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Matthew Young

Dr. Plummer

11/25/18

ENGL 211C

The detrimental effects of human activity on

the coral reefs of the Caribbean
The health of the Caribbean is in a steady decline due in large part to human activities

like overfishing, ocean acidification and eutrophication of the coral reef ecosystems. Overfishing

of important predators as well as keystone herbivores allows for certain species to survive and

protect algal beds which can cause serious damage to coral health. The over production of

nutrient waste that runs off from human activities allow for algae to over produce which causes

shading of coral species as well as oxygen poor zones at the mouths of major river systems that

make life for many species impossible. Lastly global climate change can cause coral bleaching

events thru the raising of the oceans Ph and its temperature. These three important factors all

have their roots in human activities and if we do not change we could lose coral reef ecosystems

around the world, not just in the Caribbean.

Since the 1970’s, macroalgae cover has become considerably more abundant on many

Caribbean reefs and overfishing of grazing fishes as well as eutrophication has been implicated

as a contributory factor (Williams 2001). The best documented and extreme cases of these can be

seen in the coral reefs in Jamaica but similar increases in algae cover can be seen throughout the

Caribbean (Williams 2001). Algae can outcompete coral so effective thru two means, first is

overshadowing the coral and blocking sunlight, the second is the use of allelopathic chemicals
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that the algae produces to defend itself and harm the coral. Because algae are not constrained by

the need to grow a calcium carbonate skeleton they grow at a much higher rate than most coral

species. Larger more leathery algae like the Blister Saucer leaf shade corals and inhibit their

growth as well as being an abrasive irritant to coral adults as well as juveniles McCook 2001).

Many more species of algae act much more directly. Algae from the genus Dictyota and

Cystoseira simply use the coral as a foothold to grow, slowly smothering the coral like terrestrial

vines do to certain tree species. The last method is thru allelopathy by which the algae produce a

harmful chemical that can be used to combat coral for space. Algae species like Galaxaura

filamentosa (a red spiky algae) and Chlorodesmis fastigiata (a green moss like algae) can cause

bleaching and suppression of photosynthetic activity using a turpentine like chemical, when in

contact with coral (Rasher et al 2011). But is causing this profusion of algae throughout the

Caribbean?

Overfishing of keystone grazing species like parrotfishes and sea turtles as well as

unintentional harm done to species like the Florida Manatee has shown to increase overall algae

cover. In a study done in the Caribbean abundance of algae cover was analyzed within Marine

Protected Areas and outside of these MPA’s to determine if the presence of herbivorous species

had a statistically significant impact on algae cover (Williams 2001). According to the data

collected there was a strong negative correlation between herbivorous fish biomass and

macroalgal cover with patterns of growth increasing as the biomass of herbivorous fish

decreased (Williams 2001). Fish species however are not the only herbivores that where lost on

the reef in the past few decades. Diadema antillarum or the long spine sea urchin is a species of

invertebrate ubiquitous to the Caribbean until 1983 (Lessios 1988). Starting in January of 1983

D. antillarum near the Atlantic side of the Panama Canal started to exhibit unusual symptoms of
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ill health. Over the course of only a few days after symptoms where first noted the sea floor was

littered with dead urchins. Over the next 13 months the unknown pathogen spread throughout the

Caribbean going from Panama to Florida and covering and area of 4000km. By the time it ran its

course 93% of all Diadema had perished with only a few populations escaping outside of the

prevailing currents that carried the disease (Lessios 1988). While it is still unclear what caused

this mass mortality event it does work in conjunction with the overfishing of key herbivores to

support the cause of the current abundance of macroalgae on Caribbean reefs.

One of the more obscure causes for algal abundance can only be fully explained thru

trophic cascades, the effect that one trophic level has on others when one is severely affected. In

the case of the Caribbean the overfishing of predatory species like Caribbean Reef Sharks

Carcharhinus perezii, Rays (Order: Myliobatiformes), Grouper (Family: Serranidae), and

Barracuda (Sphyraena sp.) all cause a cascade down the tropic levels that have a detrimental

effect on reef health (Jackson et al 2001). All of these species prey upon Damselfishes

(Pomacentridae) at some stage of their life. This family of fishes are notorious for their

aggression despite their small size and large numbers in the coral reef ecosystem. They behave

like marine farmers growing and cultivating a small algal patch within their territory that they

lightly graze upon and fiercely protect. They can scare off even large marine herbivores like

parrotfishes and sea turtles. However normally their numbers are kept in check by the above

listed predators. But when those predators are hunted to extinction in certain ecosystems the

damselfishes can reproduce unimpeded and protect their territory from most if not all

herbivorous species (Jackson et al 2011). This is what is called a trophic cascade where the

highest trophic level can affect the lowest thru indirect means.
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Eutrophication is another detrimental way that human activities have damaged the

delicate balance within marine ecosystems. Eutrophication is the process by which excess

amounts of nutrients find their way into waterways and cause a bloom in planktonic algae in the

water. The effects of eutrophication usually stem from farmland and cow pastures located near

rivers and streams. When rain falls the water carries the nutrients downhill toward the nearest

stream or river where the nutrients are eventually carried out to sea. A local example is the

massive algae blooms that occur in the Chesapeake Bay following the spring melt. Snow in

Pennsylvania melts off of its many cattle pastures bringing with it large quantities of nutrients.

For bottom dwelling organisms like sea grass and coral a large enough algal bloom could block

sunlight from reaching the bottom dwelling photosynthetic organisms. Without light these

organisms cannot produce oxygen which creates dead zone where aerobic organisms cannot

survive. Like trophic relays previously mentioned excess nutrients can cause epiphytic organisms

to grow on seagrasses which ac as key nursery habitats for many important fishery animals

throughout the Caribbean (Govers 2014).

The last cause for coral reef decline is the drastically changing climate of our planet

brought on largely by human activities. The input of excess CO2 into the earth’s atmosphere is

have two detrimental effects on coral reefs. First is ocean acidification the second is global

warming. Ocean acidification occurs when the excess CO2 becomes dissolved in the ocean water

and becomes carbonic acid. While this is a relatively weak acid it lowers the ph. enough that it

causes environmental stress for corals. Global warming occurs due to CO2 and other green house

gases entering our atmosphere and causing solar radiation to become trapped between the earths

surface and this layer of gases in the upper atmosphere. With the radiation bouncing between

these two it causes a runaway greenhouse effect which warms the surface of the planet as well as
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the oceans. Both stressors cause great harm to coral reefs because of how niche of an

environment coral live in. If corals surroundings change in too great a manner then the polyps of

the coral become stressed and expel the symbiotic dinoflagellate algae that keeps them alive.

Once a coral polyp expels its symbiote it has very little hope of survival (Guldber et al 2007).

If we are to stop the decline of the Caribbean reef ecosystem we must begin now. When it

comes to the demand for fresh fish from the Caribbean the concept of Marine Protected Areas or

MPA’s has been used to great effect in the United States and other developed countries. These

areas are under constant watch and anyone caught harvesting wildlife in these areas are severely

punished. These MPA’s function as nursery’s and safe havens for organisms to reproduce and

grow to a size that can be harvested once it leaves that area. Unfortunately, the largest problem

for less developed countries is twofold lack of funds and lack of support. For those countries that

are interested in preserving coastal habitats they lack the finds to enforce the laws put in place to

protect these ecosystems and there are those in power with no interest in conservation and would

rather line their pockets than invest in marine conservation. Another solution to the problem of

overfishing would be to switch to a more sustainable and viable food source to fish. For example

Grouper and Spiny Lobster both have incredibly long life histories meaning they do not reach a

harvestable size for many years and produce fewer young than most species. However, species

like tilapia reproduce in the thousands and only take 2 or 3 years to reach market size. We need

not stop harvesting the lest sustainable Caribbean species but simple do so in a sensible manner

to ensure the species survival. Lastly for us to stop the runaway greenhouse effect from warming

the planet further we must switch to alternative fuel sources that produce fewer carbon

emissions. Transferring power grids to solar or nuclear power is one proposed solution as well as

switching our cars to either hydrogen cells or electric motors. We have a responsibility to protect
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the ecosystems of the world so that future generations can see and admire them, however if we

behave callously with little to no regard for the world around us there will not be an ocean to

defend.
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Works Cited

 Williams, I., and N. Polunin. “Large-Scale Associations between Macroalgal Cover and Grazer
Biomass on Mid-Depth Reefs in the Caribbean.” Coral Reefs, vol. 19, no. 4, 2001, pp. 358–366.,
doi:10.1007/s003380000121.
 Mccook, L., et al. “Competition between Corals and Algae on Coral Reefs: a Review of Evidence
and Mechanisms.” Coral Reefs, vol. 19, no. 4, 2001, pp. 400–417., doi:10.1007/s003380000129
 Rasher, D. B., et al. “Macroalgal Terpenes Function as Allelopathic Agents against Reef Corals.”
Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, vol. 108, no. 43, 2011, pp. 17726–17731.,
doi:10.1073/pnas.1108628108
 Lessios, H. “Mass Mortality Of Diadema-Antillarum In The Caribbean: What Have We Learned.”
Annual Review of Ecology and Systematics, vol. 19, no. 1, Jan. 1988, pp. 371–393.,
doi:10.1146/annurev.ecolsys.19.1.371
 Jackson, J. B. C. “Historical Overfishing and the Recent Collapse of Coastal Ecosystems.” Science,
vol. 293, no. 5530, 2001, pp. 629–637., doi:10.1126/science.1059199.
 Govers, Laura L., et al. “Eutrophication Threatens Caribbean Seagrasses – An Example from
Curaçao and Bonaire.” Marine Pollution Bulletin, vol. 89, no. 1-2, 2014, pp. 481–486.,
doi:10.1016/j.marpolbul.2014.09.003
 Hoegh-Guldberg, O. Coral Reefs under Rapid Climate Change and Ocean Acidification. 2007.