Journal of Petroleum Geology, vol. 22(3), July 1999,pp.

261-286 26 1

INTERPRETATION OF VITRINITE REFLECTANCE

PROFILES IN THE CENTRAL IRISH SEA AREA:
IMPLICATIONS FOR THE TIMING OF
ORGANIC MATURATION

D. Corcoran” and G. Clayton*

The Central Irish Sea area, from Kish Bank to St. George’s Channel and Cardigan
Bay, consists of a series of Late Palaeozoic to Cenozoic extensional and transtensional
basins which have experienced a multiphase inversion history. Potential hydrocarbon
source rocks of Carboniferous and Jurassic ages have been recognised in this area. In
the Kish Bank and Central Irish Sea Basins, maturation modelling of these source rocks
is hampered b y the severely truncated rock record and b y the relative paucity of vitrinite
throughout much of the preserved post-Palaeozoic (Triassic) section.
Vitrinite reflectance data from six exploration wells have been used to quantifj, the
peak palaeotemperatures attained by the rocks in this area and to estimate the magnitude
of net exhumation at these locations. An apparent palaeogeothennal gradient of -2@C/
km is recorded by the Jurassic sediments in well 42/21-1, whereas significantly higher
palaeogeothennal gradients of 74-7 8 ” C hare interpretedforthe WestphaliadStephanian
sediments in the area. At least two periods of rock exhumation have occurred; during
the Late Carboniferous-Late Permian, and again sometime between the latest Jurassic
and early Tertiary. Estimates of net exhumation vary from -350 m at well 4242-1 to
-1,900 mat well 42A 7-1.Our interpretation suggests that the higherpalaeogeothenl
gradients recorded by the WestphaliadStephanian sections reflect elevated heat flows
during Stephanian to Early Permian times.

INTRODUCTION
A number of under-explored Late Palaeozoic to Mesozoic basins are present in the
Irish Sea area between Ireland and Great Britain. Although these basins are stratigraphically
analogous to the prolific East Irish Sea hydrocarbon province, exploration success has
so far proved elusive outside of that area. In particular, nine wells have been drilled to

*Departmentof Geology, Trinity College Dublin, Dublin 2, Ireland.

262 Maturation timing, Central Irish Sea,

date in the Irish sector of the Kish Bank and Central Irish Sea basins; all have been
plugged and abandoned as dry holes (Fig. 1). The primary exploration target has been
the Lower Triassic Sherwood Sandstone Group, sealed by evaporites and shales of the
Upper Triassic Mercia Mudstone Group and sourced by Carboniferousshales and coals.
Results, interpretation and syntheses of previous exploration activity in these basins
have recently been presented by a number of authors (Naylor et al., 1993; Maddox et al.,
1995; Shannon and Naylor, 1998; Duncan et al., 1998; Quirk et al., 1999, this volume).
The general consensus is that the drilling has proved the presence of reservoir, seal and
source rocks in both the Kish Bank and Central Irish Sea Basins (Naylor et al., 1993;
Maddox et al., 1995;Duncan et al., 1998). However, at least two wells (Kish Bank wells
33/17-1 and 33/21-1) appear to have tested valid “early” structural traps which were
devoid of hydrocarbon shows (Shannon and Naylor, 1998). This evidence, combined
with recent studies of factors which control hydrocarbon distribution in traps in the East
Irish Sea Basin (Seedhouse and Racey, 1997), suggests that the timing of maturation of
the Carboniferoussource rocks and/or the integrity of the Mercia Mudstone top seal unit
are the primary exploration risk factors in these basins.
The aim of this paper is to provide an insight into the timing of Carboniferous source
rock maturation in the Central Irish Sea area, based on our interpretation of the available
vitrinite reflectance (VR) datasets. We believe that a composite approach to the display
and interpretation of the VR data offers insights into the thermal history of the Central
Irish Sea area which might not be available through conventional,single well evaluation
methods.

TECTONIC AND STRATIGFWPHIC SETTING

The CentralIrish Sea area, from Kish Bank to St. George’s Channel and Cardigan Bay,
consists of a series of Late Palaeozoic to Cenozoic extensional and transtensional basins
(Fig. 2). For a detailed review of the geology of these basins and the East Irish Sea Basin
analogue, the reader is referred to Naylor et al. (1993); Maddox et al. (1995); Jackson
et al. (1995);and Tappin et al. (1994). All of these basins have experienced a multiphase
extensional and inversion history. In this study, three reflection seismic profiles are used
to illustrate individual basin configurations and to demonstrate the nature and scale of
basin inversion in this area (Figs. 3a, 3b, 3c: the approximate location of the seismic lines
is shown in Fig. 2).
Kish Bank Basin
The Kish Bank Basin is an elongate NE-SW trending half-graben structure developed
in the hanging wall of the Lambay-Dalkey Fault and is bounded to the SW by the NW-
SE trending Bray Fault (Fig. 2). The basin is bisected by a major NW-SE trending dextral
strike-slip fault, the Codling Fault (Fig. 3a), which causes an apparent net dextral offset
of the basin margin of between 4 km (Dobson and Whittington, 1979) and 6 km (Jenner,
1981). A severely truncated Mesozoic/Cenozoic stratigraphic record indicates that at
least one basin-scale phase of post-Liassicexhumationhas occurred in this area (Fig. 3a).
The preserved post-Palaeozoic stratigraphy of the Kish Bank Basin is dominated by
a Permo-Triassic (syn-rift) succession. In well 33/1 7-1,Tertiary sediments (Pliocene or
older) rest unconformably upon the Triassic Mercia Mudstone Group (Naylor et al.,
1993). The limited present-day preservation of a post-rift sedimentary fill is consistent
with the observation of regional thermal uplift and denudation during the early Tertiary,
as a consequenceof pervasive magmatic underplating (Brodie and White, 1995).Seismic
interpretationindicatesthat a remnant Liassic (post-rift?)sectionrests conformably upon
the Mercia Mudstone Group but is only preserved adjacent to the main basin-bounding
faults (Dobson and Whittington, 1979). Jenner (1981) estimated a maximum of 300 m
 D. Corcoran and G. Clayton 263

Fig. 1. Central Irish Sea area: basins, hydrocarbon accumulationsand Irish sector
exploration wells referred to in text.
264 Maturation timing, Central Irish Sea,

L E
---G---___
E N D
----_-.Major zone of Varlacan strlke sllp faulting

Fig. 2 Tectonic elements map of the Central Irish Sea area with the location of seismic lines
(A,B,C) presented in Figs. 3a, 3b, 3c (Adapted from Maddox et al., 1995).
 D. Corcoran and G. Clayton 265

of preserved Jurassic section, but Broughan et al. (1989) suggested that up to 2,700 m
of Liassic sediments are preserved in the hanging wall of the Bray Fault. This seismic
evidence together with the pre-Quaternary subcrop pattern (Fig. 3a) suggeststhat regional
thermal uplift may locally have been accentuated by compressionalhanspressional
inversion (sensu Roberts, 1989) along the Lambay-Dalkey, Bray and Codling Fault
Zones (Fig. 3a).
Central Irish Sea Basin
The Central Irish Sea Basin is a narrow, elongate NE-SW trending half-graben system
with alternating polarities of dip towards the SE and NW. It extends from the Caernarfon
Bay Basin in the NE to the Wexford outlier in the SW (Fig. 2). To the south, the basin
is bounded by the offshore extension of St. Tudwal’s Arch which is bisected and dextrally
offset by the SE extension of the Codling Fault Zone. SignificantN-S trending faults are
also observed in the Central Irish Sea Basin (Maddox et al., 1995;Maingarm et al., 1999,
this volume).The present-day CentralIrish Sea Basin manifests an anticlinal morphology,
probably related to NW-SE compressional inversion during the Late Cretaceous-Early
Tertiary (Fig. 3b; see also Figs. 4, 5, and 6 from Maingarm et al., 1999, this volume).
In addition to this seismic evidence, the stratigraphicrecord suggests that at least two
phases of inversion have occurred in the Central Irish Sea Basin. In wells 42/12-1 and
42/16-I, Triassic sediments of the Sherwood SandstoneGroup rest unconformably upon
sediments of Westphalian D-Stephanian age indicating widespread uplift and possible
erosion during the Permian. In well 42/17-I,there is a faulted contact between the
Triassic Mercia Mudstone Group and the underlying Westphalian D section. Critically,
a conformable, 64-m thick section of Hettangian-Sinemurian siltstones and claystones
was encountered in the hanging wall of this fault and is unconformably overlain by
Quaternary sediments. The present-day distributionof Liassic sediments in the basin has
been inferred from seismic data (Fig. 4),and supportsthe interpretationof extensivepost-
Liassic inversion and erosion in the Central Irish Sea Basin (Maddox et al., 1995).
Maingarm et al. 1999 (this volume) report Tertiary sediments in well 42/8-1 and
seismic evidence suggests that Tertiary sediments are locally preserved in the hanging
wall of some basin-bounding faults (Fig. 3b). The interpreted onlap in a basinward
direction of ?Eocene - Oligocene sequences onto the Mercia Mudstone Group in the NW
of the basin (see Fig. 4 in Maingarm et al., 1999, this volume) suggests that Tertiary
compressional inversion (sensu Roberts, 1989)had at least been initiated by Oligocene
time.
St. George’s Channel-Cardigan Bay Basin
The St. George’s Channel-Cardigan Bay Basin is a NE-SW trending half-graben
system located between Pembrokeshire and SE Ireland (Figs 1 and 2). This half-graben
system is compartmentalised by a number of NW-SE trending fault zones, including the
Sticklepath-Lustleigh and Codling Faults (Fig. 4) which mark the limits of the St.
George’s Channel Basin to the SW and NE respectively. To the SW of the Codling Fault
Zone, thick (>4,000 m) Mesozoic strata in the hanging wall of the St. George’s Fault are
folded into an open synform (Fig. 3c). Combined sediment loading and fault movement
in this area has resulted in the emplacement of a linear salt wall along the St. George’s
Fault (Fig. 2) (Dimitropoulos and Donato, 1993).
The stratigraphicrecord provides evidence for at least two phases of inversion in the
St. George’s Channel-Cardigan Bay Basin. In well 103/2-I, Triassic sediments rest
unconformably on coal measures of Westphalian D age (Barret al., 1981). South of the
Central Irish Sea Basin, in the North Celtic Sea and St. George’s Channel Basins, aperiod
of extensive exhumation is indicated by the absence of Permian rocks; the limited
distribution of the Early Triassic Shenvood Sandstone Group is thought to have been
controlled by the topography of the Variscan (Saalian)surface in an intermontane setting
(Musgrove et al., 1995).
266 Maturation timing, Central frish Sea,

A second phase of inversion in the St. George’s Channel-Cardigan Bay Basin is

indicated by the limited preservation of Cretaceous sediments in this area (Fig. 3c). In
general, the Tertiary succession rests with marked unconfonnity upon strata of Late
Jurassic age indicating a period of basin-scale exhumation which is post- Late Jurassic
in age. In excess of 1,500 m of Eocene and younger Tertiary sediments are preserved in
the hanging wall of the St. George’s Fault (Tappin et al., 1994). Unpublished vitrinite
reflectance profiles and sonic velocity data (in Turner, 1997) for the Cardigan Bay Basin
suggest cumulative Cenozoic exhumation totalling between 500 m and 1,750 m.
The gross structural and stratigraphic elements of the Central Irish Sea area are
presented in Fig. 5. Permian sediments are preserved in the Kish Bank area and in the
NE of the Central Irish Sea Basin (Maingarm et al., 1999, this volume), but not further
to the south where the Triassic sediments of the Sherwood Sandstone Group rest
unconformably upon rocks of Westphalian D-Stephanian age. The thicknesses of the
Triassic Sherwood Sandstone Group increases dramatically to the north, from -200 m
on St. Tudwals Arch to -1,000 m in Kish Bank Basin. Thicknesses in excess of 2,000
m are reported from the East Irish Sea Basin (Jackson et al., 1995).The Liassic sediments
rest conformably on the Triassic section, and are preserved in the hanging wall of basin-
bounding faults together with in excess of 2,500 m of Middle and Upper Jurassic sediments
in the CardiganBay-St. George’s Channel Basin (Barret al., 1981). No Cretaceous rocks
are preserved along this line of section, although Maddox et al. (1995) suggested from
seismic evidence that Cretaceous sediments may be preserved in the deepest parts of the
Central Irish Sea Basin. Tertiary sedimentary rocks, where present, rest with marked
unconformity upon Jurassic and older rocks. The oldest Tertiary strata encountered in
the Cardigan Bay-St. George’s Channel Basin are early-mid Eocene (Tappin et al.,
1994). A Quaternary cover blankets the entire Central Irish Sea area.
The Central Irish Sea area has experienced a multiphase inversion history (Maddox
et al., 1995).This stratigraphicrecord suggeststhat at least two periods of rock exhumation
have occurred. Inversion occurred during the Late Carboniferous-Late Permian, and
again sometimebetween the latest Jurassicand Early Tertiary.In addition, local stratigraphic
evidence suggeststhat significantintra-Carboniferous inversion may have occurred.The
absence of Namurian-Westphalian A (Namurian-Langsettian) strata from wells drilled
to date suggests a period of inversion and erosionprior to the deposition of the Westphalian
B-D sediments. Also, reworked miospore assemblages containing Westphalian A taxa
have been reported in a Westphalian D succession in well 33/22-1 (Naylor et al., 1993)
and onshore County Wexford (Clayton et al., 1986) indicating at least one significant
intra-Westphalian erosional episode.

SOURCE ROCKS IN THE CENTRAL IRISH SEA AREA

In this section, we present a review of the available organic geochemical and maturation
reports for seven wells in the Irish sector of the Central Irish Sea area. These reports have
been generated by miscellaneous oil companies and contractors, and were based on
samples recovered from exploration wells drilled in this area between 1977 and 1988.
These data are reviewed in the context of regional evidence for the presence of an
effective source rock system at some point during the evolution of the Central Irish Sea
area.
Potential hydrocarbon source rocks for these Central Irish Sea basins have been
encountered in sequences of Westphalian and Liassic age. Total organic carbon (TOC)
profiles for five wells in the Central Irish Sea area are shown in Fig. 6. In Kish Bank well
33/22-1, TOC values up to 80 wt.% are observed for some thin (<2 m) coal seams of
Westphalian B (Duckmantian) and Westphalian C (Bolsovian) ages. The organically-
richest shale beds in this well occur towards the base of the Westphalian C section.
However, the reported pyrolysis S2 yields (1.2-2.1 mglg rock) and hydrogen index (HI)
 D. Corcoran and G. Clayton 267

r d Study area ---

--_ Major zone d Variscan strike silp faulting

-
=
+- Well data base

Possible thin preserved Liassic section

(Mostly infarred horn seismic data)
*
Sfgnlficant normal faults

Significant strike slip faults

snit wnil

Thick Llassic section H Regional structural cross-section (Fig. 5)

P

Fig. 4. Schematic present-day distribution of Liassic sediments in the Central Irish Sea area.
Liassic thicknesses in the range of 1,300-1,800 m have been encountered by drilling in the
North Celtic Sea-Cardigan Bay area. In the Central Irish Sea Basin, the distribution of
Liassic sediments is inferred from seismic data. Distribution of Liassic in the Kish Bank
Basin after Jenner (1981).
268 Maturation timing, Central Irish Sea,

values (29-58 mgHC/gTOC) suggest that the shales have limited generative potential
(Robertson Research, 1978). Additional assessment of the Westphalian B-C interval in
this well (Maddox et al., 1995) suggests poor to good potential for oil and gas generation
(TOCs of 2-64 wt.%; S2 yields of 0.36-69.5 mg/g rock; and HIS of 55-395 mgHC/g
TOC). Most of the remaining generation potential is concentrated in thin coal seams. A
net coal seam thickness of 11 m has been documented for the Westphalian C interval
(Jenner, 1981).
Within the CentralIrish SeaBasin, wells42/12-1 and 4 2 4 7-1have penetrated significant
Westphalian sections. Good quality gas-source coal beds (TOCs 31-58 wt.%; S2 yields
of 17-57mg/g rock; HISof 54-98 mgHC/gTOC) are present in the Westphalian D section
of well 42/12-1 (Robertson Research, 1986).Additionalanalysesof Westphalian D shale
samples (Carr, 1986) indicates limited hydrocarbon source potential, except locally,
where maximum observed S2 yields reach 9.3 mg/g rock. In well 42/17-1, potential gas-
source coals and shales of Westphalian C-D age are encountered with TOC values of 3-
74 wt.%, S2 yields of 1-46 mg/g rock and HIS of 40-405mgHC/gTOC (Maddox et al.,
1995).
Low TOCs (generally less than 0.2 wt.%) are observed for the Mercia Mudstone
Group section encountered in well 42/16-1 (Geochem Laboratories, 1988) (Fig. 6). The
oxic depositional environments of the mid-Late Triassic were not favourable for the
preservation of organic matter, and consequently these claystoneshave zero hydrocarbon
source potential.
Higher TOC values are observed in the Toarcian interval in we1142/21-1,with measured
TOCs ranging from 0.6 to 3 wt.%. Good oil and gas generation potential is indicated by
the pyrolysis S2 yields of 0.53-13.87 mg/g rock and HISof 80-525mgHC/gTOC (Exlog,
1978).
Hydrogen indices have been plotted against pyrolysis-derived T for the available
sample data from wells 33/22-1,42/12-1 and 42/21-1 (Fig. 7). Theyoarcian claystone
samples are relatively rich in hydrogen, contain mixed Type 11and Type I11kerogens and
have good oil source potential. By contrast, the Westphalian samples plotted manifest
low hydrogen indices, are dominated by Type 111and Type IV kerogens and have modest
gas source potential.
VR datasets and organic maturity levels - Central Irish Sea Area
In Fig.8, availableVR data (mean random vitrinite reflectance,R, %) for six wells (33/
21-1,33/22-1,42/12-1142/16-1,42/17-1,42/21-1) in the Central Irish Sea area have been
plotted on a log scale versus true vertical depth sub-sea (TVDSS) in metres on a linear
scale. A well-constrained vitrinite gradient is established for the Bathonian-Pliensbachian
rocks in well 42/21-1. One published VR determination (Duncan et al., 1998)is available
from a Sinemurian claystone in the hanging wall of the major fault encountered in well
42/17-1. Significantly, this VR datapoint plots adjacent to the VR gradient established
for the Liassic section in well 42/21-1. A relatively well-constrained VR gradient is
observed for the footwall Westphalian-Stephanian section in 42/17-1. Similarily,a well-
defined gradient is observed for the Westphalian-Stephanian section in well 33/22-1. A
poorly constrained VR gradient for well 42/12-1 reflects an inadequate depth range plus
multiple vitrinite populations.
Significantvariations in the present-day levels of organic maturity can be observed for
these well sections. Recorded Rm%measurements for the Westphalian B-D section in
well 33/22-1 (Naylor etal., 1993)range from 0.83-1.35%, indicating that this succession
reached wet gas generation level at peak temperature exposure (Fig 8). Similarily, the
Westphalian sections in wells 42/16-1 and 42/17-1 have reached the late-mature oil to
wet-gas generation maturity levels. In well 42/12-1, the Westphalian D section has
reached main dry-gas generation phase. Reflectance determinations (Rm1.23-1.67%)
 , 20KM , VERTICAL EXAG. 10: 1 DATUM = MSL

Kish Bank Basin Mid Irish Sea Uplift Central Irish Sea Basin St. Tudwal’s Arch St. George’s Channel/
Cardigan Bay Basin

lNorthl 3317-1 33/21-1 33/22-1 42f12-1 4242-2 42/17-1 42/16-1 42f21-1

pq
0

lo00

n
2000
I
v
u)
u) 3000

4000

5000

Mercia Mudstone Group

Namurian? Triassic Upper Jurassic Quaternary
Sherwood Sandstone Group
Triassic
=
Dinantian ? 0 Permian Middle Jurassic Tertiary

Fig. 5 Diagrammatic structural cross-section of the Central Irish Sea area (see Fig. 4 for location). Permo-Triassic section thins to the
south and the conformable Liassic section is locally preserved in the hanging wall of basin-bounding faults. No Cretaceous rocks are
preserved along this line of section, and the oldest Tertiary sediments present in the area are probably Eocene or younger. N
210 Maturation timing, Central Irish Sea,
I
KlSH BANK BASIN CENTRAL IRISH SEA BASIN CENTRAL IRISH SEA BASIN
WELL 3WZ - 1
mc (rrx) n DEPTH
-
WELL 42112 1 WELL 42n7-1
TOC W.%lvs DEPTH

-mI WESTPHAUAN 'D'

I I

WESTPHAUAN ' C

-1 ' WESTPHALICIN '6

UFmR PAUEOZOIC
1 t l
CEMRAL IRISH SEA BASIN ST. GEORGE'S CHANNEL BASIN
WELL 42n6-1 WELL 42121-1
TOC (vt.%) vs DEPTH Toc (Wrx) n DEPTH

-2Ha
0 0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5 3 3.5
Toc (vt.%)

Fig. 6. Present-day measured Total Organic Carbon profiles (TOC wt.%) versus True
Vertical Depth Subsea (TVDSS) in metres for five wells in the Central Irish Sea area. Note
different vertical and horizontal scales.

from the Triassic interval in well 33121-1 (Haughey, 1987) suggest that the base of this
interval has reached the main dry-gas generation window. However, confidence in this
assessed maturity level for the Triassic interval is low due to the relative paucity of
vitrinite within this interval and the possible occurrence of reworked vitrinite within
Triassic sediments. The Bathonian-Pliensbachian section encountered in well 42/21-1 is
immature to early mature for oil generation (Rm0.46-0.65%).
Carboniferous source rocks - regional evidence
Coals and shales of Westphalian A to D age are recognised as significant gas-prone
source rocks within the Carboniferous basins of western Europe (Cope, 1986; Maynard
et al., 1997; Gras and Clayton, 1998). Within the western and central part of this basin
system, most of the gas accumulations reservoired in Westphalian C-D sandstones are
 D. Corcoran and G. Clayton 27 1

1,000

0
0
&
900

800

700
3
TYPE 1

3
r 600
42/21 -1 Toarcian

F 500
33/22-1 Westphalian C
0
42/12-1 Westphalian D
400

-
cn
II
300
0

=
I

200

100
0

0 Immature1 ature I ost-mature

4W 420 440M 460 480 500 520 540

Tmax. "C
Fig. 7. Plot of hydrogen indices (HI) versus pyrolysis-derived T- for available sample data
from three wells in the Central Irish Sea area, utilising the modified Van Krevelen scheme of
Espitali6 et al. (1984).

sourced by the underlying Westphalian A-B coals (Maynard et al., 1997 ). Westphalian
coals are the predominant source of the non-oil associated natural gas found in
Carboniferous, Permian and Triassic reservoirs within the Southern North Sea Basin
(Cope, 1986). Significant gas generation in this basin occurs at organic maturities of >Rm
1.0% measured at the top of the Carboniferous section (Teichmuller et al.. 1979). In the
East Irish Sea Basin, the source for the oil in the Douglas, Formby and Lennox fields has
been documented as the fine-grained, distal turbidites of the Namurian Holywell Shale
Formation (Trueblood et al., 1995; Armstrong et al., 1997).
The age, facies and palaeogeography of the pre-Westphalian Carboniferous section in
the Central Irish Sea and adjacent areas has been the origin of much speculation (Fraser
and Gawthorpe, 1990; Thompson et al., 1994; Cope et al., 1992; Strogen et al., 1996).
Studies of the Dublin Basin, onshore Ireland, suggest that in response to Early Carboniferous
rifting, a Courceyan carbonate ramp had evolved by the late Chadian into a series of
discrete platforms separated by deep-water troughs (Strogen et al., 1996). This basin and
block morphology probably extended offshore with organic-rich marine shales
accumulating in the developing grabens of the Kish Bank and Central Irish Sea Basins
at this time. Potential hydrocarbon source rocks have been described in Tournaisian and
VisCan shales of the Dublin Basin (Fernandes et al., in press).
212 Maturation timing, Central Irish Sea,

Source-rocksequences have been identified in each of the major Namurian depocentres

adjacent to the Central Irish Sea area (Thompson et al., 1994; Armstrong et al., 1995;
Fernandes et al., in press). A marine seaway may have linked the Manx-Craven and
Dublin Basins during the early Namurian. Under these conditions,oil-prone source rocks
of Namurian age may have accumulated in the Kish Bank Basin and the northern part
of the Central Irish Sea Basin. However, the Namurian section is likely to be overmature
for oil generation at the present day.
Adjacent to the Central Irish Sea area and East Irish Sea Basin, shales of Westphalian
A-B age (with TOCs of 10 to 66 wt.%; S2 yields of 29 to 130 mg/g rock; and high
hydrogen indices) have been reported from outcrops in Anglesey (Maddox et al., 1995).
Westphalian sediments within the East Irish Sea Basin are organically rich (TOCs of 4-
77 wt.%), but have modest oil and/or gas generative potential (S2 yields of 1-12 mg/g
rock; HIS of 12-28 mgHC/gTOC) at the present day (Hardman et al., 1993). These
authors attributethislimitedpresent-daypotential for the Westphaliansedimentsprimarily
to their high level of maturity, although other factors may include the relative paucity of
coals encountered within the Westphalian section in the basin, and a predominance of
inertinitic kerogens combined with pervasive oxidisingconditions in this area during the
late Westphalian to Early Permian.
Similarly,to the south of the Central Irish Sea area, published analyses of Westphalian
A and Westphalian C-D? sections encountered onshore south Wales and in well 103/2-1
(see Fig. 9, Maddox et al., 1995) suggests that the Westphalian sediments at these
locations have very poor present-day generative potential. Sediments of Westphalian A
age have so far not been encountered by drilling in the Central Irish Sea area. Seismic
evidence indicates that the Westphalian A sediments may have accumulated in the
depocentres of the Kish Bank and Central Irish Sea basins, but onlapped the prevailing
elevatedtopography of the basin margins. Scatteredoutliersof WestphalianA/B sediments
are preserved onshore Ireland (Sevastopulo, 1981).
The quality of the Westphalian source rocks in the Central Irish Sea area is highly
variable. Available sample data for coals and shales encountered in the Westphalian B-
D interval in the Central Irish Sea area suggests that some fair to very good quality gas-
prone source rocks may be present (Figs. 6 and 7). Additional published HI values up
to 405 mgHC/gTOC for Westphalian A-C coals and shales (Maddox et al., 1995),
suggest that some oil-prone source beds may also be present. Hydrogen indices in the
range of 100-300mgHC/gTOC have been documented for the Westphalian A section at
Coalisland, east Tyrone, and canneloid coals and shales have been reported within this
sequence (Parnell, 1991).
The original generative capacity and current maturation levels of the Westphalian
source rocks in the Central Irish Sea area suggest that some oil and significantquantities
of gas may have been generated from these sediments.
-
Liassic source rocks regional evidence
Organic-rich, oil-prone source rocks of Liassic age have been well documented at a
number of locations throughout N W Europe (Fleet et al., 1987; Murphy et al., 1995;
Scotchmanand Thomas, 1995).Within the North Celtic Sea Basin, Sinemurian-Toarcian
marine claystones frequently exhibit TOC levels in excess of 1.O wt%, with the better-
ranked source rocks confined to two stratigraphic intervals - namely, the early and
middle-lateToarcian (Murphy et al., 1995). These authors report a 73 m thickness of oil-
prone claystones in the early Toarcian interval in well 42/21-1 (averageTOC: 2.13 wt.%;
average S2 yield: 7.83 mg/g rock; averageHI: 333 mgHC/gTOC). This Toarcian interval
is the main source for the oil in the Helvick accumulation (Caston, 1995), and a deeply
buried Liassic (Hettangfan-Toarcian) section has contributed the thermogenic charge to
the Kinsale Head and Ballycotton gas accumulations in the Celtic Sea Basin (Taber et
al., 1995).
 D. Corcoran and G. Clayton 273

4GQQ

3500

3Mx)

cn -500
c/)
n -loo0
>
t- -1500

-2000

-2500

-m
-3500

-4000
0.1 0.2 0.3 0.5 1 2 3 5

Vitrinite Reflectance (Rm%)

42'21-1 33121-1 42'17-1 33122-1 42/113-1 4312-1
Jurassic Triassic Westph. C-D Westph. E D Westph. C-Steph. Westph. 0-Steph.
m 0 0 + 0

Fig. 8. Composite VR dataset for the Central Irish Sea area with Vitrinite Reflectance (Rm%)
versus True Vertical Depth Subsea (TVDSS) in metres for six wells. Considerable variation in
levels of organic maturity (maximum organic maturation levels attained) is observed, from
immature for oil generation (Bathonian, 42/2I-Z)to dry gas generation level (Westphalian,
42/12-Z). This composite view of the VR dataset also indicates the higher maturity gradients
(more rapid increase with depth) recorded by the Westphalian-Stephanian sediments relative
to the gradients recorded in Jurassic sections.

Limited maturity data is available for the Jurassic sediments in the Central Irish Sea
area. The Sinemurian claystones in the hanging wall of the fault encountered in well 42/
17-1are immature; a single VR measurement (0.48% R ,) was made for this section by
Duncan et al. (1998). Available VR measurements for well 42/21-I suggest that the
Pliensbachian-Toarcian rocks at this location have reached the early part of the oil
window (0.5% Rmto 0.65% Rm) at their maximum temperature exposure (Fig. 8). In
addition, the proposition by Broughan et al. (1989)that up to 2,700 m of Liassic sediments
are preserved in the Kish Bank Basin in the hanging wall of the Bray Fault indicates the
214 Maturation timing, Central Irish Sea,

potential for maturation of the Early Liassic succession. Increased palaeotemperatures

due to additionalJurassic and Cretaceousburial may have been sufficientto push the base
of this Liassic section into the oil window.
The present-day distribution of the Jurassic section in the Central Irish Sea has been
inferred from seismic data (Fig. 4). Basin inversion and erosion patterns have resulted
in the preservation of discrete outliers of probable Liassic sediments in the hanging wall
of the main basin-bounding faults. However, there is much stratigraphic evidence to
suggest that Liassic sediments once mantled the entire Irish Sea area (Cope, 1997).
Although the Liassic source rocks rest stratigraphicallyabove the main reservoir target
(the Early Triassic Sherwood Sandstone Group) in the Central Irish Sea area, they may
locally have achieved maturity prior to Cenozoic inversion. The possibility that cross-
fault juxtaposition of Sherwood Sandstones and mature Liassic source rocks may have
occurred offers a viable charging mechanism for Triassic reservoirs in this area.
Nevertheless, their contribution to the overall hydrocarbon budget for these basins is
likely to have been volumetrically limited.

HYDROCARBON IMPRINT IN THE CENTRAL IRISH SEA AREA

The presence of hydrocarbon shows in a number of wells in the Central Irish Sea area
is evidence that oil and gas have been generated here. In well 3302-1,weak residual oil
shows were recorded in sandstones of Westphalian-Stephanian age, although no oil-
source correlation is available for them. However, oil seeps recovered from boreholes
in the Dublin Basin, onshore Ireland, have tentatively been correlated with source-rock
extracts from black shales of Chadian-Arundian age (H. Wehner, pers. comm., 1993).
Significant gas shows were encountered in sandstones of Westphalian-Stephanian age
in wells 42/16-1 and 42/17-1. No significant hydrocarbon shows were observed while
drilling 42/12-1, but airspace analysis of canned cuttings suggested that traces of migrant
gas were present in Triassic and Stephanian sandstones. In addition, traces of wet gas
were noted in the WestphalianD-Stephanian interval,possibly sourced from the indigenous
Westphalian D coals observed in the well. Gas shows have also been recorded in Triassic
sandstonesin well 42/16-1. In well 4201-1, poor oil showswereencounteredinsandstones
of Pliensbachian-Bathonianage.
In addition to these hydrocarbon indications,Croker (1999, documented evidence for
the presence of shallow gas accumulationsin the northern region of the Central Irish Sea.
All of these interpreted gas accumulation and migration features occur where the
Carboniferous subcrops the Quaternary, or where potential migration routes from the
Carboniferous are provided by faults extending towards the seabed. Recent work (P.
Croker, pers. comm., 1998) provides evidence for active gas seepage along the Codling
Fault Zone. Croker (1995) concluded that the gas in these shallow accumulationsis being
sourcedby the Carboniferous,and was generated either as coalbedmethane or thermogenic
methane. Yuan et al. (1992) inferred a biogenic origin for the shallow gas accumulations
in the western Irish Sea area.
Our interpretation of the maturation of the Carboniferous source rocks (see below)
suggests that first-order thermogenicmethane is unlikely to be the source of this gas. The
abundant evidence for early Tertiary uplift, erosion and cooling across the Central Irish
Sea area (Cope, 1994; Cope, 1997; Green et al., 1997) suggests that thermogenic
hydrocarbon generation would have ended at the very latest at that time. Late-stage
biogenic gas generation can occur in coal beds of any rank, and is normally associated
with active groundwater systems (Rice, 1993). Our interpretation is that the present-day
distribution of shallow gas in the Central Irish Sea area probably relates primarily to
bacterial activity in Namurian-Westphalian coal beds stimulated by geologically-recent
meteoric flushing and low aquifer temperatures.
 D. ('nrcoran and G. Clayton 275

I 0 50 100 150 200 250

Temperature "C
I
I
42Q1-1 33'21-1 42/17-1 3322-1 42/16-1 42J12-1
Jurassic Triassic Westph. C-D Westph. E D Westph. C-Steph. Westph. 0-SIeph.

I
m 0 + 0

Fig. 9. Maximum palaeotemperatures derived from VR data for six wells, Central Irish Sea
area. Comparison of present-day geothermal gradient (-26"Cflun) derived from well 42112-1,
with palaeogeothermal gradients recorded by Carboniferous (74-78"Ch)and Jurassic
( - 2 6 " C h ) sections suggests that the Westphalian-Stephanian gradients were established
prior to the Early Jurassic.

VR datasets and peak palaeotemperatures - Central Irish Sea Area

Thermal modelling of the Carboniferous and Liassic source rocks in the Kish Bank
and Central Irish Sea Basins is hampered by the severely truncated rock record and the
paucity of vitrinite in the preserved Triassic section. We have addressed this problem by
adopting a composite approach to the display and interpretation of the available VR
datasets (Fig. 8). Furthermore, we have utilised our interpretation of the geological
history of the Central Irish Sea region to select the appropriate "best fit" line for the VR
versus depth profiles. This composite dataset suggeststhat the VR gradientsrecorded by
the Westphalian sediments manifest a much more rapid increase in VR with depth than
those documented by the Jurassic samples.
276 Maturation timing, Central Irish Sea,

NET- 42717- 1

POST Bathonian

0 50 100 150 200 250

Temperature "C
4m1-1 3W1-1 42l17-1 33/22-1 42l16-1 42/12-1
Jurassic Triassic Westph. C-D Westph. E D Westph. C-Stew Westph 0-Steph.
x 0 + 0

Fig. 10. Maximum estimates of net exhumation, relative to seabed, for some well sections in
the Central Irish Sea area, utilising an adapted methodology of Bray et aL. (1992).

Many differentmodels have been suggested for transposing vitrinite reflectance (R,%)
to temperature (e.g. Waples, 1980;Barker and Pawlewicz, 1986;Burnham and Sweeney,
1989; Barker and Goldstein 1990 ). We have used the following, empirically derived
equation of Barker and Pawlewicz (1986) to relate vitrinite reflectance to maximum
palaeotemperature, T-:

Rm%= exp[(0.0096 Tman)-1.4] where T, is in degrees Celsius.

Maximum palaeotemperatures recorded by the VR data have been estimated for six
wells in the Central Irish Sea area (Fig. 9). We interpret a linear increase in peak
palaeotemperaturesat each well location. Maximum palaeotemperatures recorded by the
Jurassic sections encountered in wells 42/17-1 and 42/21-1 are in the range 50-100"C,
whereas the peak palaeotemperature attained by the VR data from the Westphaliad
Stephanian sections in 33/22-1,42/12-1 and 42/16-1 is in the range 110-245°C.
 D. Corcoran and G. Clayton 277

w o F \

cn
cn -500

0 -1000
> -1500
JURASSICVR GRADIENT
WELL 42R1-1
-2ooo
(a George's Chanml Basin)
-2500 -\ ik.
-3000

3500

-4Ooo
0.1 0.2 0.3 0.5 1 2 3 5

Vitrinite Reflectance (Rm%)

~~ ~~

110/9-1 11W-2 11U7b-6 ll(Y11-1 112/30-1 11326-1 11W7-1 11327-3 llW2b-10

Carb. Carb. Carb. Carb. Cam. Carb. Carb. Carb. Garb.
. O + O = +
Fig. 11. Limited dataset of VR gradients from East Irish Sea Basin (by kind permission of
Dr. A. Racey, BG ZnfernationuI)suggesting that variable palaeogeothermal gradients are
recorded by the Carboniferous sediments in this basin. These variable gradients may reflect
overprinting by differential Mesozoic burial histories throughout the East Irish Sea Basin.

Also plotted in Fig. 9 are the present-day formation equilibrium temperatures for well
42/12-1. Multiple BHTs were available for two or more depth intervals in this well. The
computed equilibrium temperatures were used to estimate the present-day average
geothermal gradient (-2@C/km). This estimate compares with an average present-day
geothermal gradient of 3 2 " C h established from a Horner-corrected BHT dataset, for
a large number of wells in the Celtic Sea Basin ( C o w and Brown, 1998).
Palaeogeothermal gradients
We have adopted the graphical techniques of Bray et al., (1992) to interpret
palaeotemperature profiles for wells in the Central Irish Sea area by assuming that the
average present-day geothermal gradient (-26"C/km) measured in well 42/12-1 is
representative of other wells in the region (Figs. 9 and 10).
We have estimated a palaeogeothermal gradient of -2@C/km for the maximum
palaeotemperature profile recorded in the Bathonian-Pliensbachan sediments of well
42/21-I (Fig. 9). The elevated palaeotempexatures recorded by these Jurassic sediments,
278 Maturation timing, Central Irish Sea,

combined with the similarity of the palaeogeothermal and present-day gradients, suggests
that heating of this section was caused solely by deep burial and was followed by
exhumationwith little changein the magnitude of heat flow. By contrast,palaeogeothermal
gradients of 74-78"cflun are estimated for the WestphalidStephanian sections in wells
42/12-1,42/17-1 and 33122-1. This suggests that the regional geothermal gradient at the
time of peak temperature exposure of the vitrinite in these sediments was considerably
higher than that prevailing during the time of the peak temperature exposure (probably
Late Cretaceous-EarlyTertiary)of the Jurassic sedimentsin well42Dl-I. Our interpretation
is that Westphalidstephanian palaeogeothermal gradients were established prior to the
Early Jurassic. The calculated peak palaeotemperatures in these wells reflect elevated
heat flows in the Central Irish Sea area during the Stephanian to Early Permian plus some
additional burial at that time.
Geologicalconditions during burial and maturation affect the peak palaeotemperature
attained by the vitrinite. Compaction state (porosity), pore pressure and hydrodynamic
flow through the sediments containing the vitrinite can alter the thermal conductivity of
the sedimentsand affect the dominantheat trader mechanism (Law et al., 1989;Deming,
1994; McTavish, 1998). A significant factor which may influence the variation in
palaeogeothermalgradient between the Westphalidstephanian sections and the Jurassic
section in well 42/21-1 concerns differences in the thermal conductivitiesof the respective
sediments. The thermal conductivity of a sedimentary rock may vary by as much as a
factor of three or four among common lithologies (Deming, 1994). It is particularly
significantthat coal has the lowest thermal conductivity of any terrigenous sedimentary
rock, given the presence of coals in the Central Irish Sea Basin Westphalian sequences,
but not in the Jurassic. The mean thermal conductivity of Westphalian coal samples from
onshore UK is 0.3 1Wm-IK-'(Rollin, 1987).In general, coal-bearing strata thereforehave
a thermal "blanketing" effect on vertical heat flow, and geothermal gradients within a
coal-bearing sequence should be correspondingly higher than gradients in coal-deficient
strata (Levine, 1993). However, coal beds constitute less than 3% of the Westphaliad
Stephanian stratigraphic column in well 33I22-1. Furthermore, the average measured
thermal conductivity values for onshore UK Westphalian sandstones, siltstones and
mudstones range from 1.49-3.31Wm-IK-'comparedto 1.27-2.87 Wm-IK-'for lithologies
of Liassic age (Rollin, 1987).No measured thermal conducitvity data is available for the
wells in the study area. Published matrix conductivity measurements for three wells in
the Celtic Sea area indicate a range of thermal conductivities(2.55-3.05 Wm-IK-')for the
Liassic section (Corry and Brown, 1998).
Given the lithological heterogeneitiesobservedin the Jurassic and Westphaliansections
in the Central Irish Sea area, it seems likely that the dramatic differences in recorded
palaeogeothermal gradients are controlled primarily by differences in the magnitude of
the heat flow through these sections at peak burial and not by differences in their thermal
conductivities.The assumption that the Westphalian sediments had undergone a greater
degree of mechanical compaction relative to Jurassic sediments, at the time of peak
palaeotemperatureexposure,would only effectarelativeincreasein the thermal conductivity
of the Westphaliansection and consequentlywould decreasethe observedpalaeogeothermal
gradient.
Exhumation
If the palaeogeothermal gradient prior to inversion can be estimated for a particular
well, then extrapolationof this gradientto an assumed palaeo-surfacetemperatureprovides
an estimate of the amount of uplift and erosion at this location (Bray et al., 1992).
Estimation of the magnitude of erosion is sensitive to the assumed palaeo-surface
temperature at the time of erosion, and also to the assigned thermal conductivity of the
eroded cover rocks (Holliday, 1993). A further difficulty of this method may arise if
palaeogeothermal gradients caused by near-surface hydrothermal flow and convective
 D. Corcoran and G. Clayton 219

Fig. 12 NW Europe in Early Permian times - evidence of igneous activity within and adjacent
to the Central Irish Sea area. Higher palaeogeothermal gradients reflect elevated heatflows
due to hot-spot activity in this area during Stephanian to Early Permian times (adapted from
Coward, 1995).

heat discharge within permeable sandstone units are not identified. Excessive estimates
of erosion can occur when high apatite fission-track palaeotemperatures, caused by fluid
flow in sandstones, are assumed to have been caused by conductive heating during burial
(Duncan et al., 1998).
Our estimates of uplift and erosion for the Central Irish Sea area are based on
palaeogeothermalgradientsderived only from VR data and the assumption that conductive
heat transfer has been the dominant heat transfer mechanism in these basins (Fig. 10).
Given the uncertainties with respect to the timing of erosion in this area (e.g. exhumation
of Carboniferous sediments in well 33122-1 could have taken place at any time between
the WestphalianD and the Pleistocene),we have utilised the present-day seabedtemperature
(6°C) in our computations. We have also assumed that the extrapolation of a linear
gradient through the eroded section is valid. Higher porosities, due to lower levels of
compaction, are likely to have resulted in lower thermal conductivities (higher
palaeogeothermalgradients) for the eroded sectionsrelative to the preserved sedimentary
280 Maturation timing, Central Zrish Sea,

columns. Consequently,our estimatesof erosion, based on the palaeogeothermalgradients

established for the preserved sections should be treated as maximum estimates.
By adopting the methodology of Bray et al. (1992), we estimate a net exhumation,
relative to seabed, of -1,550 m post-Westphalian D for well 33122-1. (Assuming a
palaeosurface temperature for the Late Carboniferous-Early Permian of -2CPC would
decrease our estimate of net exhumation to -1,200 m). This estimate is at variance with
the assessment by Jenner (1981) of 3,000 m of uplift and erosion, but is consistent with
the estimate of 1,300m of eroded cover suggested by Naylor et al. (1993). Similarly,for
the Westphalian section of well 42/27-2 and the Westphalidstephanian section of well
42/22-1, we estimate net exhumation of -1,000 m and -350 m, respectively, and for the

-
Liassic sections in wells 42/17-2 and 42/21- 1, we estimate net exhumation of -1,900 m
and 1,600 m, respectively.
Our interpretation of the palaeogeothermal gradients in the Central Irish Sea area
suggests that the Westphalian-Stephanian sediments were exposed to maximum
palaeotemperature during burial in the WestphalidStephanian-Early Permian. This
implies that significantuplift and erosion has occurred afterthe Stephanian-EarlyPermian
and prior to the deposition of the Late Permian-Triassic sediments. For example, at well
42122-1, net exhumation,relative to present-day seabed is -350 m. However, we interpret
that up to a maximum of 2,250 m of Stephanian-Early Permian section has been removed
at the Saalian unconformity ( sensu Glennie, 1997)prior to reburial beneath a minimum
of 1,768 m of Triassic and younger Mesozoic sediments (Fig. 10). Significant post-
Triassic Mesozoic burial may have occurred, but the prevailing geothermal gradients
would have been considerably lower than those encountered during the Early Permian.
Apatite fission-track analysis of well 42/22-1 indicates that coolingbelow 110°Coccurred
between 40-60 Ma, consistentwith the interpretationof Palaeocene-Eocene exhumation
at this location (Murdoch et al., 1995).
We concludethat maturation of the Carboniferous sourcerocks may have been arrested
at the beginning of the Permian due to exhumation. Subsequently, maturation could have
re-commenced only at those locations where sufficient Mesozoic burial occurred to
expose the source rocks to temperatures higher than those encountered during the
Stephanian-Early Permian burial.

DISCUSSION
Duncan et al. (1998) suggested that the preservation of -290m of ?Stephanian-
Westphalian D strata in well 42/12-2 precludes significant inversion in this area at the
end of the Carboniferous. Consequently,they inferred that maximum palaeotemperatures
were probably achieved in the Early Cretaceous rather than the Late Carboniferous. We
believe that significant thicknesses of Westphalian D-Stephanian sediments may have
accumulated in the axis of the Central Irish Sea Basin. Up to ?4,000 m of Westphalian-
Stephanian strata are interpreted (from seismic data) to occur to the south of the Isle of
Man, in the Quadrant 109syncline(Jackson et al., 1997).Extensive Stephanian-Autunian
m) are locally preserved in the Variscan foreland
sediment and volcanic piles ( ~ 2 , 0 0 0
basins of Central Europe (Ziegler, 1990). Well 42/12-1 is located in the centre of the
Central Irish Sea Basin (Fig. 4) which may have been more strongly inverted than the
basin margins. A number of authors (Fraser and Gawthorpe, 1990;Corfeld et al., 1996)
have suggested that accentuated inversion is typical of NE-SW trending basins in the
Variscan foreland, as the basin-bounding faults were oriented roughly perpendicular to
the NW-SE to NNW-SSE direction of maximum shortening in the Variscan orogen to
the south.
The present authors are in general agreement with the conclusions of Duncan et al.
(1998), that the Carboniferoussource rocks in well 42/2 7-2 probably reached maximum
palaeotemperatures at the end of the Carboniferous. However, we prefer a simple two-
 D. Corcoran and G. Clayton 28 1

phase inversion model (Stephanian-Early Permian and Early Tertiary) to explain the
composite VR data from the wells in the Central Irish Sea area (Fig. 8). Both of these
inversion phases are associated with widespread igneous activity. Early Tertiary igneous
activity in the Irish Sea area gave rise to the extrusive basalts and other igneous rocks
covering parts of Northern Ireland and Scotland, a series of dolerite dykes such as the
Fleetwood dyke (Arter and Fagin, 1993) in the East Irish Sea Basin and Isle of Man
(Quirk and Kimbell, 1997),and a series of dyke swarms which traverse North Wales and
the adjacent Central Irish Sea area (Bevins et al., 1996).
Cope (1997) and others have argued, from considerations of regional geology and
palaeogeography,for a p e r i d of inversionduring the Early Cretaceous("Late Cimmerian").
The VR data presented here do not resolve this problem as there is no VR evidence for
regional Late Jurassic or Early Cretaceousinversion in the Central Irish Sea area, although
neither can it be ruled out. However, the evidence of a well-constrainedpalaeogeothermal
gradient (26"C/km) recorded for the Jurassic section in well 42/21-1 suggests that the
occurrence of a single palaeogeothermal gradient of 65"C/km for well 4 2 4 7-1is most
unlikely (see Fig. 8 from Duncan et al., 1998).
Regional evidence for elevated geothermal gradients in Carboniferous sediments
Hardman et al. (1993) published a VR dataset for a series of wells in the East Irish Sea
Basin which penetrated significantthicknesses of Carboniferous sediments(their Fig. 3).
They interpreted the palaeogeothermal gradients as being similar across the entire basin
and similar to the present day geothermal gradient. Consequently, they inferred that
variable uplift (300-3,OOO m) was the primary cause of variation in the maturity-depth
relationship within the basin. We interpret the majority of these Rm%profiles as being
consistent with deep burial during the Mesozoic. A limited dataset of Carboniferous
gradients from the East Irish Sea Basin area (kindly provided by Dr. A. Racey; British
Gas) is shown in Fig. 11, together with the key gradients (Jurassic section, well42nI-I;
WestphalidStephanian section, well 33/22-1) from the Central Irish Sea area. From this
limited dataset,there is some evidenceto suggestthat variable palaeogeothermalgradients
are recorded by the Carboniferous sediments in the East Irish Sea Basin: some VR
gradients are sub-parallel to the Westphalian gradients from the Central Irish Sea area,
others more closely resemble the Jurassic gradient from well 42/21-1. We believe that
these VR gradients reflect differentMesozoic burial histories in different parts of the East
Irish Sea Basin, prior to Early Tertiary inversion.
Published VR gradients from Atlantic Margin Basins west of Ireland suggest that a
distinct discontinuity exists between the palaeogeothermal gradients established for the
Mesozoic-Cenozoic and the Palaeozoic successions. Scotchman and Thomas (1995)
estimated a palaeogeothermal gradient of 27"Clkm for the Mesozoic section in Slyne
Trough well 27/13-I. Significantly higher palaeogeothermal gradients (>50"C/km)were
recorded in Westphalian sections in the Porcupine and Donegal Basins by Robeson et
al. (1988).
Rocks cropping out today over much of southern Ireland have been substantially
heated (Clayton et al., 1989),with maturation levels much higher than might be anticipated
from restored isopachsof the originalPalaeozoicsuccessions. Integrationof fluid inclusion
studies with VR data from the Doonbeg No. 1 borehole in County Clare suggest that
advective heating via fluid flow, during the Late Carboniferous, is the most likely
explanation for the anomalously high maturation levels of Namurian rocks in this area
(Fitzgerald et al., 1994).
Regional evidence for elevated heat flows during the Stephanian-Early Permian
Evidence of igneous activity has been reported within and adjacent to the Central Irish
Sea area (Fig. 12). In Northern Ireland, the L a m e No.2 borehole encountered 617 m of
olivine-pyroxene basaltic lavas and tuffs, which from their stratigraphic position have
282 Maturation timing, Central Irish Sea,

been assigned an Early Permian age (Shelton, 1997). Approximately 46 m of basalt was
encountered in well I 1 OEb-IOin the East Irish Sea Basin. Stratigraphicevidence suggests
that these lavas are Early Permian and represent contemporaneous volcanic activity
known from Lame, southern Scotland,the southernNorth Sea and SW England (Jackson
et al., 1997). Maingarm et al. 1999 (thisvolume)report +77m of basaltic lava at the base
of the 42/8-1well section.Again, an unconformable contact with the overlyingManchester
Marl suggests their possible Early Permian age. Further afield, a Permian dyke swarm
has been described at Teach Doite, west of Galway (Mitchell and Mohr, 1987). In the
Donegal Basin in the NW of Ireland, a quartz dolerite intrusion with associated thermal
aureole (R, >3% for 2OOm above the intrusion), was encountered at total depth in well
13/3-1. A single grain apatite fission-track age for this intrusion suggests it is Permian
(Chapmanetal., inpress). Interbeddedtuffswere also encountered in Stephanian sediments
in this well.
Significant Late Carboniferous-Permian igneous activity is documented throughout
NW Europe, suggesting regional uplift due to thermal arching (Coward, 1990). On a
mega-regional scale, widespread Permo-Carboniferous calc-alkaline and alkaline/
subalkaline volcanism has long been recognised in the European-NW African province
(Lorenz andNichols, 1984;Dewey, 1988;Ziegler, 1990).The geochemicalcharacteristics
of this volcanism are explained in terms of progressive extensionalprocesses, involving
an initial calc-alkaline series and final extrusion of alkaline/subalkaline rocks (Doblas
et al., 1998). These authors have proposed that this Permo-Carboniferous Pangean
volcanic province may be interpretedin terms of a mantle plume impinging upon the base
of the lithosphere.
CONCLUSIONS
1. The Central Irish Sea area has experienced at least two periods of exhumation -
during the Late Carboniferous-Late Permian, and again sometime between the latest
Jurassic and Early Tertiary. Estimates of net exhumation vary from -350 m at well 42/
12-1 to -19OOm at well42/17-1. Regional stratigraphic evidence combined with local
seismic interpretation suggeststhat both regional thermal uplift and compressionalinversion
processes have influenced the magnitude of erosion during each period of exhumation.
2. Potentialhydrocarbon sourcerocks arepresentin Westphalian and Liassic successions
in the Central Irish Sea area. In general, the Liassic (Toarcian) kerogens are relatively
rich in hydrogen and have good oil source potential. Westphalian kerogens manifest low
hydrogen indices and have modest gas source potential, although regional evidence
suggeststhat some oil-pronekerogens may be present in coals and shales of Westphalian
A-C age. The observed organic maturation levels, for both Westphalian and Liassic
source rocks, have been achieved prior to the present-day.
3. In all of the wells evaluated in the Central Irish Sea area, Westphalian source rocks
were exposed to maximum palaeotemperatures prior to the Early Jurassic, probably
during Stephanian to Early Permian time.
4. The Liassic sourcerockswere exposed to peak palaeotemperaturesafterthe Bathonian,
probably during the Late Cretaceous and prior to Cenozoic inversion.
5 . Elevated pdaeogeothermal gradients existed in the Central Irish Sea and East Irish
Sea Basins during the Late Carboniferous to Early Permian. These elevated gradients
may be related to higher heat flows associated with pervasive Stephanian to Early
Permian volcanism possibly related to a mantle superplume.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
The authorswould like to thank the Petroleum Affairs Division, Department of Marine
and Natural Resources, for permission to publish this paper. In particular, the authors
express their sincere thanks to Drs. Keith Robinson, Peter Croker and Noel Murphy for
access to seismic data and well records. This paper is based upon many reports and
 D. Corcoran and G. Clayton 283

studies undertaken by past operators ( British Gas, Gulf, Conoco, Marathon, Amoco,
Shell and Fina ), their contractors and consultants.Thanks are due to Dr. Andrew Racey
(BG International) for helpful discussion during the course of this research and to BG for
the release of unpublisheddata.Journal review was by Professor Ken Glennie (Aberdeen
University and Editorial Board), Dr. David Quirk (Ogord Brookes University), and
Professor Andrew Scott (Royal Holloway, University of London and Editorial Board).
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