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Introduction
ECM, an electrolytic process governed by Faraday’s laws of electrolysis, uses electrical energy to
remove material. It resembles electroplating in reverse. Material removal is achieved by
electrochemical dissolution of an anodically polarized workpiece which is one part of an
electrolytic cell. An electrolytic cell is created in an electrolyte medium, with the tool as the
cathode and the workpiece as the anode. The tool is positioned very close to the workpiece for
maximum amount of dissolution and minimum ohmic voltage drop between the two electrodes. A
high-amperage (30~200A/cm2), low-voltage (10~20V) current is generally used to dissolve and
remove material from the electrically conductive workpiece. The metal ions removed from the
workpiece are taken away by the vigorously flowing electrolyte through the inter electrode gap
and are separated from the electrolyte solution in form of metal hydroxides by suitable methods.
Both the electrolyte and the metal sludge can then be recycled. Unlike conventional cutting
techniques, workpiece hardness is not a factor, making ECM suitable for difficult-to-machine
materials. ECM has a wide range of industrial applications such as, electrochemical grinding,
electrochemical honing, electrochemical milling, electrochemical drilling, electrochemical
deburring, and electrochemical turning.
Electolysis
The word electrolysis is a combination of two terms electro, roughly meaning electric or electric
current, electricity and lysis, a Greek word, means to break down, or break a bond, to "tear apart"
So electrolysis literally means to break a bond or take apart using electricity. Electrolysis can be
defined as the electrolytic dissociation and decomposition of an electrolyte, by the passage of a
direct current or electricity through its aqueous or molten form. According to the theory of
electrolytic dissociation, electrolytes can be electrolyzed only in the dissolved or molten state.
These charged ions are directed towards the respective electrodes by the electricity supplied. It
is also a process of using electrical energy to cause a non-spontaneous redox reaction. The
process is carried out in an electrolytic cell, an apparatus consisting of positive (anode) and
negative electrodes (cathode) held apart and immersed in an electrolyte solution. With an
electrical potential applied across the pair of electrodes, positively charged ions (cations) move
towards the cathode while negatively charged ions (anions) move to the anode. The energy
required to separate the ions, and increase their concentration at the electrodes, is provided by
an electrical power supply that maintains the potential difference across the electrodes. At the
electrodes, electrons are absorbed or released by the ions, forming concentrations of the desired
element or compound. For example, when water is electrolyzed, hydrogen gas (H2) will form at
the cathode, and oxygen gas (O2) at the anode.
The electrolysis process is characterized by the following.
• Electrolytic reactions involve the gain of electrons at the cathode and loss of electrons at
anode.
• The reactions at catode are redox as the positively charged ions (cations) receive
electrons, and at anode, there is an oxidation reaction as the negative ions (anions) lose
electrons.
• At the cathode, Metals and hydrogen, and at the anode, non-metals are released
respectively.
Second law: The amount of material deposited or dissolved by the same quantity of electricity is
proportional to the chemical equivalent weight of the material which is a ratio of its atomic weight
and valency.
With the passage of current in the electrolytic cell, the ionic dissociation reactions of electrolyte
and water can be given by
NaCl ↔ Na+ + Cl-
H2O ↔ H + + (OH)-
The positive ions (cations) move towards the tool (cathode) and negative ions (anions) move
towards the workpiece (anode). The positive hydrogen ions will take away electrons from the
cathode (tool) forming hydrogen gas,
2H+ + 2e- = H2↑ at cathode
And the iron atoms will come out of the anode (work piece) loosing two electrons as:
Fe = Fe+ + + 2e-
The positive Iron ions combine with the other negatives in the electrolyte to form iron chloride and
with the negative hydroxyl ions to precipitate as ferrous hydroxide. The ferrous hydroxide may
react further with water and oxygen to form ferric hydroxide. The net reactions are shown below.
As work piece gets machined and the removed material is swept away by the high pressure
electrolyte flow and gets precipitated as sludge. Only hydrogen gas is evolved at the cathode, so
the tool electrode shape remains unaltered during the ECM process. This feature is perhaps the
most relevant in the use of ECM as a metal shaping process. As the material removal is by
atomic level dissociation, the machined surface is of excellent surface finish and stress free. The
rate of anodic metal dissolution depends only on the atomic weight and the ionic charge of the
metallic element, the current density, and the duration of the current flow. The dissolution rate is
not affected by the hardness or other physical properties of the metal.
ECM system
In ECM, the shape of the cathode is almost reproduced on the anode by high rate anodic
dissolution. During the dissolution process, the cathode is progressively advanced towards the
workpiece at a rate sufficient to balance the rate of dissolution, and thus maintaining an optimum
working gap, typically in the order of one or several tenth of a millimeter. Since extremely high
current densities, up to 100 A/ cm2 or more, are applied to achieve high machining rates, it is
required to have an electrolyte flow rate of several meters per second in the inter-electrode gap in
order to sweep away the electrochemical reaction products and prevent boiling by Joule heating.
Mostly neutral salt solutions such as NaCl or NaNO3 are used as electrolytes [3].
An ECM system basically consists of a power source, usually a voltage controlled rectifier, an
electrolyte treatment and supply system, a tool motion control arrangement, and an extraction
system for the hydrogen gas liberated during the cathodic reaction. The schematic of a simple
ECM system and different stages in ECM are shown in fig.2 and 3 respectively.
Fig.2. Schematic diagram of ECM system [4]
A C
B
Fig. 3. Electrochemical machining with shaped tool [5]: (A) before, (B) during, and (C) after
electrochemical machining; (1) tool, (2) workpiece, (3) tool velocity, and (4, 5) entrance and exit of
electrolyte.
ECM components
Power supply
Mainly two types of power supplies are used in ECM; DC (full wave rectified) and pulse DC. The
power source adjusts the required voltage in either pulsed or continuous mode and provides
current depending upon the selected current density (0.1 A/mm2 to 5 A/mm2). A full wave rectified
DC supplies continuous voltage where the current efficiency depends much more on the current
density. The efficiency decreases gradually when the current density is reduced, where as in
pulse voltage (duration of 1ms and interval of 10 ms) the decrease is much more rapid. The
accuracy of the form of the workpiece improves with decreasing current density.
Tools
Since the machined surface in ECM is almost a mirror image of the tool used, the dimensional
accuracy of the produced surface is linked with the shape and geometry of the tool along with
other parameters like tool feed rate, gap voltage, and cathodic tool insulation etc. It is essential to
have proper electrolytic flow through the inter electrode gap for efficient machining that
necessitates rigid fixture of the tool. For minimizing the stray current effect the tool should be
properly insulated or coated. A proper insulation of the tool is a must for achieving high machining
accuracy especially in micro and nano level.
Electrolytes
The electrolyte not only completes the electric circuit between the tool and workpiece, but also
facilitates the desired electrochemical reactions to occur in an electrochemical cell. It carries
away heat and reaction products from the machining zone. Therefore, the selection of proper
parameters for electrolyte is critical for obtaining desired dimensional accuracy and machining
efficiency. Proper electrolyte with regard to its type, pH value, fluidic kinetic property, and
concentration should be chosen depending on applications.
There are mainly two types of electrolytes used in ECM, passivating electrolytes containing
oxidizing anions, e.g. sodium nitrate, sodium chlorate and non-passivating electrolytes containing
relatively aggressive anions such as sodium chloride. Passivating electrolytes generally give
better machining precision [11]. This is due to formation of oxide films and oxygen evolution in the
stray current region. The pH value of the electrolyte solution is chosen to ensure dissolution of the
workpiece material during the machining without affecting the tool. In ECM, it is typical to machine
with sodium nitrate electrolyte solution (pH 7). For regulating pH value, some chemicals can be
added such as NaHSO4 with specific concentrations that do not affect the process adversely. It
was also found that hydrochloric acid solution is useful in fine-hole drilling because it dissolves
the metal hydroxides produced from the electrochemical reactions. Recently, it was reported that
less toxic and dilute electrolyte, 0.1M H2S04 can be well applied for the machining of stainless
steel 304 with ultrashort pulse voltage [12].
Generally, material removal rate increases with the increase of electrolyte concentration. Due to
the increase in electrolyte concentration, ions associated with the machining operation in the
machining zone also increase. However, a higher concentration of ions reduces the localization
effect of material removal by anodic dissolution. It has been reported that the machining accuracy
can be improved by decreasing the electrolyte concentration. Although accuracy can be improved
at lower electrolyte concentrations, there is a lower limit of concentration that can be used. At a
very low ionic concentration, the ion-content in the small gap between the electrodes is
insufficient to supply the charge carriers necessary to complete the charging of the double layer
capacitance. The depletion of ions prevented uniform dissolution and caused unstable machining
[6]. It was suggested to add small amounts of other ionic species such as NaCl or KCl to the 0.01
M HCl solution to bring the total electrolyte concentration up to 0.06M, and, therefore, create an
environment with enough solution conductivity to meet the demand of electrochemistry [13].
Temperature and flushing condition of electrolyte have a great impact on the machining accuracy
and surface finish. Anodic dissolution rate can be significantly increased by using hot electrolytes,
and requirement of applied voltage is also reduced [1].
Demerits
Power Supply
Type direct current
Voltage 2 to 35 V
Current 50 to 40,000 A
Current density 0.1 A/mm2 to 5 A/mm2
Electrolyte
Material NaCl and NaNO3
Temperature 20oC – 50oC
Flow rate 25-50 m/sec
Pressure 0.5 to 20 bar
Dilution 100 g/l to 500 g/l
Process characteristics
In order to achieve an effective and efficient machining, some process factors are usually
recognized as important in the ECM process. They not only control the process behavior but also
influence the machining performance. The type of electrolyte, its concentration, temperature, and
the rate of flow through the electrode gap affect the current density and in turn have great impact
on the material removal rate, surface finish and dimensional accuracy. The influence of current
density, current distribution, anodic reactions and mass transport effects on material removal and
accuracy are important consideration in ECM. Significant factors influencing the ECM machining
performance are shown in Fig.4. They seriously affect the machining performance and their range
of values should be properly selected to achieve the desired output.
mαQ
α It
where ‘m’ is mass of material dissolved or deposited in grams and ‘Q’ is the amount of charge
passed through the electrochemical cell in coulombs, ‘I’ is the electrolyzing current in amperes, ‘t’
is the total machining time in minutes
mαε
α A/ z
where ‘ε’ is chemical equivalent weight of the material, ‘A’ is the atomic weight in grams, and
‘z’ is the valency of the material.
m= ItA
F. z
where ‘F’ is Faraday’s constant and equals to 96,500 C
The machining rate is affected by many parameters like current, the type of electrolyte used and
its flow rate, and some of the workpiece properties. Current efficiency decreases with a rise in
current density for some metals, for example nickel. The current efficiency of even the most easily
electrochemically machined metal is reduced when the rates of electrolytic flow are too low [2].
The inadequate electrolyte flow does not allow the products of machining to be promptly flushed
away from the electrode gap and in turn reduces the machining efficiency and the material
removal rate.
Dimensional accuracy
Surface finish
Surface roughness is greatly influenced by the grain size of the material on the surface, insoluble
inclusions in the material e.g. graphite in cast iron, overall composition of the workpiece material,
and precipitation of inter-metallic compounds at grain boundaries. In ECM, type of electrolyte
used played a significant role in determining the output surface finish. The production of an
electrochemically-polished surface is usually associated with the random removal of atoms from
the anode workpiece, whose surface has become covered with an oxide film. This depends on
the metal-electrolyte combination used. However, the detailed mechanism for controlling high
current density electropolishing in ECM is still completely to be understood. Surface finish in the
order 0.2 μm has been reported for Nimonic (a nickel alloy) machined in saturated sodium
chloride solution and of 0.1 μm when machining nickel-chromium steels in sodium chlorate
solution [2]. Oxide film formation on the metal surface sometimes reduces the efficiency of the
ECM process and leads to poor surface finish. For instance, the ECM of titanium is very difficult in
chloride and nitrate electrolytes because of the formed passive oxide film. Pitting is one
phenomenon that arises from gas evolution at the anode; the gas bubbles rupture the oxide film.
Process parameters also influence surface finish. Higher current density can improve finish of the
machined surface and so can an increase in the electrolyte velocity.
In traditional ECM using DC voltage, the anodic dissolution (material removal) usually occurs over
a much larger portion of the workpiece surface area than desired. The large and variable gap
makes the DC ECM difficult to produce features with high resolution and well-defined edge.
Pulsed electrochemical machining (PECM) is a significant method for fabricating both parts and
tooling in the use of pulsed current replacing DC current. Pulsed voltage and resulted pulsed
current enables the recovery of inter-electrode gap condition during pulse-off time, and, therefore,
usually provides an improved machining status. PECM can be used for applications where high
precision and three-dimensional contouring is required by a proper tool’s position control with
sensitive feedback schemes. PECM has more variable parameters and much better controllability
than DC ECM by varying the pulse duration, shape of voltage pulse, and pulse duty-factor. These
parameters provide a way to optimize the material removal rate and surface quality. Resolution of
PECM can be further significantly improved by using ultrashort pulse voltage, which is verified by
various research groups [6-10]. Based on the application of pulse voltage with nano-second
duration to the tool electrode, this method can lead to strong spatial confinement of anodic
dissolution with resolution down to nanometer.
Electrochemical micromachining
ECM, because of its advantages like higher machining rate, better precision and controlled
material removal, ability to machine a wide range of materials, appears to be very promising as a
future micromachining technique [9a]. Micro ECM is an electrolytic process applied to machine
feature in the 1~100 μm range. Compared to other non-contact micromachining processes, such
as dry etching techniques (ion beam milling) and wet chemical etching, micro ECM provides
opportunity for improving controllability and using environmental benign electrolyte, and easy
disposal of waste products. ECM can be further downsized to nano scale due to its essence of
atomic-level material removal. A deep micro hole produced by micro ECM is shown in fig.5.
Electrochemical grinding is a non-abrasive process and therefore, produces precise cuts that are
free of heat, stress, burrs and mechanical distortions. This mode of electrochemical machining
uses a conductive, rotating abrasive wheel. The chemical solution is forced between the wheel
and the workpiece. The shape of the wheel determines the final shape. About 90 percent of he
material removed in this process is by electrochemical actions with mechanical action accounting
up to as little as 10 percent. The wheels are made up of abrasive particles set in a conductive
matrix, often cobalt. The particle size determines the inter electrode gap. ECG is most suited for
cutting and shaping very hard materials like WC-Co, TiC-Co used in making the tool and drill tips.
In this variation of Electrochemical Machining, workpiece and tool are moved laterally relative to
one another to achieve both internal and external surface cutting.
Electrochemical deburring
Electrochemical drilling
Elctrochemical drilling has general applications but is considered crucial in certain applications
like drilling of fine long deep holes as required in gas turbine blades (fig.6). In ECD, slow relative
rotary motion between the electrodes produces a hole. Compared with bare type of tools, usage
of bit type of tools can make more accurate holes. Stressfree metallurgically undamaged holes of
aspect ratio upto 300:1 can be produced [14]. Through holes of 26 mm depth and diameters
ranging from 2.054 to 4.128 mm have been reported in nickel-based super alloy [15]. A
comparison of drilling capabilities of ECM, EDM, and Laser drilling processes are given in Table.
1
Table.1
Comparison of hole drilling techniques for aero-engine components [18]
STEM, pioneered by workers at the General Electric Company, is a modified ECD process that
uses an acid electrolyte so that the removed metal goes into solution instead of forming a
precipitate. In this process, holes are produced by controlled deplating action in an electrolytic
cell where the cathode is simply a metal tube of acid resistant material such as titanium shaped
to match the desired hole geometry. It is carefully straightened and insulated over the entire
length except at the tip. The acid electrolyte under pressure is fed through the tube to the tip and
it returns via a narrow gap along the outside of the coated tube to the top of the workpiece. The
electrode is given constant feed at a rate matching the dissolution rate of material [18]. Acid
electrolytes such as sulfuric, nitric and hydrochloric acid with 10–25% concentration are preferred
in STEM. However, neutral salt electrolytes (10%) with small percentage of acid electrolytes (1%)
have been used by researchers to minimize the sludge formation in the inter electrode gap.
STEM is suitable for multiple hole drilling and uniform wall thickness in repetitive production is
achieved because of the noncontact nature of the process. Stressfree, high integrity holes can be
produced by the molecule-by-molecule dissolution of the material. Creation of uniform, good
holes with aspect ratios of 11 has been reported in inconel at voltage and tool feedrate of 17 V
and 1.0 mm min−1, respectively [19].
Environmental issues
Generally speaking, electrochemical processes operate at lower temperatures than their non-
electrochemical counterparts. The energy losses caused by non-homogeneous current
distribution, voltage drop or side reactions can be minimized by optimization of electrode structure
and cell design. The system-inherent variables of electrochemical processes, such as electrode
potential and cell current, are particularly suitable for facilitating process control and automation
calling for less human involvement. The electrochemical cell construction and the peripheral
equipment are generally simple and, if properly designed can be inexpensive. On the other hand,
disadvantages arise from the fact that electrochemical reactions are heterogeneous and take
place at the electrode-electrolyte interface in electrochemical reactors [20]. Therefore, the cell
performance often suffers from mass-transport limitations and the size of the specific electrode
area. A crucial point is the durability and long-term stability of cell components and electrode
materials in contact with aggressive media.
It has been observed that harmful environmental impacts of the ECM process come in the form of
health hazard like eye and skin irritation due to electrolyte splashing, release of toxic vapors
during machining and from the waste like the ECM slurry produced in the process. Use of
passivating electrolytes like sodium nitrate in electrochemical deburring produces low surface
roughness and high machining rate, but because of nitrate reduction at cathode, toxic chromate
and ammonia are formed while machining metals containing chrome [21]. These harmful
chemicals get absorbed in the ECM slurry in the form of metal hydroxides. So, extreme care is to
be taken for its handling and disposal.
However, under appropriate conditions, monitoring, and control, the environmental impacts of
Electrochemical Machining can be minimized.
ECM at glance
Reference
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