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P • A • R • T 1
POWER GENERATION
SECTION 1
MODERN POWER-PLANT
CYCLES AND EQUIPMENT
CYCLE ANALYSES 1.4 Steam-Turbine Regenerative-Cycle
Choosing Best Options for Boosting Performance 1.71
Combined-Cycle Plant Output 1.4 Reheat-Regenerative Steam-Turbine
Selecting Gas-Turbine Heat-Recovery Heat Rates 1.74
Boilers 1.10 Steam Turbine-Gas Turbine Cycle
Gas-Turbine Cycle Efficiency Analysis Analysis 1.76
and Output Determination 1.13 Gas Turbine Combustion Chamber
Determining Best-Relative-Value of Inlet Air Temperature 1.81
Industrial Gas Turbines Using a Life- Regenerative-Cycle Gas-Turbine
Cycle Cost Model 1.18 Analysis 1.83
Tube Bundle Vibration and Noise Extraction Turbine kW Output 1.86
Determination in HRSGs 1.22 STEAM PROPERTIES AND PROCESSES
Determining Oxygen and Fuel Input in 1.87
Gas-Turbine Plants 1.25 Steam Mollier Diagram and Steam
Heat-Recovery Steam Generator Table Use 1.87
(HRSG) Simulation 1.28 Interpolation of Steam Table Values
Predicting Heat-Recovery Steam 1.90
Generator (HRSG) Temperature Constant-Pressure Steam Process
Profiles 1.33 1.93
Steam Turbogenerator Efficiency and Constant-Volume Steam Process
Steam Rate 1.36 1.95
Turbogenerator Reheat-Regenerative Constant-Temperature Steam Process
Cycle Alternatives Analysis 1.37 1.97
Turbine Exhaust Steam Enthalpy and Constant-Entropy Steam Process
Moisture Content 1.42 1.99
Steam Turbine No-Load and Partial- Irreversible Adiabatic Expansion of
Load Steam Flow 1.43 Steam 1.101
Power Plant Performance Based on Irreversible Adiabatic Steam
Test Data 1.45 Compression 1.103
Determining Turbogenerator Steam Throttling Processes for Steam and
Rate at Various Loads 1.47 Water 1.105
Analysis of Reheating-Regenerative Reversible Heating Process for Steam
Turbine Cycle 1.48 1.107
Steam Rate for Reheat-Regenerative Determining Steam Enthalpy and
Cycle 1.49 Quality Using the Steam Tables
Binary Cycle Plant Efficiency Analysis 1.109
1.51 Maximizing Cogeneration Electric-
CONVENTIONAL STEAM CYCLES 1.53 Power and Process-Steam Output
Finding Cogeneration System 1.110
Efficiency vs a Conventional Steam ECONOMIC ANALYSES OF
Cycle 1.53 ALTERNATIVE ENERGY SOURCES
Bleed-Steam Regenerative Cycle 1.112
Layout and T-S Plot 1.55 Choice of Most Economic Energy
Bleed Regenerative Steam Cycle Source Using the Total-Annual-Cost
Analysis 1.59 Method 1.112
Reheat-Steam Cycle Performance Seven Comparison Methods for
1.62 Energy Source Choice 1.115
Mechanical-Drive Steam-Turbine Selection of Prime Mover Based on
Power-Output Analysis 1.67 Annual Cost Analyses 1.120
Condensing Steam-Turbine Power- Determining If a Prime Mover Should
Output Analysis 1.69 Be Overhauled 1.122
1.3
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MODERN POWER-PLANT CYCLES AND EQUIPMENT
Cycle Analyses
Select the best option to boost the output of a 230-MW facility based on a 155-
MW natural-gas-fired gas turbine (GT) featuring a dry low NOx combustor (Fig.
1). The plant has a heat-recovery steam generator (HRSG) which is a triple-pressure
design with an integral deaerator. A reheat condensing steam turbine (ST) is used
and it is coupled to a cooling-tower / surface-condenser heat sink turbine inlet. Steam
conditions are 1450-lb / in2 (gage) / 1000F (9991-kPa / 538C). Unit ratings are for
operation at International Standard Organization (ISO) conditions. Evaluate the var-
ious technologies considered for summer peaking conditions with a dry bulb (DB)
temperature of 95F and 60 percent RH (relative humidity) (35C and 60 percent
RH). The plant heat sink is a four-cell, counterflow, mechanical-draft cooling tower
optimized to achieve a steam-turbine exhaust pressure of 3.75 inHg absolute (9.5
cmHg) for all alternatives considered in this evaluation. Base circulating-water sys-
tem includes a surface condenser and two 50 percent-capacity pumps. Water-
treatment, consumption, and disposal-related O&M (operating & maintenance)
H-p steam
L-p
Cold steam
reheat
steam Makeup water
Hot reheat I-p steam Feedwater Condensate
pumps pumps
Deaerator
Reheater
Fuel
suprerheater
suprerheater
economizer
economizer
economizer
evaporator
evaporator
evaporator
Generator
H-p
H-p
L-p
L-p
I-p
I-p
I-p
I-p
Gas turbine
H-p superheater
Air Blowdown Blowdown
I-p pump
I-p pump
FIGURE 1 155-MW natural-gas-fired gas turbine featuring a dry low NOx combustor (Power).
costs for the zero-discharge facility are assumed to be $3 / 1000 gal ($3 / 3.8 m3) of
raw water, $6 / 1000 gal ($6 / 3.8 m3) of treated demineralized water, and $5 / 1000
gal ($5 / 3.8 m3) of water disposal. The plant is configured to burn liquid distillate
as a backup fuel.
Calculation Procedure:
1. List the options available for boosting output
Seven options can be developed for boosting the output of this theoretical reference
plant. Although plant-specific issues will have a significant effect on selecting an
option, comparing performance based on a reference plant, Fig. 1, can be helpful.
Table 1 shows the various options available in this study for boosting output. The
comparisons shown in this procedure illustrate the characteristics, advantages, and
disadvantages of the major power augmentation technologies now in use.
Amidst the many advantages of gas turbine (GT) combined cycles (CC) popular
today from various standpoints (lower investment than for new greenfield plants,
reduced environmental impact, and faster installation and startup), one drawback is
that the achievable output decreases significantly as the ambient inlet air tempera-
ture increases. The lower density of warm air reduces mass flow through the GT.
And, unfortunately, hot weather typically corresponds to peak power loads in many
areas. So the need to meet peak-load and power-sales contract requirements causes
many power engineers and developers to compensate for ambient-temperature-
output loss.
The three most common methods of increasing output include: (1) injecting
water or steam into the GT, (2) precooling GT inlet air, and / or (3) supplementary
firing of the heat-recovery steam generator (HRSG). All three options require sig-
nificant capital outlays and affect other performance parameters. Further, the options
Case 61 Case 72
Case 1 Case 2 Case 3 Case 4 Case 5 Supp.- Supp.-
Measured change from Evap. Mech. Absorp. Steam Water fired fired
base case cooler chiller chiller injection injection HRSG HRSG
GT output, MW 5.8 20.2 20.2 21.8 15.5 0 0
ST output, MW 0.9 2.4 ⫺2.1 ⫺13 3.7 8 35
Plant aux. load, MW 0.05 4.5 0.7 400 0.2 0.4 1
Net plant output, MW 6.65 18.1 17.4 8.4 19 7.6 34
Net heat rate, Btu / kWh3 15 55 70 270 435 90 320
Incremental costs
Change in total water
cost, $ / h 15 35 35 115 85 35 155
Change in wastewater
cost, $ / h 1 17 17 2 1 1 30
Change in capital cost /
net output, $ / kW 180 165 230 75 15 70 450
1
Partial supplementary firing.
2
Full supplementary firing.
3
Based on lower heating value of fuel.
may uniquely impact the operation and / or selection of other components, including
boiler feedwater and condensate pumps, valves, steam turbine / generators, con-
densers, cooling towers, and emissions-control systems.
Ambient air
Circulating (95F, 60% RH)
water pump
Chilled-
water coils
HRSG
Gas turbine/
generator
Cooling
Electric- tower
driven Cooling
centrifugal water
chiller
Chilled-water loop
25-psia Cooling tower
steam
from
HRSG 2-stage
lithium
Condensate bromide
return adsorption
chiller
FIGURE 2 Inlet-air chilling using either centrifugal or absorption-type chillers, boosts the
achieveable mass flow and power output during warm weather (Power).
compressor-based chillers are highly reliable and can handle rapid load changes
without difficulty.
A centrifugal-compressor-based chiller can easily reduce the temperature of the
GT inlet air from 95F (35C) to 60F (15.6C) DB—a level that is generally ac-
cepted as a safe lower limit for preventing icing on compressor inlet blades—and
achieve 100 percent RH. This increases plant output by 20.2 MW for GT ⫹ 2.4
MW for ST ⫺ 4.5 MW plant auxiliary load ⫽ 18.1 MW, or 8.9 percent. But it
degrades the net CC heat rate by 0.8 percent and results in a 1.5-in-(3.8-cm)-H2O
inlet-air pressure drop because of heat-exchanger equipment located in the inlet-air
stream.
Cooling requirements of the chilling system increase the plant’s required cir-
culating water flow by 12,500 gal / min (47.3 m3 / min). Combined with the need for
increased steam condensing capacity, use of a chiller may necessitate a heat sink
25 percent larger than the base case. The total installed cost for the mechanical
chilling system for Case 2 is $3-million, or about $3,000,000 / 18,100 kW ⫽
$165.75 / kW of added output. Again, costs come from contractor and staff studies.
Raw-water consumption increase the plant’s overall O&M costs by $35 / h when
the chiller is operating. Disposal of additional cooling-tower blowdown costs $17 /
h. The compressor used in Case 2 consumes about 4 MW of auxiliary power to
handle the plant’s 68-million Btu / h (19.9 MW) cooling load.
Demin. Water-injection
storage power sugmentation Steam-injection
power sugmentation
Attemperating
Water station
injection
skid
HRSG
(gage) (1964 to 2722 kPa). Thus, steam must be supplied from either the HRSG
or an h-p turbine extraction ahead of the reheat section.
Based on installed-cost considerations alone, extracting steam from the HRSG
is favored for peaking service and may be accomplished without altering the reheat
steam turbine. But if a plant operates in the steam-injection mode for extended
periods, extracting steam from the turbine or increasing the h-p turbine exhaust
pressure becomes more cost-effective.
Injecting steam from the HRSG superheat section into the GT increases unit
output by 21.8 MS, Case 4 Table 1, but decreases the steam turbine / generator’s
output by about 12.8 MW. Net gain to the CC is 8.4 MW. But CC plant heat rate
also suffers by 4 percent, or 270 Btu / kWh (256.5 kJ / kWh).
Because the steam-injection system requires makeup water as pure as boiler
feedwater, some means to treat up to 350 gal / min (22.1 L / s) of additional water
is necessary. A dual-train demineralizer this size could cost up to $1.5-million.
However, treated water could also be bought from a third party and stored. Or
portable treatment equipment could be rented during peak periods to reduce capital
costs. For the latter case, the average expected cost for raw and treated water is
about $130 / h of operation.
This analysis assumes that steam- or water-injection equipment is already in
place for NOx control during distillate-fuel firing. Thus, no additional capital cost
is incurred.
When water injection is used for power augmentation or NOx control, the rec-
ommended water quality may be no more than filtered raw water in some cases,
provided the source meets pH, turbidity, and hardness requirements. Thus, water-
treatment costs may be negligible. Water injection, Case 5 Table 1, can increase
the GT output by 15.5 MW.
In Case 5, the bottoming cycle benefits from increased GT-exhaust mass flow,
increasing steam turbine / generator output by about 3.7 MW. Overall, the CC output
increases by 9.4 percent or 19 MW, but the net plant heat rate suffers by 6.4 percent,
or 435 Btu / kWh (413.3 kJ / kWh). Given the higher increase in the net plant heat
rate and lower operating expenses, water injection is preferred over steam injection
in this case.
from the steam bottoming cycle. For this study, two types of supplementary firing
are considered—(1) partial supplementary firing, Case 6 Table 1, and (2) full sup-
plementary firing, Case 7 Table 1.
There are three main drawbacks to supplementary firing for peak power en-
hancement, including 910 lower cycle efficiency, (2) higher NOx and CO emissions,
(3) higher costs for the larger plant equipment required.
For this plant, each 100-million Btu / h (29.3 MW) of added supplementary firing
capacity increases the net plant output by 5.5 percent, but increases the heat rate
by 2 percent. The installed cost for supplementary firing can be significant because
all the following equipment is affected: (1) boiler feed pumps, (2) condensate
pumps, (3) steam turbine / generator, (4) steam and water piping and valves, and (5)
selective-catalytic reduction (SCR) system. Thus, a plant designed for supplemen-
tary firing to meet peak-load requirements will operate in an inefficient, off-design
condition for most of the year.
Calculation Procedure:
1. Determine the critical gas inlet-temperature
Turbine exhaust gas (TEG) typically leaves a gas turbine at 900–1000F
(482–538C) and has about 13 to 16 percent free oxygen. If steam is injected into
the gas turbine for NOx control, the oxygen content will decrease by 2 to 5 percent
by volume. To evaluate whether supplementary firing of the exhaust is required to
generate needed steam, a knowledge of the temperature profiles in the boiler is
needed.
Prepare a gas / steam profile for this heat-recovery boiler as shown in Fig. 4.
TEG enters on the left at 950F (510C). Steam generated in the boiler at 205 lb /
in2 (gage) (1413.5 kPa) has a temperature of 390F (198.9C), from steam tables.
For steam to be generated in the boiler, two conditions must be met: (1) The ‘‘pinch
point’’ temperature must be greater than the saturated steam temperature of 390F
(198.9C), and (2) the temperature of the saturated steam leaving the boiler econ-
omizer must be greater than that of the feedwater. The pinch point occurs some-
where along the TEG temperature line, Fig. 4, which starts at the inlet temperature
of 950F (510C) and ends at the boiler gas outlet temperature, which is to be
determined by calculation. A pinch-point temperature will be assumed during the
calculation and its suitability determined.
To determine the critical gas inlet-temperature, T1, get from the steam tables the
properties of the steam generated by this boiler: ts ⫽ 390F (198.9C); hl, heat of
saturated liquid ⫽ 364 Btu / lb (846.7 kJ / kg); hs, total heat of saturated vapor ⫽
1199.6 Btu / lb (2790.3 kJ / kg; hw, heat of saturated liquid of feedwater leaving the
economizer at 370F (187.8C) ⫽ 342 Btu / lb (795.5 kJ / kg); and hƒ, heat of satu-
rated liquid of the feedwater at 227F (108.3C) ⫽ 196.3 Btu / lb (456.6 kJ / kg).
390
390
Tw
370 Tt
Approach point 325 227
227
Writing an energy balance across the evaporator neglecting heat and blowdown
losses, we get: (T1 ⫺ T2) / (T1 ⫺ T3) ⫽ (hs ⫺ hw ) / (hs ⫺ hƒ) ⫽ X, where T1 ⫽ gas
temperature in boiler, F (C); T2 ⫽ pinch-point gas temperature, F (C); T3 ⫽
outlet gas temperature for TEG, F (C); enthalpy, h, values as listed above; X ⫽
ratio of temperature or enthalpy differences. Substituting, X ⫽ (1199.6 ⫺ 342) /
(1199.9 ⫺ 196.3) ⫽ 0.855, using enthalpy values as given above.
The critical gas inlet-temperature, T1c ⫽ (ts ⫺ Xtƒ) / (1 ⫺ X ), where ts ⫽ tem-
perature of saturated steam, F (C); tƒ ⫽ temperature of feedwater, F (C); other
symbols as before. Using the values determined above, T1c ⫽ [390 ⫺
(0.855)(227)] / (1 ⫺ 0.855) ⫽ 1351F (732.8C).
Fuel
F, Wf
TEG
If steam requirements are not stated for a particular gas inlet condition, and
maximum steaming rate is desired, a boiler can be designed with a low pinch point,
a large evaporator, and an economizer. Check the economizer for steaming. Such
a choice results in a low gas exit temperature and a high steam flow.
Then, the incremental boiler cost must be evaluated against the additional steam
flow and gas-pressure drop. For example, Boiler A generates 24,000 lb / h (10,896
kg / h), while Boiler B provides 25,000 lb / h (11,350 kg / h) for the same gas pres-
sure-drop but costs $30,000 more. Is Boiler B worth the extra expense?
To answer this question, look at the annual differential gain in steam flow. As-
suming steam costs $3.50 / 1000 lb (3.50 / 454 kg), the annual differential gain in
steam flow ⫽ 1000 ⫻ 3.5 ⫻ 8000 / 1000 ⫽ $28,000. Thus, the simple payback is
about a year ($30,000 vs $28,000), which is attractive. You must, however, be
certain you assess payback time against the actual amount of time the boiler will
operate. If the boiler is likely to be used for only half this period, then the payback
time is actually two years.
The general procedure presented here can be used for any type industry using
gas-turbine heat-recovery boilers—chemical, petroleum, power, textile, food, etc.
This procedure is the work of V. Ganapathy, Heat-Transfer Specialist, ABCO In-
dustries, Inc., and was presented in Chemical Engineering magazine.
When supplementary fuel is added to the turbine exhaust gas before it enters
the boiler, or between boiler surfaces, to increase steam production, one has to
perform an energy balance around the burner, Fig. 5, to evaluate accurately the gas
temperature increase that can be obtained.
V. Ganapathy, cited above, has a computer program he developed to speed this
calculation.
Calculation Procedure:
1. Plot the ideal and actual cycles
Draw the ideal cycle as 1-2-3-4-1, Figs. 6 and 7. Actual compression takes place
along 1-2. Actual heat added lies along 2-3. The ideal expansion process path is
3-4. Ideal work ⫽ cp (ideal temperature difference). Actual work ⫽ cp (actual
temperature difference).
FIGURE 6 Ideal gas-turbine cycle, 1-2-3-4-1. Actual compression takes place along 1-2; actual
heat added 2-3; ideal expansion 3-4.
FIGURE 7 Ideal gas-turbine cycle T-S diagram with the same processes as in Fig. 6; complete-
cycle gas turbine shown below the T-S diagram.
Further, as aircraft engines become larger—such as those for the Boeing 777
and the Airbus 340—the power output of aeroderivative machines increases at little
cost to the power industry. The result is further application of gas turbines for
topping, expansion, cogeneration and a variety of other key services throughout the
world of power generation and energy conservation.
With further refinement in gas-turbine cycles, specific fuel consumption, Fig. 8,
declines. Thus, the complete cycle gas turbine has the lowest specific fuel con-
sumption, with the regenerative cycle a close second in the 6-to-1 compression-
ratio range.
Two recent developments in gas-turbine plants promise much for the future. The
first of these developments is the single-shaft combined-cycle gas and steam turbine,
Fig. 9. In this cycle, the gas turbine exhausts into a heat-recovery steam generator
(HRSG) that supplies steam to the turbine. This cycle is the most significant electric
generating system available today. Further, its capital costs are significantly lower
than competing nuclear, fossil-fired steam, and renewable-energy stations. Other
advantages include low air emissions, low water consumption, smaller space re-
quirements, and a reduced physical profile, Fig. 10. All these advantages are im-
portant in today’s strict permitting and siting processes.
FIGURE 8 With further gas-turbine cycle refinement, the specific fuel consumption declines.
These curves are based on assumed efficiencies with T3 ⫽ 1400 F (760 C).
Stack
Inlet air
Generator Gas turbine
H-p I-p L-p
68.5 ft (20.9 m)
(51.9 m)
170.6 ft
29.5 ft 95 ft
152 ft
(8.99 m) (46.33 m) (28.95 m)
FIGURE 10 Steam turbine, electric generator, and gas turbine fit into one compact building when
all three machines are arranged on a single shaft. Net result: Reduced site footprint and civil-
engineering work (Power).
Having the gas turbine, steam turbine, and generator all on one shaft simplifies
plant design and operation, and may lower first costs. When used for large reheat
cycles, as shown here, separate high-pressure (h-p), intermediate-pressure (i-p), and
low-pressure (l-p) turbine elements are all on the same shaft as the gas turbine and
generator. Modern high-technology combined-cycle single-shaft units deliver a
simple-cycle net efficiency of 38.5 percent for a combine-cycle net efficiency of
58 percent on a lower heating value (LHV) basis.
DETERMINING BEST-RELATIVE-VALUE OF
INDUSTRIAL GAS TURBINES USING A
LIFE-CYCLE COST MODEL
Calculation Procedure:
1. Assemble the cost data for each gas turbine being considered
Assemble the cost data as shown below for each of the five gas turbines identified
by the letters A through E. Contact the gas-turbine manufacturers for the initial
cost, $ / kW, thermal efficiency, availability, fuel consumption, generator efficiency,
and maintenance cost, $ / kWh. List these data as shown below.
The loan period, years, will be the same for all the gas turbines being considered,
and is based on an equipment life-expectancy of 20 years. Interest rate on the capital
investment for each turbine will vary, depending on the amount invested and the
way in which the loan must be repaid and will be provided by the accounting
department of the firm considering gas-turbine purchase.
Equipment Attributes for Typical Candidates*
Gas-turbine candidates
Parameter A B C D E
Initial cost, $ / kW 205 320 275 320 200
Thermal efficiency, % 32.5 35.5 34.0 36.5 30.0
Loan period, yr 20 20 20 20 20
Availability 0.96 0.94 0.95 0.94 0.96
Fuel cost, $ / million Btu 4 4 4 4 4
Interes, % 6.5 8.0 7.0 8.5 7.5
Generator efficiency, % 98.0 98.5 98.5 98.0 98.5
Maintenance cost, $ / kWh 0.004 0.005 0.005 0.005 0.004
*Assuming an equipment life of 20 years, an output of 21 MW.
2. Select a life-cycle cost model for the gas turbines being considered
A popular and widely used life-cycle cost model for gas turbines has three parts:
(1) the annual investment cost, Cp ; (2) annual fuel cost, Cƒ; (3) annual maintenance
cost, Cm. Summing these three annual costs, all of which are expressed in mils /
kWh, gives CT , the life-cycle cost model. The equations for each of the three
components are given below, along with the life-cycle working model, CT :
The life-cycle cost model (CT ) consists of annual investment cost (Cp ) ⫹ annual
fuel cost (Cƒ) ⫹ annual maintenance cost (Cm ). Equations for these values are:
l {i / [1 ⫺ (1 ⫺ i )⫺n ]}
Cp ⫽
(A )(kW)(8760)(G )
where l ⫽ initial capital cost of equipment, dollars
i ⫽ interest rate
n ⫽ number of payment periods
A ⫽ availability (expressed as decimal)
kW ⫽ kilowatts of electricity produced
8760 ⫽ total hours in year
G ⫽ efficiency of electric generator
Cƒ ⫽ E(293)
where E ⫽ thermal efficiency of gas turbine
293 ⫽ conversion of Btu to kWh
Cm ⫽ M / kW
where M ⫽ maintenance cost, dollars per operating (fired) hour.
Thus, the life-cycle working model can be expressed as
l {i / [1 ⫺ (1 ⫺ i )⫺n ]}
CT ⫽ ⫹ F / E(293) ⫹ M / kW
(A )(kW)(8760)(G )
where F ⫽ fuel cost, dollars per million Btu (higher heating value)
To evaluate the comparative capital cost of a gas-turbine electrical generating
package the above model uses the capital-recovery factor technique. This approach
spreads the initial investment and interest costs for the repayment period into an
equal annual expense using the time value of money. The approach also allows for
the comparison of other periodic expenses, like fuel and maintenance costs.
3. Perform the computation for each of the gas turbines being considered
Using the compiled data shown above, compute the values for Cp, Cƒ, and Cm, and
sum the results. List for each of the units as shown below.
produced for each of the gas-turbine units being considered. This gives a much
different perspective of the units.
From a life-cycle standpoint, the choice of unit E over unit D would result in
an added expenditure of about $975,000 annually during the life span of the equip-
ment, found from [(51.9 ⫺ 46.6) / 1000](8760 hr / yr)(21,000 kW) ⫽ $974,988; this
was rounded to $975,000. Since the difference in the initial cost between units D
and E is $6,720,000 ⫺ $4,200,000 ⫽ $2,520,000, this cost difference will be re-
covered in $2,520,000 / 974,988 ⫽ 2.58 years, or about one-eighth of the 20-year
life span of the equipment.
Also, note that the 20-year differential in cost / kWh produced between units D
and E is equivalent to over 4.6 times the initial equipment cost of unit E. When
considering the values output of a life-cycle model, remember that such values are
only as valid as the data input. So take precautions to input both reasonable and
accurate data to the life-cycle cost model. Be careful in attempting to distinguish
model outputs that vary less than 0.5 mil from one another.
Since the predictions of this life-cycle cost model cannot be compared to actual
measurements at this time, a potential shortcoming of the model lies with the va-
lidity of the data and assumptions used for input. For this reason, the model is best
applied to establish comparisons to differentiate between several pieces of com-
peting equipment.
Related Calculations. The first gas turbines to enter industrial service in the
early 1950s represented a blend of steam-turbine and aerothermodynamic design.
In the late 1950s / early-1960s, lightweight industrial gas turbines derived directly
from aircraft engines were introduced into electric power generation, pipeline com-
pression, industrial power generation, and a variety of other applications. These
machines had performance characteristics similar to their steam-turbine counter-
parts, namely pressure ratios of about 12⬊1, firing temperatures of 1200–1500F
(649–816C), and thermal efficiencies in the 23–27 percent range.
In the 1970s, a new breed of aeroderivative gas turbines entered industrial ser-
vice. These units, with simple-cycle thermal efficiencies in the 32–37 percent
bracket, represented a new technological approach to aerothermodynamic design.
Today, these second-generation units are joined by hybrid designs that incor-
porate some of the aeroderivative design advances but still maintain the basic struc-
tural concepts of the heavy-frame machines. These hybrid units are not approaching
the simple-cycle thermal-efficiency levels reached by some of the early second-
generation aeroderivative units first earmarked for industrial use.
Traditionally, the major focus has been on first cost of industrial gas-turbine
units, not on operating cost. Experience with higher-technology equipment, how-
ever, reveals that a low first cost does not mean a lower total cost during the
expected life of the equipment. Conversely, reliable, high-quality equipment with
demonstrated availability will be remembered long after the emotional distress as-
sociated with high initial cost is forgotten.
The life-cycle cost model presented here uses 10 independent variables. A sin-
gle-point solution can easily be obtained, but multiple solutions require repeated
calculations. Although curves depicting simultaneous variations in all variables
would be difficult to interpret, simplified diagrams can be constructed to illustrate
the relative importance of different variables.
Thus, the simplified diagrams shown in Fig. 11, all plot production cost, mils /
kWh, versus investment cost. All the plots are based on continuous operation of
8760 h / yr at 21-MW capacity with an equipment life expectancy of 20 years.
The curves shown depict the variation in production cost of electricity as a
function of initial investment cost for various levels of thermal efficiency, loan