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Key words: productivity decline, micronutrient deficiency/toxicity, soil amendment, foliar spray, multinutrient
supply
Abstract
Micronutrient deficiency is considered as one of the major causes of the declining productivity trends observed in
ricegrowing countries. The submergence created for rice cultivation influences electrochemical and biochemical
reactions, and alters pH, pCO2 and the concentration of certain ions. This environment increases the availability of
Fe and Mn with concomitant decrease in Zn and Cu. It is well known that Zn deficiency is predominant in lowland
ecosystems. Sodic and upland soils and calcareous coarse-textured soils with low organic matter content suffer
from Fe deficiency, besides Zn and Cu deficiencies. Rice cultivars do not experience deficiency of B and Mo. The
acid soils and the lowlying, poorly drained alluvial and colluvial soils are prone to Fe toxicity. Experiments in
different agroecological zones all over India showed that Zn doses to correct Zn deficiency varied from 2.5 to 22
kg ha−1 ; 5.3 kg Zn ha−1 proved optimum and economical, with a maximum rice yield increase of 4.8 t ha−1 . In
the lowland ecosystem, amending the soil with the required amount of Zn before transplanting was effective and
easy to adopt, compared with repeated foliar sprays of 0.5% ZnSO4 or use of Zn-enriched seedlings through seed
soaking in 2–4% ZnSO4 solution, fertilizing the nursery with Zn, or seedling root dipping in 2% ZnO slurry. Hepta
as well as monohydrated ZnSO4 were better than other sources of Zn (ZnO, ZnCl2 and Zn frits). The Zn-blended
diammonium phosphate (Zn-DAP), superphosphate, and nitrophosphates also proved effective. The Zn-enriched
organic manures (farmyard manure, green leaf manure, and coir pith compost) were found advantageous for the
direct and residual crops. Zinc fertilization with an optimal dose of 25 kg ZnSO4 ha−1 once a year yielded high
economic return. A differential response of rice up to a maximum increase in yield of 4.8 t ha−1 was observed with
the foliar spray (1–2% FeSO4 solution) or soil incorporation of Fe (50 kg FeSO4 ha−1 ) with bulky organic manure
(12.5 t ha−1 ). The application of 12.5 kg CuSO4 ha−1 ameliorated Cu deficiency and significantly enhanced rice
production. Management strategies such as liming and additional multinutrient supply (P. K, Mg, Zn, Cu, and
B), besides improving drainage, enhanced the rice productivity of soils prone to Fe toxicity by correcting the
multinutrient deficiency syndrome.
on crop yields. The nutrient uptake from the soil is also soils further limits the availability of Cu and Zn, with a
greatly influenced by capacity, intensity, and kinetic phenomenal reduction in the uptake of these nutrients.
factors (Neue, 1994). The limiting micronutrients in the uplands and in
Soil characters such as soil reaction (pH), redox coarse-textured lowland soils are Fe, followed by Zn
potential, texture, magnitude of calcium carbonate, and Cu. Submerged soils especially at low pH and acid
and organic matter are important factors that influence sulfate soils exhibit higher Fe concentration leading to
micronutrient transformation and availability. Sorp- Fe toxicity and multinutrient deficiency (Benckiser et
tion and desorption kinetics are linked with mineral al., 1982). In the coastal acid soils, rice suffers from B
equilibria of the nutrients in the soil (Ponnamperuma, toxicity (Cayton, 1985).
1972; Lindsay, 1972; Jahiruddin and Cresser, 1990). Analyses of more than 100,000 soil samples
Problem soils with constraints such as coastal and in- from different agroecological zones of India showed
land salinity, sodicity, acidity, and cat clays exhibit marked Zn deficiency (41.7%) and Fe deficiency
micronutrient deficiency. (12%); deficiency of Mn and Cu was less conspicuous
In the rice ecosystem, crop residue management (Singh and Saha 1995).
by recycling wastes and manures is the prime fac- The continuous rice cultivation over centuries in
tor that controls the long-term micronutrient balance certain tracts depleted available Zn and Cu and in-
of the soil. Micronutrient cycling in soils is closely creased soluble Fe and Mn. Old Cauvery Delta soils
associated with organic matter turnover because it is of Thanjavur District, Tamil Nadu, which have been
intricately related with trace elements. Organic mat- cultivated for centuries, exhibit Zn deficiency in more
ter decomposition also controls solubilization of pri- than 80% of the area. Zinc availability is not a big
mary and secondary minerals (Anand Swarup, 1991). problem in the new delta soils of the same district,
This paper discusses the micronutrient status of Indian where rice cultivation is recent (Table 1). The DTPA-
soils, a diagnosis of the deficiencies, and the amelio- Fe concentration is higher in these areas.
rative technologies for the management of deficiency
and toxicity of important micronutrients.
Diagnosis of micronutrient deficiency
DTPA-Zn Zinc
Range 0.11–49.3 0.08–49.4 Vertisol-Ca Dithizone and NH4 OAc 1.0
Mean 1.56 2.22 Vertisol-Frb 2.0
% soils deficient 80.4 47.0 Alfisol DTPA 0.70
Inceptisol 0.6–1.0
DTPA-Cu
Range 0.15–26.0 0.20–23.2 Bihar
Mean 59 1.97 Calcifluvent DTPA 0.78
% soils deficient 18.8 14.2 Chromustert 0.90
Chromustert EDTA-NH4 OAc 2.07
DTPA -Fe
Range 1.0–500 2.5–270 Gujarat
Mean 60.4 44.2 Inceptisol DTPA 0.90
% soils deficient 3.3 Nil Entisol
Inceptisol 0.1 N HCI 2.10
DTPA -Mn Entisol
Range 2.50–100 1.50–50.0
Mean 44.0 14.7 Madhya Pradesh
% soils deficient 0.30 Nil Inceptisol DTPA 0.45
Alfisol 0.60
Vertisol
Entisol
Katyal, 1985; Takkar et al., 1989). Many sources of in many experiments (Table 6) (Sajwan and Lindsay,
Zn can be applied by different methods. Well-tested 1988; Chibba et al., 1989, Deb, 1990).
application methods for Zn include broadcast/band ap- Mixing micronutrients with N, P, and K fertiliz-
plication, foliar spray, soaking or dusting the seed in ers will ensure uniform application and avoid sepa-
Zn solution/dust, nursery application, and dipping the rate application (Deb, et al., 1986; Ilangovan, 1986;
roots in Zn suspension/slurry. Mortvedt, 1994). The data in Table 7 show the use-
fulness of Zn-urea, Zn-DAP, and Zn-superphosphate,
Soil application of Zn compared with sole application of ZnSO4 .
Trials in different agroecological zones of India
showed that soil application of 25–50 kg ZnSO4 ha−1 Soil application vs other methods of Zn application
is optimum for rice (Sadana and Takkar, 1983; Ra- Basal Zn application may not correct Zn deficiency
jagopalan and Palanisamy, 1986). Increase in rice in some cases. For example, application of 25 kg
grain yield due to Zn fertilization varied from 0.14 to ZnSO4 ha−1 in two equal splits at transplanting and
6.5 t ha−1 (Table 4) with a fivefold variation (0.29 – tillering proved to be on a par with the same level
1.4 t ha−1 ) in average response. Zn addition increased of Zn incorporated at transplanting, while two equal
yield by 0.2–0.5 t ha−1 in 37% of the trials, less than split applications at transplanting and panicle initiation
0.2 t ha−1 in 28%, and 0.5–1.0 t ha−1 in 24%. The was not effective (Table 8). In such cases, Zn-deficient
wide variability in the response is natural, because it is crops can be saved by foliar sprays as an emergency
mainly influenced by the inherent Zn status of the soil. treatment. Results reported by Sadana and Takkar,
In another series of trials, a high response of 0.3 to (1983), Takkar et al. (1989), and Sakal et al. (1993).
0.8 t ha was obtained in a Zn-deficient soil, compared Data in Figure 1 show that foliar spray, root dipping,
with soils having medium Zn status (0.1–0.4 t ha−1 ) and seed soaking are either inferior to or just equal to
(Takkar et al., 1989). soil application. The suspension made from 1 kg ZnO
Rice response to Zn fertilization rates varied with (2–4%) was sufficient to treat enough seedlings for
soil texture, available Zn status, and rice variety (Table planting 1 ha, and its yield was on a par with soil ap-
5). The optimum level seems to be 5.6 kg Zn ha−1 plication. Bulk handling of seedlings for root dipping
(25 kg ZnSO4 ha−1 ). The level of Zn for sodic soil and protecting the treated seedlings from floodwater
was quite high – 11.0 to 22.0 kg Zn ha−1 (Singh and are tedious. Root dipping practiced in the Philippines
Abrol, 1985; Anand Swarup, 1991; Channel, 1992). (Castro, 1977) is reported to be advantageous (Sadana
Although different inorganic sources of Zn (ZnSO4 . 7 and Takkar, 1983).
H2 O, ZnCl2 , ZnO, Zn frits) are available, the hepta Rice yield is more limited by Zn deficiency dur-
hydrated form is the cheapest and most commonly ing rabi (winter) than during kharif (monsoon) season
used Zn fertilizer. It outperformed all other sources due to variation in temperature and radiation (Figure
87
Table 4. Response of rice to Zn fertilization in India (Source: Takkar et al., 1989)
Yield (t ha−1 )
Grain 5.35 6.47 5.45 7.92 5.93 7.79 1.015
Straw 5.50 6.32 6.56 8.21 7.25 9.01 –
L0 = control; L1 = lime 9.6 t ha−1 F S= foliar spray at tillering, active tillering, and panicle initiation.
pathologists, and microbiologists, besides animal Krishnasamy R (1990) Zinc and Fe nutrition of direct sown semi-
human nutrition scientists. dry rice. In: Krishnasamy R et al. (eds) Twenty-Five Years of
Micronutrient Research in Soils and Crops of Tamil Nadu. Tamil
Nadu Agricultural University, Coimbatore
Krishnasamy R et al. (1994) Twenty-five years of micronutrient re-
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