the
the impact it has had on the social and advancement of science and technology, the
ecological aspects of life within the Buddhist danger to the environment is obviously
fraternity. Such a study is also likely to throw noticeable.
new light on some problems arising from the
day-to-day behaviour patterns of people in Conclusions
contemporary society. The catupaccaya (the four basic requirements)
prescribes the method of fulfilling their
Discussion minimum requirement, avoiding waste and
Among the many things in the world, water, utilization of scarce resources for the benefit of
flora and fauna are wonderful creations of mankind. Poverty is the result of socio-
nature (Eco-world). They are supportive economic disparities and the gap between the
resources, which influence and mutually exist extremes of ‘haves’ and ‘have-nots’. Although
not only for the benefit of mankind but also for there are many causes of poverty, the
the entire organic world. Therefore, protecting maximum utilization of resources and
these resources is a responsibility of mankind. management of natural resources is a means of
It is mentioned in Sekhiya (a group of precepts) overcoming poverty and wastefulness.
that persons should not pollute with human
waste where there is water. Today because of The Vinaya rules are very clear and helpful in
the desire for development without any control, solving social problems and these are provided
various chemicals and fertilizes are used in with examples and statistical data.
water and this has caused health and ecological
problems. Sometimes chemical weapons are
340
Is ‚HA a Cluster in Pali Language ?
M. Wijitadhamma
Department of Pali and Buddhist Studies, Faculty of Arts, University of Peradeniya
Introduction 1. After a long vowel- ∂a>¬ha

It is obvious that the medieval Indo Aryan era gå∂ha>gå¬ha
inherent letter in the Pali language is the letter
¬ha written as ha by binding ¬a. When we look rË∂ha > rË¬ha
at it outwardly we can see it at a glance as a
cluster. But in the linguistics research, it is seen mË∂ha>mË¬ha
as an individual letter. The objective is to 2. After a short vowel - ∂a>¬ha
inquire in to it.
d®∂ha>da¬ha
Objectives and methodology
Though both the letter ¬a and ¬ha can be seen in It can be decided as the cluster or non-cluster
the Pali language, it does not appear in the of ¬ha based on both of these evolutions.
classical Sanskrit. But there is evidence found Specially in the Pali language, there is no long
in R®igveda that indicates it is present in the vowel before the cluster. However, we should
Vedic Sanskrit. Linguists say that the vowel not forget that it is used very rarely. But it can
centered ∂a is pronounced as ¬a and ∂ha as ¬ha. be seen that there is no such occurrence in the
In the charm of “Agnim¥¬e purohitam’’ ¥¬e is words given as examples from Pali. The second
created from the derivation of the root ¥∂ the example shows that after the short vowel the
letter la† lakåra åtmanepada is used as the first ¬ha is used. That is the only example we come
person singular. It’s documentary form should across in the Pali language. But that is the only
be ¥∂e because it is located in the middle of the word which expresses a meaningful idea that
two vowels (¥+∂+e) and it is pronounced as ¬a. can’t be expressed by any other word and it is
In other instances the letter ∂ha is pronounced the great enlightenment that the Pali language
in the same way. In the place of ‘¥∂yo nuta has received. The reason for its important is
nairuta’ though ¥∂yo is from the root ¥∂, it that in the letter ¬ha the same vowel and its
doesn’t seem that the letter ¬a is the letter o. It shortness decides the cluster and non cluster
is not centered there. Thus the form of the letter nature of ¬ha.
is such. The version ‘tama ås¥t gË¬ha magre’
gË¬ha is the pronunciation of gË∂ha. Since the After the short letter the words of ¬ha occurring
∂ha is in the centre of the vowel it has became to the version of poetry when enquiring the
¬ha (g+Ë+∂+a). Mac Donnell has introduced Metre. If the letter ¬ha a cluster existing before
¬ha as the aspirated letter of ¬a. This ¬a is it should be shorten. The reason for this is that
voiced as ¬ha when ¬a and ∂ha are pronounced it is considered as the long letter before the
together. But that pronunciation isn’t received cluster. The long letter can be a definite long
from auditory means. It is very clear from the letter when there is a definite or indefinite long
above examples that it can be received only by letter. It can not be considered as long when it
means of visual media. is used in place of the definite long letter.
When it is a short letter, it can’t be a cluster
In the Tipi†aka written in Pali language we can when ¬ha is used after the short letter.
find ¬ha when it is considered by way of
linguistic, ∂a has become ¬ha When it was Conclusions
derived from ∂a. According to the
characteristics of the language evolution there It can be proved that it is obvious, according to
can be ¬ha after long or short vowel. In the features of language evolution and features
Sanskrit ∂ha which is followed by long vowel of classic Metre that the letter ¬ha is not a
becomes as ¬ha in Pali. cluster. So it can be incorporated in the
traditional Pali alphabet.
341
The Frankfurt School of Social Research and Critical Theory, with Special
Reference to Max Horkheimer
M. Rajaratnam
Department of Philosophy and Psychology, Faculty of Arts, University of Peradeniya
The main objective of this research is to

explore the practical aims and contributions of Quantitative and qualitative methodologies are
the Frankfurt school, the most important and used in an integral manner in this research.
influential group of leftist intellectuals, Max Horkheimer’s original writings-
philosophers, and social theorists in twentieth Traditional and Critical Theory (Horkheimer,
century Germany. This paper focuses on the 1937) and his other major writings such as
Frankfurt school of social research and critical Eclipse of Reason (Horkheimer, 1947),
theory with special reference to Max Dialectic of Enlightenment (Horkheimer and
Horkheimer (1895-1971), who was the Adorno, 1947), Critique of Instrumental
Director of the Institute of Social Research of Reason (Horkheimer, 1967), are evaluated in
the University of Frankfurt. The Frankfurt phenomenological hermeneutic methodology.
school of social research is a school of thought The quantitative method is used to identify the
and their critical theory expressed an explicit same problems in our present social and
interest in the abolition of social injustice. political context and the integral methodology
Members of the Frankfurt school were is used for the complete evaluation of this
affiliated to the Institute of Social Research research.
which was established in 1923 and Max
Horkheimer was appointed as its second Max Horkheimer’s distinction between
Director in 1931. Max Horkheimer introduced traditional and critical theory is in one sense,
critical theory which focuses on neo - Marxist merely repetition of Karl Marx’s dictum that
social theory, social research, philosophy and a philosophers have always interpreted the world
genuine interest in a radical change in and the point is to change it. The Institute of
contemporary society. No projects hold a more Social Research and the Frankfurt school, in its
prominent place in the development of modern critique of ideology, have criticized some
European thought than Critical theory and its issues of the philosophical currents especially
practical commitment towards building a better positivism, phenomenology, and Existentialism
society. Though there are numerous members - with an implied critique of contemporary
Max Horkheimer, Theodor Adorno, Herbert Marxism which had turned dialectics into an
Marcuse, Eric Fromm, Friedrich Pollock, Leo alternative science or an ideological dogma.
Lowenthal, Walter Benjamin, Habermas and Owing to its interdisciplinary character, critical
others who contributed to this school, this theory has been enormously influential and
study focuses mainly on Max Horkheimer’s controversial in its claims. This study will
contribution to social research with special employ the emancipatory and interpretatory
reference to his Traditional and Critical function of critical theory against its
Theory (1937) and its distinction of traditional predominant forms of expression. Critical
and Critical theory. Max Horkheimer theory is not a system, or reducible to any
emphasized the rejection of ‘static’ traditional systems of prescription, but seeks to
methods and insisted on a new commitment to reinvigorate the interdisciplinary character in
social research in a critical mode. Critical social research. This model can be introduced
theory recognizes the historical nature of such to our social research with the critical
inquiry and acknowledges the potential for perspectives to overcome the negative
ideological critique leading to social and influences of certain philosophical ideologies
political change. This research contributes to and to solve social and political problems.
promote our social and political research with
the genuine critique of modern society and Critical theory was originally conceived by
politics in order to solve major problems in the Max Horkheimer as a materialist enterprise but
present context. his version of materialism did not reject the
issues of critique inherited from idealism and
the commitment to the enlightenment heritage
342
became evident in Horkheimer’s famous claim This study also identified in our country, the
that critical theory inherently involves the problems and the influences of orthodox
attempt to actualize the materialist content of Marxism and Positivism in the fields of
idealist philosophy. Critical theory in this sense education, research, social sciences, social and
continues the theoretical innovations political cultures undermine the genuine
undertaken by George Lukacs and Karl Korsch progress of our society in its practical fields.
in the early twenties. Both thinkers had also The social sciences and social research should
promoted a dialectical critique of crude have critical approach with new rational
materialism of orthodox Marxism and revolutionary focus in order to have
Positivism as well as fixed and finished progressive change in the society and in the
philosophical systems. Horkheimer’s critical field of political culture.
materialism anticipates what has now become
known as post metaphysical thinking. The use References
of ‘critical theory’ as code word become
evident in his early writings enabled a certain Horkheimer, M. (1937) Traditional and
interpretation of Marxism to enter academic Critical Theory: Selected Essays, Seabury,
discourse. His Italicise and Critical Theory New York 1972
focuses on the distinction of traditional and Horkheimer, M. and Ardorno, T. (1947)
critical theory. The Dialectic of Enlightenment Dialectic of Enlightenment, Verso, London,
is clearly a critique of enlightenment 1979.
undertaken from the standpoint of Horkheimer, M. (1947) Eclipse of Reason,
enlightenment itself and it remains a landmark New, Seabury, New York, 1974.
in radical thought. Horkheimer expressed that Horkheimer, M. (1967) Critique of
he could philosophically maintain his Instrumental Reason, Seabury, New York,
commitment to emancipation only by turning 1974.
away from the given historical reality.
343
Children’s Posttraumatic Emotional Distress and Coping After a Natural Disaster:

The 2004 Tsunami
G.R.K. Dissanayake1* and V.Ganepola²

¹Department of Philosophy and Psychology, Faculty of Arts, University of Peradeniya
²Department of Sociology, Faculty of Arts, University of Colombo
Introduction Sinhalese and from families at the lower socio-

economic level.
Natural disasters take a heavy toll on the
mental health of those affected and The Emotional Distress Questionnaire (EDQ),
significantly increase the risk of distress, a 24-item self-report measure was designed for
psychological problems and mental disorders. this study to assess the nature and magnitude of
Children are especially vulnerable to the effects emotional distress. The Child Coping
of natural disasters as they are still developing Questionnaire (CCQ), a 25-item self-report
an understanding of their social world and measure was developed for this study to assess
necessary coping mechanisms to withstand the frequency of the use of different coping
stress resulting from disasters. The effects of strategies and the relative effectiveness of each
the 2004 tsunami on mental health of children strategy in dealing with disaster related
are likely to be quite traumatic as the victims of emotional distress. All the measures used in the
the tsunami have experienced multiple, intense study were validated to meet the local cultural
stressors that have been found to predict requirements.
adverse outcomes, such as bereavement, threat
to life, and displacement. These stressors can Approximately 15 months after the tsunami of
generally induce traumatic effects on children December, 2004, after obtaining informed
including mild to severe post-traumatic stress parental consent and child consent as well, the
reactions such as depression, anxiety and post- researcher administered a series of self-report
traumatic stress disorder (PTSD) in response to questionnaires to 126 child participants during
such disasters. Among the many child school hours. All self-report measures were
psychosocial implications that have emerged in read to the students. The battery of measures
the wake of the tsunami, eating and sleep was completed in approximately 40-45
disorders and fear of the sea have been the minutes.
most pervasive, and survivor guilt also remains
problematic (Carballo et al., 2006). Results
However, children’s use of coping strategies The negative impact of the tsunami on the
may affect the severity and duration of their majority of children was moderate. Possible
posttraumatic distress as well as the extent of score range being 17 to 85, children's mean
impairment to their social and academic scores reflected moderate levels of emotional
functioning. Indeed, in the absence of effective distress (M=47.37, SD=11.63). 7% of the
coping, the meaning and impact of traumatic sample reported experiencing lower levels of
events may continue to play a role in the emotional distress, 50% reported experiencing
personality and psychological development of moderate level of emotional distress while 43%
the child. The purpose of the present study was of the sample reported experiencing higher
to examine the magnitude of long-term level of emotional distress. However, no
persistent posttraumatic emotional distress and children reported experiencing a very high
coping efforts mobilized to deal with it among level of emotional distress. Female gender was
children affected by the tsunami. significantly correlated with emotional distress
while no significant correlation coefficients
Methodology were found between age and emotional
distress.
Participants were 126 (63 girls and 63 boys) 9
to 12 year old school children selected Participating children reported using religious
following the multi-stage sampling procedure strategy (83%) most frequently, followed by
from four schools affected by the tsunami in distraction (82%), and social support (81%)
the Galle district. The participants were coping strategies. The least frequently used
coping strategies were social withdrawal (20%)
344
and blaming others (21%) followed by results also suggest that high levels of distress
ventilation of emotions (31%). Increases in following a disaster which causes multiple
emotional distress were associated with disruptions in the child's life, may initially
significant increases in children's coping scores elicit a variety of coping strategies, both
(r(126) = .42, p < .001). The level of emotional positive and negative. These findings also
distress varied significantly among children indicate that the children are not passive
depending upon the type of coping strategy victims of adversity, but active survivors.
they used (t(124) = 20.85, p < .05). Blaming
others, acceptance, mental disengagement and Conclusions
humour were the coping strategies that were
least associated with emotional distress. There is a small minority of children who
Regression analyses found that use of continue to suffer from long lasting traumatic
individual coping strategies explained 34% of stress reactions; hence are at risk of developing
the variance in emotional distress. Distraction psychological problems. As all children are not
(I try to forget it) made a significant equally effective in choosing the coping
contribution of beta = .21(p < .05), while strategies which would effectively deal with
cognitive restructuring ((β =.23, p < .05) and distress, some would need guidance in
avoidance (β = .18, p < .05) also made a selecting the appropriate strategies. Findings of
significant contribution indicating that the current study would provide important
increases in the use of these three coping information to the service providers, hence
strategies were associated with increases in the could be used for the benefit of the tsunami
level of emotional distress. There was no affected children.
significant relationship between age and gender
with coping efforts. Acknowledgements
This research was made possible by a 2005
Discussion Dissertation Research Award from the National
Being affected by the loss of their familiar Centre for Advanced Studies (NCAS),
environment, disruption of the sense of Colombo.
protection and well-being, lack of care received
from the care givers might have led to elevated References
levels of emotional distress among most of the Carballo, M., Heal, B. and Horbaty, G. (2006)
affected children. The explanation behind the Impact of the Tsunami on Psychosocial
strong relationship between coping efforts and Health and Well-being, International
emotional distress seems to lie in the fact that Review of Psychiatry, 18 (3), 217-223.
the children who are highly distressed have put
more effort in coping than the children
experiencing a lesser amount of distress. These
345
Philosophical and Systematic Analysis of Diotima's Definition of Love and Its

Relation to Plato's Theory of Forms in the Symposium
A. Samaratunge
Department of Classical Languages, Faculty of Arts, University of Peradeniya
Introduction numerous western scholars to propound the

theory of knowledge.
The Symposium belongs to the middle
dialogues of Plato. It is perhaps the most The objective of this paper is basically an
artistic composition and purports to report the examination of the definition of love through
encomium of love made by several speakers at Diotima’s speech to examine the nature of the
a party given by Agathon to celebrate his ladder of love in its broader perspective.
victory at the drama festival of the year 416 Further, it examines the relationship of the
BC. Though the author of this philosophical theory of forms in Platonic philosophy to love.
discussion, which climaxes with the
metaphysical conception, is Plato, the dialogue Materials and methodology
is attributed to Socrates, possibly historical
Socrates. Each speaker makes a contribution to Since this brief review is entirely based on
the nature of love, while Socrates brings the library research, primary texts and materials
threads together in his own speech, though all and some texts in their original language i.e.
the while he modestly claims that all that he Greek, are used. Most of the dialogues of Plato
says he learnt from the prophetess Diotima of are referred to in this study.
Mantinea, of whom we know nothing beyond
what he says of her. Results
From the different speakers, with their generic, In order to fathom the complexities of the
genealogical, cosmic, romanticized paeans and Platonic reality of forms with its philosophical
other diverse approaches contributing to the attributes, the application of a Theory of Love
nature of the god of Love (sometimes goddess proper is essential which is one main
of Love) eulogize the multifaceted nature of the component used in the effort of unfolding the
mysterious experience and their individual philosophical definition of forms accompanied
attempt to conceptualize it. Thus the dialogue with some important Socratic
is a concoction of comprehensive philosophical conceptualizations, such as Socratic virtues,
entity with an artistic touch. The most definition of good, happiness, knowledge,
important among all comes from Diotima’s desire which are sure ingredients of forming
definition of Love, embracing a broader the whole-natured image of forms in which
outlook of moral psychology and the erotic love has the least role to play in this
metaphysical doctrine of Plato’s much used whole quest of intellectual vision of the highest
theory of forms directing towards unchanging, reality.
uniform, universal character to obtain the
ultimate objective ground for knowledge using Discussion
the vision of forms. Plato's definition of Love is not entirely an
isolated attempt. It is one of the core issues of
The other affiliated concepts that combine to Platonic epistemology.
build the totality of the nature of Love are
definitions of beauty, desire, and good virtue Among the chosen dialogues of Plato, the
that share with the Greek terminology of theory of Eros (Love), desire of what is
episteme (επίστεμε) against doxa (δοζα), the beautiful (καλον), what is beautiful is closely
concepts dealt in the other Platonic dialogues akin to what is good (αγαθον) are prefigured in
that I hope to discuss comprehensively in the Plato's Lysis. In The Republic and Phaedo
paper taking in to account the issue raised by appear an inconclusive treatment of the
Friedlander who claims that Platonic doctrines of virtue, knowledge, education and
articulation of the vision of forms is happiness building up in this context to
transcendental and nothing to do with this construct the ladder of love, fundamentally
corporeal world. Yet the concepts of the identical with the universal desire for good, of
Platonic corpus have become the centre for which a further developed and transformed
346
version of discussion had already appeared in As a whole, in this paper I attempt to

Gorgias and Meno. incorporate all the constructive formulations of
the Platonic conceptualization with a view to
At the juncture of formulating appropriate achieving the final composite picture of the
instruments for the account of Platonic Love, conclusive philosophical doctrine of Love to
Plato introduces different notions of erotic view the whole-natured image of Platonic
reciprocity, for example ‘beloved seeing his form.
own reflection on the lover’s eyes’ Phaedrus:
255 c-d.
347
Euripides’ Alkestis “A Drama of a Devoted Wife?”

Translation from the Original Greek into Sinhala with an Introduction and
Commentary
C.S.M. Wickramasinghe
Department of Classical Languages, Faculty of Arts, University of Peradeniya
Euripides, as is known, was one of the greatest

of Athenian dramatists and produced tragedies The present study mainly depends on library
for the dramatic festivals held in honour of the research, where a number of editions of
god Dionysos. He lived from 485-406BC. He Alkestis published in original Greek and
has composed about 92 plays, of which only 19 research articles written on the subject were
survive. He has competed 20 times in dramatic extensively used.
festivals and won the first place i in five.
Unlike Aeschylos (?525/4-456/5BC) and In order to make this paper comprehensible to
Sophokles (496/5- 406BC), Euripides was the non-Classics audience, I perceive that a
regarded as a revolutionary dramatist at least brief summary of the drama is essential:
by some of his contemporaries and the attacks
he received from Aristophanes in his comedies Admetos the king of Pherai is doomed to
provide evidence for such information. Alkestis face an early death. But the god Apollo,
was the last or the satyr play in a collection of who was serving him as a slave at the time,
three tragedies, namely, Kressae, Alkmaeon of tricked the Fates to agree to spare the life
Psophis and Telephos which he staged in of Admetos if one of his family members
439BC and won the second place. Being a satyr agreed to die in his place. His family
play, Alkestis is not completely a tragedy but a consisted of his parents, two very young
tragedy with a happy ending. Moreover, children and his wife. When the time
Euripides has very tactfully injected his play came, his parents refused to die in his
with new concepts such as that the dead cannot stead. But his wife, Alkestis, died for him
be brought back to life. He also ridicules and freed his life. When she was already
Olympian religion through this play. laid out in death, a friend, Heracles, visited
Admetos. Admetos persuaded him to enter
Since a Sinhala translation of this drama of the house and be his guest on the pretext
Euripides is not yet available I have taken up that the funeral in the house was of a non-
the onerous task of translating it in order to family member and entertained him.
cover the demand from students studying Herakles somehow learnt the truth from a
Greek drama in the Sinhala medium. The servant and determined to help his noble
importance of translating it from the original friend by saving his wife from Death, who
Greek is to make the translation much closer to was due to come and fetch her. Finally
the original Greek text. When translating a text Herakles comes with Alkestis and claims
from English to Sinhala there is a risk of to have fought with Death to save her and
distorting or misunderstanding the original hands her over to Admetos.
Greek concepts and ideas and eventually this
may not benefit the targeted audience. When The speech of the female servant who reported
such a translation is preceded and followed by the behaviour of Alkestis in preparing for her
an introduction and a commentary written after death, the conversation between Alkestis and
thorough research it will naturally benefit the Admetos and the behaviour of the household
specialist as well as the general reader. are crucial items to observe in discussing what
Moreover, this may stimulate further research is proposed. The servant’s report gives no
in the field of Greek literature and history. indication that Alkestis sacrificed herself out of
love for Admetos nor that she considers it her
In this paper I explore one aspect I have duty to die for the husband, but it indicates her
mentioned briefly in the commentary of my great concern and love for her children. Neither
translation which is whether Alkestis sacrificed does the conversation between Alkestis and
herself on behalf of Admetos because she loved Admetos indicate her action to be motivated by
him or because she considered it her duty. love for or duty to, her husband. On the other
hand, this again proves her concern for her
348
offspring. Nonetheless, the contrast in the state my argument here it will be spelt out in
behaviour of Alkestis in these two scenes my paper.
shows us that she is psychologically disturbed.
Moreover, the behaviour of the rest of the In conclusion, what is clear is that her motherly
household does not show that her death was love predominates over her other concerns and
expected and even Pheres seems to consider this anxiety has persuaded her to offer her life
her death as a noble voluntary sacrifice but he on behalf of Admetos.
thinks it was offered on behalf of himself and
his son. Though space does not permit me to
This paper is an outcome of the research project I have undertaken with the help of a Research
Grant awarded by the University of Peradeniya, to translate the tragic-comedy Alkestis of Euripides
into Sinhala from the original Greek.
349
Issues in Translating 'Sexuality' into Sinhala: Inadequacy of the Terms Used in the
Sinhala Translation of Lady Chatterley's Lover By D.H. Lawrence
D.M. Kumarasinghe
Department of Sinhala, Faculty of Arts, University of Peradeniya
The depiction of sexual and gender matters has English and further, it is believed to be a
been a controversial subject in Sinhala philosophic exploration of sex and sexuality. It
literature as in many other South Asian also offers provocative perspectives: female
literatures. Classical Sinhalese literature fantasy about male sexuality for the so-called
consists of translations of Buddhist texts from predominantly male audience. The citation
Pali. The writers being mainly monks who below shows the philosophical background of
emphasized the ideology of celibacy spurned Lady Chatterley's Lover:
sex and married life and described pleasures of
life as low, rude, worldly, ignoble and leading "I always labor at the same thing, to make
to ruination. This attitude that was primarily the sex relation valid and precious, instead
intended for the monastic community gained of shameful. And this novel is the furthest
ground among the laity. On the other hand, the I've gone. To me it is beautiful and tender
impact of Hindu and Sanskrit tradition that had and frail as the naked self is, and I shrink
kāmə (love) as one of the four ideals of life was very much even from having it typed.
elevated to a divine form as erotic sentiment, Probably the typist would want to
far above worldly, natural sex. Though some interfere-."1
Sinhala writers tried to emulate the Sanskritic
models, the general attitude was "The mind has to catch up, in sex. . . .
discouragement of sex or love as a literary Balance up the consciousness of the act,
experience. However, since the 19th century and the act itself. Get the two in harmony.
secular literature became established, It means having a proper reverence for sex,
apparently under the influence of western and a proper awe of the body's strange
literature, fiction being a newly introduced experience. It means being able to use the
genre. so-called obscene words, because these are
a natural part of the mind's consciousness
Except for a few early poetical works with of the body."2
descriptions of erotic scenes, and some erotic
poetical works of the 17th & 18th centuries Although the novel Lady Chatterley's Lover
A.D., we can not find many fictional works of became very popular around the 1950s in Sri
recent times that treat erotic themes. Lanka, due to the issues of gender and sexual
matters that the novel covers and its alleged
Sex is without a doubt, one of the most pornographic nature, no attempt was made to
intimate indicators of identity as it conjures up translate it into Sinhala until 1985. On the other
images of sexual activity, eroticism, pleasure, hand, contemporary attitudes of expressing sex
taboo, fantasies and desires. Language is matters in literature was very controversial in
considered to be the most intimate medium of the 1960s and 1970s; that is, “Sabhyə-asabhyə
expressing sentiments of sex. It is apparent that vādəyə” (the argument of courteousness and
the Sinhala language does not have sufficient discourteousness) was one of the main
vocabulary on sexuality and gender. However, arguments raised regarding this matter.
there is a hidden or vague vocabulary among However, the first translation (Wijesekara, M.)
Sinhala speakers for referring to sexual organs
and related physical acts. Especially as a
language with diaglossia, Sinhala has a 1
'Letters, ed. Harry T.Moore (London, 1962),
standard pattern in writing. Although many p. 972. The first typist did interfere; Nelly
taboo words are used in colloquial Sinhala such Morrison refused to go on after five chapters,
words are not used in the standard written and Lawrence had to farm it out to his friends.
language. 2
"Edmund Wilson, "Signs of Life: Lady
Chatterley's Lover" [19291, in Shores of Light
Lady Chatterley's Lover by D. H. Lawrence is (New York, 1961),
one of the most famous erotic novels written in p. 407
350
was based on conventional translational In conclusion, these multiple perspectives place

practices and the language used is close to a great deal of importance on translation, as the
classical norms. The other translation that translation of sex has become at present a
appeared in 1995 (Wikramasinghe, W.) was by socio-cultural and political act with serious
a translator with postmodernist persuasions. theoretical and ideological implications.
Sinhala is a norm governed prurient language,
The Sinhala translators of Lady Chatterley's which does not allow its users to openly
Lover in rendering words on sex, in general, discuss the sexual matters. In order to
have used clinical terms and Sanskrit words overcome these difficulties, the Sinhala
such as: yōniyə śişņəyə, garbhāşəyə, translators have utilized various devices in
pratikūtəprāptiyə, mlēccəprətikāntiyə, anurāgī translating sexual matters in to Sinhala. In this
tīkşņə atyānandəyə, śukləmōcənəyə study I focus on different devices used by
sansargakşəyə, sansarga sankatāvə, garbhə translators and critically examine their
kukşiyə, utkruşţvə tīvrəvīmə, payōdhərə cucukə weaknesses and adequacy while giving
cumbənəyə. Sometimes they use loan words or possible solutions.
derived forms, slang words, eg. Tattam
kuttəmə, pirimi œngə, œnīmə, Sinhalisation of
English terms, literally translated words: thing-
ekə" male thing-pirimi œngə, endearments
and euphemism, and paraphrasing: eg; rati
krīdāvə nimāvē uccətəmə avastāvə. They
adopted this method, as they could not find
appropriate words in Sinhala to convey the
exact meaning of the original. It is noteworthy
that the translators have second thoughts in
using the prevailing language, which is
generalized, and the norms related to
translation have also affected their work. Some
of these operational norms were considered as
barriers subsequently by critics. Here are some
of the conventional norms approved by a
committee3 at a time that the issues regarding
translational norms were highly discussed in
Sri Lanka.
"parivartanayə sndəhā tōrā ganu labanə pot

ēvā parivartanəyə vənə bhāşāvə bhāvitə
kərənə jənətāvəge samskrutikə ratāvə
nodedərəvənə ēvā viyə yutuyə"4
"vidēśīyə sāhityə krutiyak sinhələtə

parivartənəyə kərənə
parivartəkəyā…………mulkrutiyen
prəkāśitə jīvitə darśənəyə hō ein pilibimbu
vənə sanskrutiyə hō meratətə nogœləpē
nam emə potə parivratənəyə kirīmēdīdə
privartəkəyā viməsilimat viyə yutuyə.
Mehidī ohutə kələ hœkkē meratətə
nogœləpenə krutīn œtot ēvā parivərtənəyə
nokotə atharinu vinā samājayē
hœngīmvələtə anukūlə vənə sē mul krutiyə
sakas kirīmə novē." 5
3 Sinhala translator's conference 1965

4 Guruge, Ananda, 1965, Sinhala Pariwartana
Sahitya, Department of Cultural Affairs, 58p
5 Ibid, 10p
351
‘Observer’s Paradox’ in Linguistic Research
A. Velmurugu
Department of Tamil, Faculty of Arts, University of Peradeniya
Introduction observer’s paradox. Research done by Labov

(1972), Trudgill (1974), Milroy (1980), Blom
If a fieldworker requests an interview with a and Gumperz (1986), Coates (1986), Preston
native speaker and proceeds to ask questions (1989), Johnson (1995) and Cameron (2005)
and record the responses, the informant will be were taken into account to explain how
aware that everything they say is to be researchers have set-up new ways to overcome
observed and analysed by a linguist. Also, the the observer’s paradox.
informant is likely to adopt the fieldworker’s
speech, make the answer more correct, use a Conclusions
higher register while speaking and so on. This
inevitably leads to hypercorrection in the This paper concludes that it is difficult to create
realms of phonology and vernacular. These a set of methods and principles to remove the
challenges and methodological problems to ethical and philosophical constraints and to
collect samples of authentic casual speech overcome the observer’s paradox. Therefore,
faced by sociolinguists in linguistics research Labov is indeed correct in referring to the
are referred to as ‘Observer’s Paradox’. problem as a paradox.
William Labov first described this term in the
late 1960s (Labov, 1972). Therefore, the References
methodological problem in linguistics is how to
observe and record natural speech from Blom, Jan-Petter and Gumperz, J.J. (1986)
informants, when they are not being observed. Social Meaning in Linguistic Structures:
Code-Switching in Norway, In Gumperz,
Methodology John, J., & Hymes, Dell (Ed), Directions in
Sociolinguistics: The Ethnography of
This paper is mainly based on literary survey Communication, Oxford, Basil Blackwell.
and personal observations. A critical analysis is 407-434.
done to certain research methodologies, which Cameron, D. (2005) Working With Spoken
tries to overcome the observer’s paradox. Discourse, London, Sage Publications,
Major works that have been done in the field of Fifth edition.
sociolinguistics throughout the past 30 years Coates, J. (1986) Women, Men and Language,
have been taken into consideration for this London, Longman.
study. Johnson, S.A. (1995) Gender, Group identity
and Variation in the Berlin Vernacular,
Analysis and discussion Berlin, Peter Lang.
Labov, W. (1972) Sociolinguistic Patterns,
First of all, this paper explains how Philadelphia, University of Pennsylvania
dialectological data was being collected from Press, 61-62.
informants by traditional dialectologists and Milroy, L. (1980) Language and Social
modern dialectologists. Secondly, this paper Networks, Oxford, Basil Blackwell.
explains how the data collection methods Preston, D.R. (1989) Sociolinguistics and
generate errors in data. Thirdly, this paper deals Second Language Acquisition, New York,
with explaining how modern researchers in Basil Blackwell.
western countries have set up many new ways Trudgill, P. (1974) The Social Differentiation
to overcome the observer’s paradox. It of English in Norwich, Cambridge,
examines selected research done by western Cambridge University Press.
scholars in the field of linguistics, and through
this it focuses on how researchers themselves
reveal their own way of overcoming the
352
Economic Growth and Human Capital Investment in Sri Lanka
K.M.G.A. Kasturi and A.S.P. Abhayaratne*

Department of Economics and Statistics, Faculty of Arts, University of Peradeniya
Introduction did a study focusing on welfare expenditure

and economic growth.
A salient feature in the Sri Lankan economy is
its high social indices of health and education Limitations
compared to other developing countries,
despite its slow economic growth. A number of In this study, it was not possible to find data on
studies including Osmani (1993) and Bhalla the literacy rate and life expectancy for a few
and Glewwe (1986), show that these high years. So the data for those years were
indicators were the results of high government calculated by using the median method.
expenditure on welfare. Bhalakrishnan (1985),
Gunathilake (2000) and Lakshman (1997) Results
argue that Sri Lanka could have achieved the
existing social development levels earlier The results of this study show that there is a
through economic growth if the resources significant impact of government expenditure
devoted on social welfare were invested on on infant mortality rate, literacy rate and life
economic growth. expectancy. The regression results suggest that
the human development may be a result of
In Sri Lanka, since independence, each government expenditure in the sectors of
successive government devoted a considerable education and health. However, the growth rate
amount of government expenditure for of real per capita income has little significant
education and health. The major aim was to impact on human capital indicators.
achieve higher rates of economic growth
through human capital development. However, Discussion
after 1977, this approach has been changed to It is clear that, human capital investment is a
promote investment in both human capital and function of economic growth. So, investing for
physical capital. health care and education will lead to increase
economic growth. On the other hand, education
The main objective of this study is to analyze plays a key role in the process of economic
the contribution of government health and growth to absorb modern technology.
education expenditure in the case of Moreover, health is a prerequisite for
accelerating economic growth. This study also increasing productivity. Thus, both health and
attempts to identify the most suitable approach education can be seen as vital components of
for economic growth. The study will be useful economic growth.
in making future policy decisions.
Conclusions
The study concludes that investing in human
This study is mainly based on secondary time development will benefit in the long run. But
series data that were collected from the annual investing in capital accumulation will benefit
reports of the Central Bank of Sri Lanka. A even in the short run. Therefore, in the process
multiple linear regression model is used to of accelerating economic growth, investing for
achieve the objectives of the study. The main capital accumulation will be more productive.
variables used as independent variables were Investment in health and education will lead to
real per capita education, health and poverty- increase human capital which leads to an
reduction expenditures. The infant mortality increase in economic growth in the long run.
rate, literacy rate, life expectancy and growth
rate of real per capita income were used as the
dependent variables. The methodology used in References
Anand and Kanbur (1991) is used in the study Anand, S. and Kanbur, R. (1991) Public Policy
with some changes, because Anand and Kanbur and Basic Needs Provision; Intervention
and Achievement in Sri Lanka, The
353
Political Economy of Hunger. Selected Independence, Nova Science Publishers,

Essays, Oxford University Press. New Huntington, New York, 127-152.
York. Lakshman, W.D. (1997) Dilemmas of
Bhalakrishnan, N. (1985) Sri Lanka As a Development; Fifty Years Economic
Welfare State; An Overview, Economic Changes in Sri Lanka, Sri Lanka
Review, 11(4 & 5). 45 – 53. Association of Economists.
Bhalla, S. and Glewwe, P. (1986) Growth and Osmani, S.R. (1993) Is There a Conflict
Equity in Developing Countries; A Between Growth and Welfarism? The Tale
Reinterpretation of the Sri Lankan of Sri Lanka, WIDER Working Papers
Experience, World Bank Economic Review, No.109.
1(1), 35-63.
Gunathilake, G. (2000) Development Policy
Regimes, Sri Lanka’s Development Since
354
Foreign Direct Investment and Economic Growth in Sri Lanka:

A Causality Approach
N. Balamurali
Department of Economics and Statistics, Faculty of Arts, University of Peradeniya
Introduction examine the order of integration of variables

before employing them in the regression and
In recent years, policymakers in developing Granger causality test. In stage two a multiple
countries became convinced that foreign direct linear regression model is used to identify
investment (FDI) is needed to boost economic factors affecting economic growth. All
growth. It is claimed that FDI can create variables enter into the regression model in log
employment, increase technological form. In stage three is the Granger causality
development in the recipient country and test is applied to measure the linear causation
improve the economic condition of the country between FDI and economic growth.
in general.
Table 1. Results of the Augmented Dickey-
Researchers differ in their view of the
contribution of FDI to economic growth. Some Fuller- Unit Root Test with Trend
see FDI as a very important tool for economic
growth especially in less developed countries Series Level 1st 2nd
while others claim this is not so. difference difference
L(GDP) -3.38 -2.87 -5.68**
The main objective of this study is to examine
whether there exists a causal relationship L(FDI) -2.90 -7.014** -6.4**
between FDI and economic growth in Sri L(DI) -4.01* -2.79 -4.7**
Lanka using the Granger causality method.
L(OP) -1.85 -4.38* -7.59**
Methodology L(LA) -3.11 -3.32 -5.33**
This study is based on annual data on real Note: * denotes rejection of null hypothesis at
GDP, FDI, domestic investment (DI), labour the 5% level significance and **denotes
force (LA) and openness of the trade regime rejections of null hypothesis at the 1% level of
covering the period from 1977 to 2006. Data significance
were collected from the annual reports of the
Central Bank of Sri Lanka. The effect of trade Table 2. Regression Results
liberalization on economic growth channels
through exports and imports to real gross Dependent Variable: Log (GDP) VIF
domestic product (GDP). As reliable data on Constant 3.143300
the capital stock is not available, the ratio of (0.3786)
the gross fixed domestic investment to GDP is L(FDI) 0.025526 9.8
employed as a proxy variable to represent
capital stock. In this study, nationally owned (0.02242)
investments are defined as gross fixed domestic L(DI) 1.262971* 9.5
investment less net FDI inflows (DI) which is (0.07497)
used as a proxy for capital. Openness of trade L(LA) 1.224996* 7.6
policy regime (OPENNESS) is represented by (0.15939)
a proxy variable defined as the ratio of total L(OP) 0.695140* 5.4
merchandise trade in goods (imports + exports) (0.11059)
to GDP. LA is the size of the labour force.
R2 =0.94%
The estimation methodology consists of three DW=1.876702
stages. The first stage is to test for unit roots of F –Statistics=2633.763
the relevant time series variables by using Note : The numbers in the parenthesis are
Augmented Dicky-Fuller (1981) (ADF) test standard–errors.*indicates that the coefficients
and the Phillips-Perron (Phillips and Perron, are significant at the 5% level.
1988) test. These tests have been performed to
355
Table 3: The Granger causality test. contribute positively to economic growth. The
finding that FDI does not cause economic
Direction Lag F-Statistic P growth and economic growth causes FDI is
puzzling and may arise due to following
L(FDI) to L(GDP) 1 0.58986 0.449 reasons.
L(GDP) to L(FDI) 1 10.404* 0.003
Firstly, we used aggregate data which are in
Note: * denotes rejection of null hypothesis at monetary values and these data results shows
the 5% significance level. only a statistical relationship. Some impacts of
FDI in Sri Lanka quantitatively such as,
Empirical results show that all variables are knowledge acquisition technology,
stationary in second difference (Table 1) and international image can not be measured and it
suggest that the estimated coefficient for FDI may take a considerable time before these
does not significantly contribute to economic variables affect economic growth. Secondly,
growth though positively related. Other the extent of FDI inflows to Sri Lanka is
variables such as DI, OPENNESS, and LA relatively small and that may have contributed
significantly influence economic growth at the to the lack of significance impact on economic
5% significance level.6 growth. Thirdly, there may be other factors that
influence the relationship between FDI and
Based on the Granger causality test, the null economic growth, for example, firm level
hypothesis that FDI does not cause economic production and the value addition of firm to
growth is not rejected at the 5% level of domestic value addition. Other possible reasons
significance. The second null hypothesis that include the small sample size, the use of net
economic growth does not cause FDI is FDI instead of gross FDI and the possibility of
rejected at the 5% level of significance, which cointegration.
indicates there is one-way causation from
economic growth to FDI. Future research in this area may be able to
remedy these limitations and also analyze the
causal link in a multivariate VAR system to
Discussion take account of other vital determinants of FDI
Empirical evidence of recent studies is mixed. and economic growth.
For e.g. Frimopong (2006) found no causality
between FDI and economic growth. The results References
of the present study are similar to those
previously found for Sri Lanka by (Athukorala Athukorala, P.P.A.W and Karunaratna, R.M.
and Karunarathna, 2004).7 (2004) The Impact of Foreign Direct
Investments on Economic Growth in Sri
Lanka, Sri Lankan Economic Journal, 5,
Conclusions 88-119.
This study finds that FDI is not a significant Phillips, P.C.B. and Perron, P. (1988) Testing
determinant of economic growth but economic for Unit Root in Time Series Regression.
growth is necessary to attract FDI. Other Biometrica 75, 335-346.
variables such as DI, OPENNESS, and LA
6
The Durbin-Watson (DW) test for
autocorrelation in the error term indicates that
there is no autocorrelation
(value=1.87).Variance inflation factors (VIF)
of all explanatory variables are less than 10,
indicating that there is no severe
multicollinearity among the explanatory
variables.
7
Our contribution to the literature beyond
Athukorala and Karunarathne (2004) is in
using a longer time period and including
additional variables (e.g. labour force) in our
analysis.
356
The Causes of Domestic Violence and Its Impact on Rural Women Victims
J.A.P.S. Perera
Department of Sociology, Faculty of Arts, University of Peradeniya
Introduction been analyzed manually through the method of

thematization.
Domestic violence is physical or psychological
abuse of power that leaves one’s spouse, Findings of the study
partner or other family member within the
household feeling physically hurt, sad, This study reveals that 90% of the rural women
depressed, despairing and fearful. It is just one encounter numerous gender based oppressions
amongst many forms of violence against and are victimized throughout their lives in
women and is also recognized as the most different stages.75% of the women in the age
pervasive major social issue in the world today. group 30-50 years are victimized by their
It brutalizes women from the cradle to grave. It spouses. Wife -beating is the major harassment
also attacks and undervalues the dignity of that they encounter in addition to verbal
women while leaving them vulnerable and abusing, torturing, marital rape, insult and
fearful. harming their asses.
Existing studies have revealed the following According to research findings, 50% of the
features in relation to domestic violence against victims are illiterate or less educated and
women. Domestic violence is a significant belong to poor households. The particular
feature in rural communities where there is a aspects of rural life which include conservative
higher reported incidence of domestic violence community expectations of behavior, strict
than in metropolitan settings. The cultural ties and community pressure to
overwhelming majority of victims of domestic preserve tradition, lack of access to safe
violence in rural areas are women with most alternative accommodations, women’s
perpetrators being male. It is evident that pessimistic attitudes towards womanhood, lack
domestic violence against women is a of understanding of individual rights, fear of
significant feature in rural communities. So this deportation are the major causes of domestic
study attempts to find out the causes and the violence against rural women. Poor economical
impact of it on rural women victims fulfilling a status, pregnancy, disability and rigid religious
vacuum relating to this research area. This beliefs are recognized as minor causes of it.
study will be of relevance to every individual The study also reveals that domestic violence
in every level of society including women, occurs directly and indirectly in the forms of
policy makers, and local bodies involved in physical, mental or verbal abuse ranging from
development processes. assaulting to rape and murder.
Objectives of the study The findings of the study indicate that violence
has a huge impact on rural women victims. It
The purpose of this study is two fold. First, it affects their mental, emotional and physical
tries to identify the causes of domestic violence health and even results in death. It also
against rural women. Second, it attempts to prevents or restricts women’s participation in
understand the impact of it on women victims. day to day activities, in family life, cultural
activities and in the work force. Fear of
Research methodology violence restricts their movement and behavior,
A total number of 16 households afflicted with isolates them from friends and family and
domestic violence in a rural village in forces them into destitution. The abused suffer
Mawanella Divisional Secretariat area has been from deprivation, anxiety, psychosomatic
considered as the research sample of this small sympathy, sexual dysfunctions and
scale, in-depth study. The method of data reproductive disorders.
collection is qualitative and the information has
been collected through informal interviews and
the case study method. The obtained data has
357
Conclusions and recommendations 1. Supporting abused women materially

and spiritually through anger
Several important insights emerged from this management trainings, awareness
study. On the basis of the data analysis the programmes and adequate religious
researcher draws the following conclusions. guidance
2. Providing medical treatment to the
• The major causes of domestic injured
violence against rural women are
specific factors related to rural living 3. Developing a policy frame work to
reduce and prevent violent behavior
• Violence is high among the women
from less educated, unemployed or 4. Developing a public health approach to
underemployed households this specific problem
• That women are victimized mainly by 5. Revising the existing laws and imposing
males while a few women are strict laws
victimized by both women and men is
an important revelation of the study. 6. Changing the negative attitudes of
women of womanhood will be an
This study brings some comprehensive effective attempt in addressing violent
recommendations for addressing and related issues. This can be done by
responding to this problem. This can be done mobilizing them through building their
through prevention, treatment and support. institutional capacities.
Prevention has long term aspects and support
and treatment can be either short term or long
term. These measures include:
358
External Intervention and Conflict Outcome:

Analyzing the Effects of Intervention Strategies in Sri Lanka
M.M. Ihjas
Department of Political Science, Faculty of Arts, University of Peradeniya
Introduction and major patterns of empirical arguments are

utilized to examine the relationships between
Recent empirical research on the topic of the the various independent and other variables,
role of outside state intervention in civil war and the changes in the course and the level of
duration has tended to suggest an violence of the conflict. To carry out this the
overwhelming common and consistent pattern data utilized for the analysis are treated at two
of argumentation that interventions in general levels. The first one focuses on the features
tend to prolong the expected duration of civil associated with the conflict, and includes
conflicts, regardless of the form and strategy variables such as the nature and dynamics of
adopted by the intervener. In the mean time, the conflict, the number of interveners
management of internal conflicts has become involved, whether the interventions are in
increasingly important since the end of the cold support of a group or on behalf of both sides, if
war (Regan, 2000) particularly through the there was any involvement by other actors, and
involvement of individual states and changes in the group’s rebellion level, among
multilateral institutions such as the United other factors. The second level treats the
Nations and other regional organizations. In Sri various aspects of each intervention attempt
Lanka, the civil war between the Tamil Tigers and includes variables such as the type of state
and the government has experienced a series of intervener, the forms of assistance furnished,
outside interventions aimed at its management the intensity of the aid, the recipients and the
from its onset in the early 1980s. Past academic length of the interventions.
studies on the issue, however, tend to suggest a
mix of outcomes that resulted from such Results
interventions which constitute either shortening
or lengthening the duration of the civil war Results derived from this analysis show
depending on the assessment criterion dichotomous findings that that intervention
developed by the general empirical studies strategy and course of the conflict are
(Regan, 2000). For instance, the major goal of positively correlated, and the extent of this
intervention is the cessation of hostilities, correlation is conditioned to the function of the
regardless of the factors that motivated the subjective factors, which, while supporting the
intervention (Regan, 2000). Similarly, if there empirical argument that interventions in
was a cessation of hostilities between the general, and strategies in particular, influence
combatants for a period of more than six the expected duration of a civil war, casts
months after an intervention occurred it is skepticism and criticism on the conclusion that
coded as successful in shortening the expected intervention leads to longer civil war. This
duration of the conflict (Regan, 2000). skepticism lies primarily with the inadequate
nature of the empirical models to address the
This contrasting picture captured by these two role and effect of some subjective factors on
literatures leads to some important questions to the intervention outcome.
be raised and answered over the existence of
difference between the two literatures. Firstly, Discussion
how does intervention actually affect the
conflict in Sri Lanka? Secondly, what kind of Intervention in general prolongs the expected
relationship does exist between intervention duration of the conflict in Sri Lanka regardless
strategies and the course of the conflict in Sri of form, strategy and sequence of execution,
Lanka? although Norway-led multilateral intervention
made a difference on this general
Methodology understanding in its early years. This finding
supports the understanding and argumentation
To facilitate the data analysis, an integrated upheld by the general empirical scholarship.
descriptive analytical framework consisting Further, it is evident that there exists a positive
qualitative methods related to process analysis correlation between intervention strategies and
359
the conflict outcome in the Sri Lankan context. Conclusions

This in some sense stands contrary to the
general argumentation of the empirical There exists a strong correlation between
literature that intervention in general tends to intervention strategy, as an exercise of conflict
prolong the expected duration of conflict management and the instrument of achieving it,
regardless of form, strategy and sequence of and the course of a conflict. This correlation,
execution. This divergence of effect can be however, is seriously affected by strategic and
attributed to the possible existence of some contextual factors at least in the Sri Lankan
theoretical and methodological defects in the context, where political and strategic
treatment of the role and effect of other uncertainty between the protagonists turned the
unobservable factors in analyzing factorial role exercise of differing intervention strategies by
and effects on intervention outcome, and thus it different interveners at different times into a
could be that the existing theoretical and deadlocked and protracted peace process. Thus,
methodological design suffer from inadequacy it can be concluded that interventions in
in capturing a comprehensive and more general tend to increase the expected duration
plausible picture of the phenomenon. However, of the conflict in Sri Lanka, although the
it can also be argued that certain strategic Norway led multilateral intervention differed
(tactical) and contextual (conflict) factors tend slightly from this overall outcome.
to make a difference in the overall effect of
intervention in Sri Lankan context. This on the References
other hand provides a new insight and Regan, P.M. (2000) Civil War and Foreign
emphasis of aspects that had been either Powers: Outside Intervention in Intrastate
overlooked or downplayed by past studies on Conflict, Ann Arbor, The University of
the issue. Michigan Press.
360
Classroom Realities
S.K. Embakke
Department of Education, Faculty of Arts, University of Peradeniya
Introduction “good learners” while the other 25% of the

teachers hold the opposite view. Furthermore,
Education may be considered as a human right the criterion used in typifying students as
which aims to create a splendid society. Since “good” or “bad” learners differed from teacher
human beings are entitled to equal rights every to teacher.
person should have access to equal education.
In the field of discipline teachers categorized
In order to achieve this goal a teacher is the students as “having conformed behavior”,
expected to play a key role. It is the teacher’s “not having conformed behavior”, and
prime responsibility to identify students’ exhibiting dual characteristics (intermediary).
talents and abilities and to develop these The study revealed that the majority of the
accordingly. However, a realistic consideration students were “having conformed behavior”.
of the atmosphere that prevails in a classroom The gender based analysis indicated that a high
reveals that students have become victims of proportion of girls resorted to conformed
teacher typification. This sad situation has behavior while a majority of boys violated the
become more or less a general feature of most disciplinary rules. Almost all the teachers in the
of the classrooms in the Sri Lankan school sample considered obeying the teacher’s
system. The inevitable consequence of this is a orders, completion of assignment work on
distinctly unhealthy classroom environment. time, and punctuality as main characteristics of
Consequently, the students may develop a discipline. Meanwhile noisy and irritating
tendency to ignore teacher activities in general. behavior inside the classroom was considered
This will evidently be an obstacle which will as one of the non- conforming behaviour. The
prevent the students from enjoying the benefits students who fell into the intermediary
of education. characteristics were those who were “not
difficult to handle”.
This research study, therefore, makes an
attempt to identify how teachers use their Teachers categorized students as “followers”
authority to typify students during the teaching and “distracters” based on morality. This
and learning process. The study was conducted categorization was done based on several moral
within a social science framework factors which they identified. These were
cleanliness, non aggression, ambition and
Research methodology work, relationship between the peer groups,
Using Becker’s typification theoretical model, respect for elders, and moderate behavior.
ethnographic research methods were adopted
for the collection of data. Data collected from Discussion
participant observation, interviews and The teacher perceptions of students were not
discourse analysis, facilitated the triangulation based on any distinct factors. This revealed that
of data while at the same time increasing the the teachers lacked the professionalism
reliability of the collected data. The research expected from them. Though teachers are
site was a national school, and the research expected to be focused on the full development
sample comprised of 12 teachers and 136 of the students, the teachers in the sample were
students. The focus of the research study was to concerned only about a few of the factors that
find out the extent of typification and how it affected the teaching- learning situation in the
affects the academic progress and behaviour of classroom.
the students.
Even though teachers are expected to be very
Findings concerned about students’ disciplinary issues,
Teachers typified their students by using three the teachers in the chosen sample have only
determinants. They are learning, discipline and focused on the factors affecting the student’s
morality. The study revealed that 75% of the behavior during lesson presentation.
teachers typify the majority of the students as
361
Conclusions that teachers should be concerned about their

discipline and moral development. However,
Although the teacher’s primary role is to the data in the study revealed that only a small
facilitate the students’ learning to reach their percentage of teachers did so.
full potential, it is also an unwritten concern
362
A Study on Gender Differences in Food Habits and Sport Performance among

Secondary School Boys and Girls in Sri Lanka
W. Senevirathne and P. Sethunge*

Department of Education, Faculty of Arts, University of Peradeniya
Introduction analyze data. These tests were used to analyze

the significance of students’ food habits at
Sri Lankan Sport Bodies are searching for new three different periods of sport activity. The
strategies to improve performances of men and analysis was used to identify gender
women in sports competitions. It is also found differences in food habits, and to assess sport
that there has been considerable progress in performances among secondary school boys
sport performances in secondary schools in and girls.
recent years.
Results
According to the Department of Nutrition of
the Australian Institute of Sports (AIS), a sport According to the binominal test, girls who had
activity can be divided into three main periods good food habits in the pre-exercise period
(phases) namely the pre-exercise period, period showed a higher level of performance than
during exercise, and post–exercise period. boys of a similar category (For breakfast, lunch
and dinner, carbohydrate, protein, snack, and
This research focuses on the food habits and drinks intake, and for supplementary diets P
sport performance of teenagers in secondary values are less than 0.05). Regarding water
schools of Sri Lanka. The main objectives of intake no significant difference (P > 0.05) was
the research were to identify the salient recorded. In the period during exercise, girls
differences in food habits of students at who followed good food habits (in
different periods of a sport activity and to carbohydrate and water intake) showed higher
identify gender differences in food habits and levels of performance than boys (P<0.05).
sport performance among secondary school However, no significant difference in
boys and girls. performance in other drink habits (P>0.05) was
observed. After the exercise, a significant
Methodology difference in performance was shown by girls
than boys with a protein intake and post
A descriptive survey method was adopted to exercise interruption. No significant difference
identify the significant differences of the food was recorded regarding carbohydrate and water
habits of students. The research was limited to intake.
students who performed well in sports in
secondary schools. The significant difference of gender and sport
performance was calculated for indoor and
The method of situation sampling (non- outdoor games among boys and girls using
randomized) was used to select 10 secondary Pearson’s chi square test. The test shows P
schools in the Kandy District. From these 10 value = 0.839. According to the above chi
schools, a sample of 100 (N=100) students square test there was no significant difference
were selected including 50 girls and 50 boys between genders with regard to performance in
who were sportsmen and women between the indoor games and outdoor games.
ages of 17 and19 years.
This study also revealed that in the pre-exercise
Data were obtained from a questionnaire, period 95%, 70% and 100% of the participants
which was prepared according to the AIS reported having breakfast, lunch and dinner
Department of Sports Nutrition standards. respectively. Skipping breakfast was not
(www.ais.org.au/nutrition) The questionnaires statistically linked to gender. Other studies
were distributed to the sample of students have shown that consumption of breakfast has
selected and their responses were obtained. some influence on meal and snack patterns. For
example, adolescents who skip breakfast
The descriptive method and two major consume a hot lunch less frequently than
statistical methods, viz: binominal probability adolescents who have breakfast on a daily
test and Pearson’s chi-square test, were used to
363
basis. (Cavadini et al., 1999; Narring and significant difference) in food habits and sport
Michaud, 1995). performance among girls and boys.
There is a significant difference in lunch habits Conclusions
among boys and girls (62% vs. 89% with
P<0.05). The research found no difference in The study revealed that there is a significant
frequency of consumption of meals and snacks difference in food habits at the pre exercise
between girls and boys, and as expected the period, during the exercise period and post
directory survey shows that the mean daily exercise period between girls and boys in some
energy intake is lower among girls than among food habits components. The association
boys (Narring and Michaud, 1995). between sport performance and food habits was
significantly higher among girls than boys.
Responses of students to open ended questions
revealed that the food habits of students were References
influenced by parents, teachers, coaches, peers, Cavadini, C., Decarli, B., Dirran, H., Candery,
cultural factors and their own psychological M., Narring, F. and Michaud, P.A. (1999)
factors. Meanwhile research revealed that the Assessment of adolescent food habits in
food habits of both boys and girls were found Switzerland, Appetite, 32 (1), 97-106.
to be quite traditional, whereby they tend to Narring, F. and Michaud, P.A. (1995)
consume traditional foods. Methodological issues in adolescent health
surveys: the case of the Swiss Multi centre-
Discussion adolescent Survey on Health, Soz
According to the chi square test and binominal Praventivmed, 40(3), 172-182.
probability test the results indicate mixed
results (both significant difference and no
364
A Study of Western Musical Techniques Used in Sinhala Light Songs

During the 20th Century
M. Alawathukotuwa
Department of Fine Arts, Faculty of Arts, University of Peradeniya
Introduction
Each use of western techniques was confined to
Music can be classified as Eastern and these single forms (eg. The use of the primary
Western. While there are similarities between chords). However with time, more complex
them, the two systems employ certain chord changes were introduced and western
techniques peculiar to each one. These techniques came to be employed to highlight
techniques are used not only in classical music the meaning or emotion of the songs and lyrics.
but also in applied music such as film and Examples include the song Sandakada
drama scores and light songs. It is evident that pahanaka from the film Matara Achchi sung
western techniques are employed now a days in by Sunil Edirisingha, and music composed by
creative music whatever the fundamental music Victor Ratnayaka and the song named Sulan
system. However, only the simplest forms koda wehi sung by Neela Wicramasingha and
appear to be used. The aim of the present composed by Sena Weeerasekara . Both these
research is to study from a musicological point examples use counterpoint to illustrate the
of view the employment of musical techniques meaning of the lyric.
in light songs composed in Sri Lanka. These
include counterpoints, harmony, local and Modulation which is an important feature of
instrumental techniques. It is also possible to western music is also employed occasionally.
observe the use of techniques employed in folk Eg. Viyoo Gee Geyena hade sung by Neela
music of the west such as Yodelling and fiddle- Wicramasingha with music by Nimal Mendis,
playing. and the song Nimterak nodutu sung by Sunil
Edirisingha with music by Rohana
Methodology Weerasingha . Following the practice of some
The research methodology followed in the western songs these have their last chorus sung
study is a survey of relevant musical in a higher key (compare the song from the late
compositions. Library research includes book 50s We were two innocent hearts sung by Tony
collections and archives of recordings such as Brent).
those at the Sri Lanka Broadcasting
Cooperation. Information was sought through Vocal music plays an important part in the
interviews with artistes, composers and western system, and the voices are
producers who were influenced by western systematically classified and blended; but the
music. In this research I faced some difficulties use of multiple layers of voice in Sri Lankan
in finding certain types of applied music such music seems to be somewhat limited. Mr.
as recordings of music for drama, films and Premasiri Kemadasa’s songs often employed
tele-dramas. vocal arrangements suggestive of western
music. Eg- song Kanyawi sung by Amarasiri
Pieris and the Song Udumbara Hinehenawa.
Discussion
The use of western music techniques has Although local singers can be found whose
introduced a variety of forms in Sinhala light voices fall within the ranges of western voice
songs. The traditional Stay and Antara classification such voices are not employed
structures have been expanded through external methodically in Sri Lanka.
elements such as introduction, interlude and
coda. These elements are first evident in the In addition to the standard techniques of
songs of the gramophone era but became more western music, Sri Lankan songs also employ
complex in film songs. From the 1960s so- techniques found in western folk music such as
called “group songs” employed close harmony yodeling.
and Spanish Guitar type accompaniments.
Since the use of vocal harmony was the main The influence of western techniques is stronger
feature, these groups came to be known as in instrumental music. Eg- the positions,
harmony groups. systems of tuning and playing techniques for
365
the Violin such as Pizzicato and Vibrato are depth and ornamentation to the form of the
used in Sri Lankan songs. songs.
Results
Whatever the melodic basis of the song,
western techniques figure prominently. These
are introduced with the objective of giving
366
The Original Concept of Sound Material in Chinese Music

Sheng（声) and Yin（音）
L. Seneheweera
Introduction offers the following comment: “Those who are

able to realize sheng (声) but not realize birds
Chinese music has a rich and complex history and beasts, those who are able to realize Yin
dating back more than two millennia. It is but not yue (乐) are the common people. Only
proved with written documents, information intellectual gentlemen can enjoy Yue (乐 )
from carvings, paintings and oracle bones and well”. It means those who are able to
musical instruments. Writings preserved on appreciate music, yue(乐), will be able to
oracle bones (i.e. used for divination) date from distinguish musical sound, musical tone and
the Shang Dynasty (1600-1046 B.C.). music very clearly. According to the above
Moreover, the aforesaid documents have mentioned comment sheng （声) equals
discussed basic elements in music such as ‘musical sound’, yin xiang (音响). Yin （音）
‘sound’, sheng（声). equals ‘musical tone’, yue yin(乐音) and yue
(乐) equals music , yin yue (音乐).
The two terms of sheng and yin were described
as sound materials in Chinese music history. There is another source ‘Essay on no sadness
Sometimes these two words refer to the same or happiness in music’ Shen wu ai le lun
concepts and sometimes they refer to different （声无哀乐论 (250 A.D.）written by Ji Kang.
concepts. Normally sheng and yin mean natural In his book, he mentions that the relationship
sound. Therefore it can be referred as one of sheng (声) and yin (音) is just like the
concept i. e. shengyin （声音）. Moreover, relationship of body and spirit. It is pointed out
sheng and yin refer also to ‘tone’ yueyin that sheng (声) is the form of music and yin
（乐音) of music and have been referred to as (音) is the content of music. However, in
having the same meaning as lü (律). certain situations, if the words sheng （声) and
yin (音) combine with a numeral figure the
The purpose of this paper is to discuss the use meaning becomes the ‘scale’ yinjie (音阶)。
of these two terms in historical Chinese For instance, wu sheng（五声） with wu yin
records. (五音) means pentatonic scale, wu sheng yin jie
(五声音阶). Qi sheng （七声) with qi yin
Methodology (七音) it means heptatonic scale qi sheng yin
The paper analyzes primary data based on jie (七声音阶). Furthermore the numerical
Chinese documents written in the Chinese figure has been added to yin (音) such as bayin
language, and also uses secondary data. （八音） (ba meaning eight) as one word.
This word was existed in Zhou Dynasty and at
that time bayin （八音） had been used to
Results and discussion divide musical instruments according to the
It seems the terms sheng（声）, yin （音） material used for making musical instruments.
and lü (律) all indicate musical tone. For These eight groups as are follows: gold, jin (
instance the book of Zuo Zhuan (左传），金), stone, shi(石), silk si (丝), (bamboo), zhu
‘Zuo’s commentaries on history’, Zuo Zhuan (竹) , cucurbit/gourd , pao (匏), clay, tu (土),
(左传) (5th century B.C.) mentions wu sheng, leather, ge(革 ), wood, mu(木).
（五声）， liu lü （六律）, qi yin（七音）.1
All of these three terms are musical sound. Conclusions
Sometimes these two concepts are strictly
distinguished. For instance the book ‘Records According to the above mentioned, the
of music’ yueji （乐记) (5th century B.C.) sheng(声) and yin(音) sometimes overlapped.
However it can be seen that these two terms are
used for musical sound. These musical sounds
1
In Chinese wu（五）, liu, (六), qi (七) produced pentatonic and heptatonic scale in
Chinese music.
corresponding respectively to five, six and
seven.
367
Masculinity in Kandyan Dance
S. Mantillake
Introduction examined in contemporary Kandyan dance

were also masculine.
Today Kandyan dance is performed by both
males and females widely in Sri Lanka, even Discussion
though it was originally performed only by
males. Due to the social development of the As mentioned earlier it was revealed that
country Kandyan dance was opened to females. almost all elements and features examined in
This happened as a result of many important Kandyan dance were masculine, drawing us to
socio-political and economic changes in Sri decide that Kandyan dance is a masculine
Lankan society. dance form. Sātvika abhinaya that deals with
human emotions is hardly seen in Kandyan
Although Kandyan dance is now performed dance. But the other three Abhinayas helped to
widely by both males and females, the dance explore the masculine characteristics of
form itself takes a masculine form since it has Kandyan dance.
been dominated by males. Kapferer (1983) and
Obeyesekere (1984) have discussed the When considering Āngika abhinaya, the
masculine condition in Theatre art of Sri expression through the dancer’s body, Tāndava
Lanka, while Nürnberger (1998) has and Lāsya movements are significant. Kandyan
particularly examined the masculine condition dance is filled with Tāndava movements, the
of Kandyan dance. frenetic movements of dance especially
referred in Indian classical dancing. Lāsya is
The objective of this research is to explore the described as a feminine dance form in
masculine characteristics of Kandyan dance. traditional Indian performing art theories. But
Especial attention is paid to performing art in Kandyan dance virtually no Lāsya
characteristics of Kandyan dance. movements are found. Even female dancers use
Tāndava movements when they perform
Methodology Kandyan dance.
For this research live Kandyan dance Vācika abhinaya which consists of oral
performances were observed and visual media accompaniments is also used in Kandyan
such as video clips and images documenting dance. In contemporary Kandyan dance, vocal
Kandyan dance performances were analyzed. components to be sung during dance events are
used by both male and female dancers since
Literature on the subject matter was referred character representation is ignored. But in
and traditional dance masters as well as traditional Kandyan dance there are dialogues
prominent female exponents in the field were between characters and they are composed for
interviewed where necessary. males to deliver, since almost all those
dialogues were created from a male point of
In addition the author’s personal experience of view.
more than fifteen years in Kandyan dance
provided subjective unpublished data. The main element that can be discussed under
Āhārya abhinaya in Kandyan dance is the
Results costume. In traditional Kandyan dance all
Research data have been analyzed from a dance costumes including the costume of the
semiotic point of view and the theory of four drum player, have been designed for males but
Abhinayas (Āngika, Vācika, Sātvika and not for females. Some new costumes have been
Āhārya) was used to interpret the data. introduced for females in contemporary
According to the results, all elements examined Kandyan dance. Even today females are
in traditional Kandyan dance were masculine. culturally not allowed to wear many traditional
Apart from a few exceptions, all other elements dance costumes designed for males. According
to traditional dance masters the dance costume
368
is sacred and not to be worn by females. masculine dance form. Treating females as
Treating females as impure creatures by impure creatures by traditional artistes was one
traditional artistes is the basis of this idea. of the main reasons that kept females away
Restrictions and criticisms have been made by from Kandyan dance.
traditional dance masters against attempts by
females to wear traditional Kandyan dance References
costumes.
Nürnberger, M. (1998) Dance is the language
Conclusions of the Gods: The Chitrasena School and
traditional roots of Sri Lankan stage–
In this research some features of Kandyan dance, Amsterdam, Vrie University Press.
dance have been analyzed in order to explore Obeyesekere, G. (1984) The Cult of Goddess
the masculine characteristics of Kandyan Pattini, Chicago, University of Chicago
dance. It also included a discussion as to how Press.
this dance form can be determined as a
369
Identification of Mule (Equus Hemionus) as Aśvataraya in Ancient Sri Lanka by

Unearthed Bones and Literature
R.M.M. Chandraratne
Introduction
Figure 1 shows that a premolar of Equus
The main objective of this study is to infer the species from the JPL is smaller in size to
presence of the mule (Equus hemionus) in the modern horses, but is metrically similar to that
ancient Sri Lanka. The first ever archaeological of Surkotada. The species at Surkotada are
identification of mule bones in Sri Lanka was identified as mule (Equus hemionus). The JPL
carried out by the author (Chandraratne, 2005). sample is similar to the mule hence it can be
The ancient Sri Lankan literature cites two identified as the mule. Literary sources provide
kinds of horses, horses (Assa/Aśva) and Sind the words Ājānīya Aśva, Sindhava and
horses (Saindhava) that are identified referring Aśvatara (Sindhava?) to identify the mule. In
to archaeological and literary sources. the Jatakapali (1932) and the Ummagga
Jataka, mule is referred to Sindhava, and it is
Material also mentioned that Ājānīya Aśva means an
The sample consists of an isolated premolar of excellent (true) horse, i.e. not hybrid with other
Equus from Jetavana Pilimage (JPL). Other species.
sources of data are skeletal measurements of
the modern horse, published archaeological Discussion
data on the mule (Meadow and Patel, 1997) The hybrid species of equids may be described
and ancient Sinhalese and Pali literature as a truly man-made animal. The mule’s
(Ummagga Jataka, 1966, Jatakapali, 1939). mother is mare (Equus caballus) while it is
perhaps as the father mule (Equus hemionus)
Methodology that it has made its greatest contribution to
New Archaeological Theory advocated human economies in a way similar to that of
‘generalization of data’ which came to be the donkey (Equus asinus). It is a perfect
regarded as archaeology’s supreme example of hybrid vigour as a beast of burden
achievement (Redman, 1973). This and is more sure-footed than either the ass or
methodology was used for the above literary the horse (Clutton-Brock, 1987). Its head is
evidence. The application of osteo- similar to the ass and the rest of the body is
archaeological measurements which is comparable with the horse. It is identified in
employed for species separation, size variation the Egyptian and Mesopotamian Civilizations
and sex determination (Uermann, 1978) was (1400 BC) and was also recorded from the
used for the species separation between horse Roman period (Clutton-Brock, 1987).Previous
and mule. Specifically, the morphological research on the horse remains found at Gedige
features were compared with the osteometric (69) by Deraniyagala (1972) suggested that the
data of equid teeth from the Jetavana, and teeth of the ancient small horse was metrically
Surkotada, and modern horses were used for between Mannar ponies and modern horses,
the confirmation of this research. and indicates two species of horses, local and
Sind. The local species might have derived
from the South Indian wild horse (Equus
Results nomadicus). The more recent research on
horses raises several opinions on the origin of
Fig. 1 Measurements of Premolars: the South Asian species. The wild form of
Pilimage Vs Modern Horse
horses did not exist in India during the Post-
34 36 Pleistocene period; consequently, the horse
32
30
34
32 L en gth could not be domesticated there. Rather,
28
26
30
28
Wid th domesticated horses had been introduced later
24 26 (Bőkőnyi, 1997). Besides, wild horses were
JPL SUR SUR Mo de rn extinct during the late Pleistocene period and
had not been domesticated in India.
Figure 1 Nevertheless, domestic horses were considered
370
as introduced species from outside (Meadow from the Persian Gulf region and subsequently
and Patel, 1997). In the light of the above spread all over India (Bökönyi, 1997).
research, it is difficult to accept the opinion
given by Deraniyagala (1972) on South Indian The author believes that local and Sind horses
wild horses. Domestic horses and hybrid refer to the mule. It is known as Aśvatarya in
species were probably introduced into India Sinhala and Assataro in Pali (Table 1).
Table 1. Selected literary evidence for Sindhavo and Aśvatara in Sri Lanka
Literary terms Sources Chronology
Sindhavo (mule?) Mahavamsa (23: 71) 5th Century AD
Susetha chatura sindhavam Mahavamsa (31: 38) data is related to 2nd
(four white mule?) century BC)
Assataro (mule) Jatakapali (in Pali) 5th Century AD
Astara (mule) Dampiya-Atuva-Geta-Padaya 10th Century AD
Aśvataraya (mule) UmmaggaJataka 14th Century AD
The early evidence goes back to the Deraniyagala, P.E.P. (1972) Faunal remains,
Anuradhapura Period (900 BC-1000 AD), The the citadel of Anuradhapura, in 1969, in the
Dampiya Atuva Geta Padaya (74/31) states Gedige area, Ancient Ceylon, 2, 155-159.
that it was born after interbreeding of ass and Clutton-Brock, J. (1987) A Natural History
mare. The Mahavamsa refers to horses that Society of Domesticated Mammals, British
were commonly used by kings and royal Museum (Natural History), Cambridge
officials for transportation and warfare. For University Press.
instance, Sena and Guttika (177-155 BC), had Jatakapali, (1939) Ed. Ven. Widurupola
brought Saindhava horses. The state chariot of Piyatissa Mahanayaka Thera, Maligakanda,
King Dutugemunu (101-77 BC) was drawn by Colombo, The Tripitaka Publicaton Press.
the white Sindhu horses while Velusumana Meadow, R.H. and Patel, A. (1997) A
tamed a wild Sindhu horse. Finally it appears comment on “Horse remains from
that a mule (Sindhava) was more useful than a Surkotada”, South Asian Studies, 13, 307-
horse at that time and was common in 315.
comparison to true horses because of its Redman, C.L. (1973) (Ed.) Research and
adaptability to the environment. Theory in Current Archaeology, New York,
Willey.
References Ummagga Jataka (14th Century AD) (1966)
(ed.) Sucharita Gamlath and
Bőkőnyi, S. (1997) Horse Remains from the E.A.Wicramasinghe, Colombo, S. Godage
Prehistoric Site of Surkotada, Kuth, Late 3rd and Brothers.
Millennium B.C., South Asian Studies 13, Uermann, H.P. (1978) Animal bone finds and
297-307. economic archaeology: A critical study of
Chandraratne, R.M.M. (2005) Horse Remains osteo-archaeological methods, World
from the Jetavana Pilimage Excavation Archaeology, 4, 307-322.
Central Cultural Fund Anuradhapura,
Proceedings of PURSE 2005, 10-35.
371
372
Proceedings of the Peradeniya University Research Sessions, Sri Lanka, Vol.12, Part I, 30thNovember 2007
AUTHOR INDEX
A B
Abayasekara, C.L. 49, 55 Bakmeedeniya, L.U 261

Aberathna, H M.R.M 181 Balamurali, N. 355
Abeygunawardane, S.K 269 Bandara, B.M.R. 82, 89, 94
Abeykoon, Y.M.C.E.K 258 Bandara, B.M.R. 294
Abeynayaka, A. 190 Bandara, D.C. 35, 37
Abeyrathne, B.G.S.J. 157 Bandara, D.G.V.L. 20
Abeyruwan, H. 214 Bandara, H.M.N. 294
Abeysuriya, C. 111 Bandara, K.A.P.A. 172, 174
Abhayaratne, A.S.P. 353 Bandara, N.M.N.V 205
Adhikari, A.M.K.S.P. 304 Bandara, N.W.R.V.N. 80
Adikaram, N.K.B. 49 Bandoh, N. 116
Adikari, S.B. 137 Basnayake, B.M.R.K 246
Alagan, R. 329 Bassnayake, B.M.P.K.D. 148
Alahakoon, A.M.U.S.K 224 Blakemore, W.F. 168
Alahakoon, P.M.K. 31
Alawathukotuwa, M. 365 C
Alupotha, A.G.K.N. 288
Amarajeewa, B.M.R.C. 101 Chandrajith, R. 49
Amarasekara, A.K.C.J. 39 Chandrajith, R. 284
Amarasena, J.K.C. 120 Chandraratne, R.M.M. 370
Amarasena, N. 120 Chandrasekara, A. 33
Amarasinghe, A.A.A.W.K. 153, 177 Chandrasekara, A. 120
Amarasinghe, N.R. 92, 103 Chin, D. 53
Amarasinghe, W.I. 122 Choct, M. 12
Amarathunge, E.A.P. 111 Cyril, H.W. 6, 9
Amaraweera, T.H.N.G. 298
Anandamoorthy, T. 109 D
Aoki, T. 211
Arachchi, R.N.R. 144 Dangolla, A. 162, 172, 174
Arima, S. 18 Dassanayake, B.K. 139, 146
Ariyarathna, S.M.W.T.P.K 199 Daundasekara, W.B. 309
Ariyaratna, R.A.Y.K. 103 De Costa, D.M. 1, 3
Ariyaratne, H.B.S. 157, 170 De Silva, D.D.N. 153, 177
Ariyasinghe, S. 126 De Silva, S. 42
Ariyawardana, A. 27 De Silva, T.H.K.R. 309
Arlis, M.G 244 De Silva, W.A.P.P. 98
Arulampalam, A. 263, 266, 269, 272 Deepanee, J.K.A. 170
Arulkanthan, A. 164 Devasurendra, R.S. 164
Athauda, S.B.P. 53 Dharamaratne, S.D. 148
Attanayake, A.M.C.P.K. 337 Dharmagunawardana, H.A. 301
Azhaar, A.S. 1 Dharmapala, H.L.P.S. 141, 148
373
Dilrukshi, H.A.A. 6 Gunawardena, G.S.P. de S. 155, 160, 168

Dineshanrathna, H.G.K. 286
Dissanayaka, D.M.A.G.B. 188 H
Dissanayaka, U.J. 188
Dissanayake, D.R.A. 166 Halpage, S. 162
Dissanayake, G.R.K. 344 Hanee, J.A.J. 35
Dissanayake, P.B.R 217, 219, 221 Harischandra, H.K.P. 62
Dissanayake, S.B.A. 122 Harischandra, M.R.T.S. 186
Dissanayake, U.B. 111, 113, 120 Hemachandra, S.D.S. 24
Dissanayake, U.N.B. 286 Hennayake, H.M.S.K. 39
Hennayake, N. 325
E Hennayake, S.K. 325
Herath, H.H.M.C.U. 320
Edirisinghe, J.P. 74, 77, 84 Herath, H.M.K.G.G.H.B 221
Edirisinghe, J.S. 172 Herath, I. 227
Ekanayake, D.H. 98 Herath, K.R.B 214
Ekanayake, E.M.W.A. 89 Herath, S. 133
Ekanayake, J.B 263, 266, 269, 272 Herath, W.H.M.A.T. 49
Ekanayake, R.H.B 272 Hettiarachchi, C.V. 320
Ekanayake, S.P. 141 Hewapathirana, I.S. 177
Elangasinghe, M.A 205 Himali, S.M.C. 9
Embakke, S.K. 361 Hussain, F.M. 275
F I
Faham, M.A.A.M. 315 Iddawela, D.R. 151

Fernando, G.W.A.R. 298 Ihjas, M.M. 359
Fernandopulle, S.R.D. 157 Iji, P.A. 12
Fogdell-Hann, A. 137 Ileperuma, C. 72
Ileperuma, S.C. 49
G Illeperuma, D.C.K. 33
Indrasekara, S. 312
Gamage, A.T.M. 174
Ganepola, V. 344 J
Gnananda, M. 340
Goonasekara, C.D.A. 129, 141, 148 Jamila, M.M. 307
Gunaratne, L.H.P. 22 Jayalal, R.G.U. 60
Gunaratne, S.P. 160 Jayaratna, N.B. 51
Gunasena, G.G.A. 129 Jayasena, H.A.H. 284
Gunathilake, P.G.L. 105 Jayasena, Y.A.A. 141
Gunatilake, J. 290 Jayasinghe, M.G.C.M. 177
Gunawardana, D.C.A. 170 Jayasinghe, U.L.B. 92, 94, 96, 103, 107
Gunawardana, V.K. 170 Jayasooriya, A.P. 160, 164
Gunawardena, D. 72 Jayasooriya, P.R. 116
Gunawardena, D.C. 96, 103 Jayatilake, J.A.M.S. 124
Gunawardena, G.A. 166 Jayaweera, D.S. 107
374
Jeyaraman, U. 329 M
Jiffry, N. 133
Jin, L.J. 124 Mahatantila, K. 284
Mallawarachchi, A.S.P. 139
K Malmuthuge, N.S.P. 9
Manangoda, M.G.B.S 221
Kadawathaarachchi, L. 72 Manchanayake, G.S.M. 141
Kahanda, I.M.K 233 Mantillake, S. 368
Kalpage, C.S 193, 196, 199 Mapa, R.B. 337
Kalyanaratne, K.A.K. 120 Menike, A.M.W 196
Kanankearachchi, P.K.A.P. 141 Mikkelsen, L.L. 12
Kaneshalingam, T. 315 Mubarak, M.N.A. 301
Kanewela, U.G 233 Mudalige, A.P. 101
Karunananda, P.A.K 219 Mudalige, S.P. 141, 148
Karunaratne, D.G.G.P 202, 208 Mudiyanse, R. 133
Karunaratne, D.N. 318, 322 Munasinghe, D.M.S. 170
Karunaratne, D.N. 51, 57 Munasinghe, M.D. 157
Karunaratne, K.I. 139, 146 Munasinghe, S.R. 77
Karunaratne, S. 307
Karunaratne, S.H.P.P. 62, 98 N
Karunaratne, V. 57, 60, 312
Karunaratne, W.M.K.K. 74 Nanayakkara, D. 133
Karunathilake, A.A.K. 89 Nanayakkara, D.P. 105
Kasturi, K.M.G.A. 353 Nanayakkara, D.P. 131
Kodithuwakku, K.A.S.S. 24 Nanayakkara, D.P. 162
Kottegoda, N. 312 Nanayakkara, S.D.I. 146
Kudagama, N. 160 Nandadeva, D. 146
Kularathne, M.N. 153, 177 Nandasiri, W.T.D 181
Kumar, N.S. 51, 82, 89, 292 Nasir, H.M. 278, 312
Kumar, V. 101 Navaratne, A.N. 72
Kumara, K.B.J. 162 Navaratne, D.N 266
Kumara, W.R.B. 177 Nawfhal, A.S.M. 334
Kumarasinghe, D.M. 350 Nawodinee, M.H.V. 84
Kumarasiri, P.V.R. 141 Nazriya, N.F. 1
Kumbukgolla, W.W 82, 89 Nianthi, K.W.G.R. 332
Nilam, J. 133
L Nishshanka, S.P. 327
Nissanka, S.P. 33
Laheetharan, A. 281
Lalantha, N. 6 P
Lamawansa, M.D. 135, 144
Liyanage, G.L.A.D. 318 Pallegama, R.W. 118, 126
Liyanage, L.G.A 221 Palugaswawa, P.S 205
Panagoda, G.J. 55
Paranavitana, G.N. 190
Pathberiya, L.G. 60
375
Pathirana, C.K 214 Rathnayake, U. 186

Pathirana, G. 151 Rathnayake, U.R. 179, 183
Pathirana, K.P.P 179, 181, 183 Ratnatunga, K.C. 139, 146
Perera, A. P. 135 Ratnayake, R.M.P. 105
Perera, A.A.I. 288 Ratnayake, R.M.P. 131
Perera, A.D.L.C. 318, 322 Rodrigo, S.K. 94
Perera, H.A.E.D. 126 Rodrigo, U.K.S. 33
Perera, J.A.P.S. 357 Ruwanpura, S.M.P.M. 120
Perera, K 255
Perera, K. 133 S
Perera, M.H. 47
Perera, N.A.N.D. 170 Sachindra D.A. 188
Perera, P.C 241, 246, 252 Samaranayake, B.G.L.T 224, 238, 249
Pitawala, A. 290, 298, 301 Samaranayake, L.P. 124
Poxton, I.R. 166 Samarasinghe, B. 160
Prasanna, K.I.R 269 Samarathunga, I.R 202, 208
Premaratne, C. 329 Samaratung, A. 346
Priyangika, S.K.N. 157 Samaraweera, P. 70
Priyantha, N. 296 Sandamalika, S.N.K 181
Punyasiri, P.A.N. 292 Saumyasiri, M.M.K.G. 70
Pushpakumara, D.K.N.G. 15 Senanayake, A.M.P. 336
Puvanendran, S. 57 Senavirathne, M. 42
Seneheweera, L. 367
R Senevirathne, W. 363
Seneviratne, C. 296
Radhakrishnan, S 230 Seneviratne, S. 337
Ragel, R.G 227, 230 Sethunge, P. 363
Rajakaruna, R.S. 62, 80, 86 Shanthini, R 196, 199, 255
Rajapakse, R.M.G. 294 Shyamalee, M. M.G.V 214
Rajapakse, R.P.V.J 80, 86 Silva, I. 139
Rajapakse, R.P.V.J. 170 Silva, I.D. 172, 175, 177
Rajapakse, S 193 Sirisena, A.D. 49
Rajapakse, S. 53 Siriwardane, S.A.S.C 217
Rajapaksha, L 258 Sivakanesan, R. 9, 131
Rajapura, S.G. 49 Sivakumar, V. 275
Rajarathne, A.A.J. 174 Sivayoganathan, C. 44
Rajaratnam, M. 342 Solanki, K. 133
Rajaratne, A.A.J. 139, 146 Sotheeswaran, S 193
Rajaratne, S.A. 111 Subramanium, R. 170
Ranasinghe, H.S. 177 Sumangali, K. 86
Ranasinghe, J.G.S. 105 Suraweera, A.K. 111, 116
Ranasinghe, J.G.S. 162 Suriyagoda, L.D.B. 18
Ranasinghe, P.C 179, 183 Susantha, K.A.S 211
Ranasinghe, S. 131 Suzuki, A. 18
Ranawana, K.B. 67 Svensson, M. 137
Rangama, B.N.L.D. 55
376
T wickramaarachchi, D. 22
Wickramagamage, P. 327
Tennakone, K. 275 Wickramanayake, H.B.P.W. 129
Tennakoon, D.T.B. 294 Wickramanayake, I.L. 129
Thevanesam, V. 82, 89 Wickramasinghe, A. 57
Thiruchelvam, S. 20 Wickramasinghe, C.S.M. 348
Tirimanne, D.N. 27 Wickramasinghe, W.A.L.D 193
Wickramasuriya, H.V.A. 39
U Widanapathirana, L.S. 322
Wijayakulasooriya, J.V 236
Udugala-Ganehenege, M.Y. 304 Wijayasinghe, I.B 249
Ukuwela, K.D.B. 67 Wijekoon, A. 133
Wijekoon, P. 281
V Wijekoon, W.M.A.M.B. 292
Wijerathne, K.M. 118
Velmurugu, A. 352 Wijerathne, M.A.D. 3
Vidanapathirana, E. 327 Wijeratne, S. 294
Vidanarachchi, J.K. 6, 9, 12 Wijesekara, P.N.K. 172
Wijesinghe, A.R.A.S. 44
W Wijesinghe, K.G.G. 70
Wijesinghe, S.J. 175, 177
Waasim, M.S.M. 278 Wijesundara, D.S.A. 57, 60
Wagalawatte, T. 339 Wijesundara, M. De S. 151
Wanigasekara, A. 164 Wijesundara, N.L.S. 151
Wanniarachchi, C.R. 148 Wijesuriya, W.A.S.S.K. 148
Warusawithana, L. 65 Wijetunge, D.D.S. 153
Weerahewa, J. 29 Wijewardana, T.G. 166
Weerakoon, S.B. 186, 188 Wijitadhamma, M. 341
Weeraratne, T.C. 98 Wimaladharma, W. M.G.I.K. 118
Weerasekara, A.I 263 Wimalasinghe, E.R.R. 160
Weerasinghe, W.P.T.T. 175 Wolseley, P. 60
Weerasundera, N.K. 160
Welagedara, A. 301 Y
Weliwegamage, U.S.K 193
Wellappuli, N.C. 120 Yakandawala, D.M.D. 70
Weragodetenna, D. 329 Yaparatna, Y.M.C.D. 37
Werellagama, D.R.I.B. 190 Yatigammana, S.K. 47, 65
Wettasinghe, K.A. 118 Young, S.M. 290
Wickrama, S.M.I 236
377

PURSE Proceedings 2007 Part II

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PURSE Proceedings 2007 Part II

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UNIVERSITY OF PERADENIYA

Prof. K.D.W. Nandalal

Dr. D.K. Jayaratne

Dr. M.A.M. Sitheeque

Dr. S.D. Dewasurendra

Prof. A.D.L.C. Perera

Dr. H.B.S. Ariyaratne

30th November 2007

All rights reserved. No part

Printed at the Printing Unit, Faculty of Science, University of Peradeniya

Message from the Vice Chancellor xv

Message from the Chairperson, Organizing Committee xvii

Organizing Committee xix

Panel of Co-Editors xxi

Guest Lecture xxiii

Part I : Agricultural, Biological and Medical Sciences

SECTION 1: Faculty of Agriculture

Genomic Variations of Colletotrichum musae Morphotypes Infecting Banana 1

Use of Tn5 Transposon Mutagenesis to Screen Burkholderia spinosa Mutants 3

Development of Fancy Meat Loaves Using Natural Colorants 6

Molecular Characterisation of Lactobacilli Isolated from Digesta of Broilers Fed 12

Occurrence of Agamospermy in Artocarpus heterophyllus Lam. (Jak Fruit) 15

Gibberellin Repsonse of Phytochrome B Deficient Mutants of Lotus japonicus 18

Determinants of Potato Farmers’ Choices in Adopting Soil Conservation Practices in 20

Changes in Rice Consumption with Increasing Income 22

Factors Influencing the Student Decision Making in Relation to University 24

Regional Trade Integration Options for South Asia: A Welfare Analysis 29

A Seismic Wave Detector with a Digital Display 31

Contribution of Flavour Ingredients to Sensory Properties and Total Antioxidant 33

Effective Teaching Strategies for Teaching Science in Lower Secondary Classes: A 35

The Effect of Student-Centered Learning and Criterion-Based Assessment on Student 37

Socio–Economic and Institutional Factors affecting Community Participation in 39

Customer Resistance for Innovative Products: A Case Study on an Adhesive Tape 42

An Assessment of Special Programme for Food Security Project Interventions as 44

SECTION 2: Faculty of Science and Postgraduate Institute of Science

A Preliminary Study on the Assessment of Limnological Changes of Kalu Ganga in 47

Microbiological Quality of Bottled Water in Sri Lanka: A Preliminary Survey 49

Effect of Caffeine and Epigallocatechin Gallate (Egcg) on Sporulation, Spore 51

Thermally Stable Deoxyribonucleases from Nepenthes distillatoria (Bandura) 53

Screening of Antioxidant Activity of Some Endemic Annonaceae Plant Extracts 57

Anzia (Lichenized Ascomycetes, Parmeliaceae) A New Record from the Horton 60

Does Mosquito Larvicide, Temephos Affect the Health of Local Amphibian 62

Species Composition of the Family Chironomidae and their Relationship to 65

Resource Partitioning and Competitive Interactions of a Tadpole Community in a 67

Phenetic Relationships of Wild and Cultivated Accessions of Cinnamon in Sri Lanka 70

Biosensor Approach for Monitoring Polyphenol Oxidase (PPO) Activity of Selected 72

Appearance and Recruitment of Trigona iridipennis Nests in a Selected Area in 74

Diversity of Wasps at Meewathura Agriculture Farm 77

Identification and Prevalence of Eimeria Spp. causing Coccidiosis in Goats in 80

Antibacterial Activity of Oxacillin against Methicillin Resistant Staphylococcus 82

Diversity of Dung Beetles in Dung of Cattle and Buffalo 84

Chemotaxanomic Significance of the Fruit Constituents of Artocarpus altilis 92

Antifungal, Antioxidant and Cytotoxic Activity of Acronychia pedunculata and 94

Phytotoxic Constituents from the Fruit Juice of Averrhoa carambola 96

Potential of Some Selected Larvivorous Fish Species in Aedes Mosquito Control 98

Chemistry and Mosquito Larvicidal Activity of Gnidia glauca 101

Antioxidant Phenolic Constituents from the Fruits of Careya arborea 103

Histopathological Changes Induced by Venom of Bungarus ceylonicus on Laboratory 105

Comparison of Antifungal, Phytotoxicity and Cytotoxicity of Seeds of Dolichos 107

Section 3: Faculty of Dental Sciences

Emotional Effects of Wearing Complete Dentures 109

Preliminary Study on Deregulation of cyclin D1 Protein Expression in Oral 111

Matrix Metalloproteinase-9 (MMP-9) and Tissue Inhibitor of Metalloproteinase –2 116

Filling of Simulated Lateral Canals with Different Obturation Techniques 118