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Indonesia
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Coordinates: 5°S 120°E

Republic of Indonesia

Republik Indonesia (Indonesian)

Flag

National emblem

Motto: Bhinneka Tunggal Ika (Old Javanese)

(English: "Unity in Diversity")
National ideology: Pancasila[1][2]
Anthem: "Indonesia Raya"
(English: "Great Indonesia")

Menu
0:00
 Area controlled by Indonesia shown in green
Capital Jakarta
and largest city 6°10.5′S 106°49.7′E
Official language
Indonesian
and national language
Regional languages Over 700 languages[3]
Ethnic groups Over 300 ethnic groups[4]
 87.2% Islam
 9.9% Christianity
 —7.0% Protestantism
 —2.9% Roman
Religion Catholicism
(2010)[5]  1.7% Hinduism
 0.7% Buddhism
 0.2% Confucianism
and others

Demonym(s) Indonesian
Unitary presidential constitutional
Government
republic
• President Joko Widodo
• Vice President Jusuf Kalla
• DPR Speaker Bambang Soesatyo
• Chief Justice Muhammad Hatta Ali
People's Consultative Assembly
Legislature
(MPR)
Regional Representative Council
• Upper house
(DPD)
People's Representative Council
• Lower house
(DPR)
Formation
• Hindu and Buddhist
2nd century
kingdoms
 • Islamic sultanates 13th century
• Dutch East India
20 March 1602
Company
• Dutch East Indies 1 January 1800
• Japanese occupation 9 March 1942
• Independence proclaimed 17 August 1945
• Recognition and
27 December 1949
federation
• Unitary republic 17 August 1950
Area
1,904,569[6] km2 (735,358 sq mi)
• Land
(14th)
• Water (%) 4.85
Population
• 2016 estimate 261,115,456[7]
• 2010 census 237,641,326[8] (4th)
• Density 138/km2 (357.4/sq mi) (88th)
GDP (PPP) 2018 estimate
• Total $3.492 trillion[9] (7th)
• Per capita $13,162[9] (96th)
GDP (nominal) 2018 estimate
• Total $1.075 trillion[9] (16th)
• Per capita $4,052[9] (114th)
39.5[10]
Gini (2017)
medium
0.694[10]
HDI (2017)
medium · 116th
Currency Indonesian rupiah (Rp) (IDR)
Time zone UTC+7 to +9 (various)
Date format DD/MM/YYYY
Driving side left
Calling code +62
ISO 3166 code ID
Internet TLD .id

Indonesia (/ˌɪndəˈniːʒə/ ( listen) IN-də-NEE-zhə, /-ziə/ -zee-ə; Indonesian: [ɪndoneˈsia]),

officially the Republic of Indonesia (Indonesian: Republik Indonesia [rɛpublik ɪndoneˈsia]),[lacks
stress]
is a country in Southeast Asia, between the Indian and Pacific oceans. It is the world's
largest island country, with more than seventeen thousand islands,[11] and at 1,904,569 square
kilometres (735,358 square miles), the 14th largest by land area and the 7th largest in combined
sea and land area.[12] With over 261 million people, it is the world's 4th most populous country as
well as the most populous Muslim-majority country. Java, the world's most populous island,[13]
contains more than half of the country's population.
The sovereign state is a presidential, constitutional republic with an elected parliament. It has 34
provinces, of which five have special status. Jakarta, the country's capital, is the second most
populous urban area in the world. The country shares land borders with Papua New Guinea, East
Timor, and the eastern part of Malaysia. Other neighbouring countries include Singapore,
Vietnam, the Philippines, Australia, Palau, and India's Andaman and Nicobar Islands. Despite its
large population and densely populated regions, Indonesia has vast areas of wilderness that
support a high level of biodiversity.[14] The country has abundant natural resources like oil and
natural gas, tin, copper and gold. Agriculture mainly produces rice, palm oil, tea, coffee, cacao,
medicinal plants, spices and rubber.[15] Indonesia's major trading partners are China, United
States, Japan, Singapore and India.[16]

The Indonesian archipelago has been an important region for trade since at least the 7th century,
when Srivijaya and then later Majapahit traded with Chinese dynasties and Indian kingdoms.
Local rulers gradually absorbed foreign cultural, religious and political models from the early
centuries CE, and Hindu and Buddhist kingdoms flourished. Indonesian history has been
influenced by foreign powers drawn to its natural resources. Muslim traders and Sufi scholars
brought Islam,[17][18] while European powers brought Christianity and fought one another to
monopolise trade in the Spice Islands of Maluku during the Age of Discovery. Indonesia
experienced a long period of Dutch colonialism that started from Amboina and Batavia,
eventually covering all of the archipelago including Timor and Western New Guinea, and at
times interrupted by Portuguese, French and British rule. During the decolonisation of Asia after
World War II, Indonesia achieved independence in 1949 following an armed and diplomatic
conflict with the Netherlands.

Indonesia consists of hundreds of distinct native ethnic and linguistic groups, with the largest—
and politically dominant—ethnic group being the Javanese. A shared identity has developed,
defined by a national language, ethnic diversity, religious pluralism within a Muslim-majority
population, and a history of colonialism and rebellion against it. Indonesia's national motto,
"Bhinneka Tunggal Ika" ("Unity in Diversity" literally, "many, yet one"), articulates the diversity
that shapes the country. Indonesia's economy is the world's 16th largest by nominal GDP and the
7th largest by GDP at PPP. Indonesia is a member of several multilateral organisations, including
the UN,[a] WTO, IMF and G20. It is also a founding member of Non-Aligned Movement,
Association of Southeast Asian Nations, Asia-Pacific Economic Cooperation, East Asia Summit,
Asian Infrastructure Investment Bank and Organisation of Islamic Cooperation.

Contents
 1 Etymology
 2 History
o 2.1 Early history
o 2.2 Colonial era
o 2.3 Modern era
 3 Geography
o 3.1 Climate
 o 3.2 Geology
o 3.3 Biodiversity
o 3.4 Environment
 4 Government and politics
o 4.1 Parties and elections
o 4.2 Political divisions
o 4.3 Foreign relations
o 4.4 Military
 5 Economy
o 5.1 Transport
o 5.2 Energy
o 5.3 Science and technology
o 5.4 Tourism
 6 Demographics
o 6.1 Ethnicity and language
o 6.2 Urban centres
o 6.3 Religion
o 6.4 Education and health
o 6.5 Issues
 7 Culture
o 7.1 Art and architecture
o 7.2 Music, dance and clothing
o 7.3 Theatre and cinema
o 7.4 Media and literature
o 7.5 Cuisine
o 7.6 Sports
 8 See also
 9 Notes
 10 References
 11 Bibliography
 12 External links

Etymology
Further information: Names of Indonesia

The name Indonesia derives from the Greek name of the Indos (Ἰνδός) and the word nesos
(νῆσος), meaning "Indian islands".[19] The name dates to the 18th century, far predating the
formation of independent Indonesia.[20] In 1850, George Windsor Earl, an English ethnologist,
proposed the terms Indunesians—and, his preference, Malayunesians—for the inhabitants of the
"Indian Archipelago or Malayan Archipelago".[21] In the same publication, one of his students,
James Richardson Logan, used Indonesia as a synonym for Indian Archipelago.[22][23] However,
Dutch academics writing in East Indies publications were reluctant to use Indonesia; they
preferred Malay Archipelago (Maleische Archipel); the Netherlands East Indies (Nederlandsch
Oost Indië), popularly Indië; the East (de Oost); and Insulinde.[24]
After 1900, Indonesia became more common in academic circles outside the Netherlands, and
native nationalist groups adopted it for political expression. [24] Adolf Bastian, of the University
of Berlin, popularised the name through his book Indonesien oder die Inseln des Malayischen
Archipels, 1884–1894. The first native scholar to use the name was Ki Hajar Dewantara, when in
1913 he established a press bureau in the Netherlands, Indonesisch Pers-bureau.[20]

History
Main article: History of Indonesia

Early history

A Borobudur ship carved on Borobudur temple, c. 800 CE. Outrigger boats from the archipelago
may have made trade voyages to the east coast of Africa as early as the 1st century CE.[25]

Fossils and the remains of tools show that the Indonesian archipelago was inhabited by Homo
erectus, known as "Java Man", between 1.5 million years ago and 35,000 years ago. [26][27][28]
Homo sapiens reached the region around 45,000 years ago. [29] Austronesian peoples, who form
the majority of the modern population, migrated to Southeast Asia from what is now Taiwan.
They arrived around 4,000 years ago, and as they spread through the archipelago, confined the
indigenous Melanesians to the far eastern regions.[30] Ideal agricultural conditions and the
mastering of wet-field rice cultivation as early as the 8th century BCE[31] allowed villages,
towns, and small kingdoms to flourish by the first century CE. The archipelago's strategic sea-
lane position fostered inter-island and international trade, including links with Indian kingdoms
and Chinese dynasties, which were established several centuries BCE. [32] Trade has since
fundamentally shaped Indonesian history.[33][34]

From the 7th century CE, the powerful Srivijaya naval kingdom flourished as a result of trade
and the influences of Hinduism and Buddhism that were imported with it.[35] Between the 8th
and 10th century CE, the agricultural Buddhist Sailendra and Hindu Mataram dynasties thrived
and declined in inland Java, leaving grand religious monuments such as Borobudur, Sewu and
Prambanan. This period marked a renaissance of Hindu-Buddhist art in ancient Java.[36] Around
the first quarter of the 10th century, the centre of the kingdom was shifted from Mataram area in
central Java to Brantas River valley in eastern Java by Mpu Sindok, who established the Isyana
Dynasty.[37] Subsequently, a series of Javanese Hindu-Buddhist polities rose and fell, from
Kahuripan kingdom ruled by Airlangga to Kadiri and Singhasari. In western Java, Sunda
Kingdom was re-established circa 1030 according to Sanghyang Tapak inscription. In Bali, the
Warmadewas established their rule in the 10th century. The Hindu Majapahit kingdom was
founded in eastern Java in the late 13th century, and under Gajah Mada, its influence stretched
over much of present-day Indonesia.[38]

The earliest evidence of Muslim population in the archipelago dates to the 13th century in
northern Sumatra, although Muslim traders first traveled through Southeast Asia early in the
Islamic era.[39] Other parts of the archipelago gradually adopted Islam, and it was the dominant
religion in Java and Sumatra by the end of the 16th century. For the most part, Islam overlaid and
mixed with existing cultural and religious influences, which shaped the predominant form of
Islam in Indonesia, particularly in Java.[40]

Colonial era

The submission of Prince Diponegoro to General De Kock at the end of the Java War in 1830

The first regular contact between Europeans and the peoples of the archipelago began in 1512,
when Portuguese traders, led by Francisco Serrão, sought to monopolise the sources of nutmeg,
cloves, and cubeb pepper in Maluku.[41] Dutch and British traders followed. In 1602, the Dutch
established the Dutch East India Company (VOC), and in the following decades, they gained a
foothold in Batavia and Amboina. For almost 200 years, the company was the dominant
European power in the archipelago.[42] It was dissolved in 1800 following bankruptcy, and the
Netherlands established the Dutch East Indies as a nationalised colony.[43]

Since the VOC's establishment, the expansion of Dutch territory had primarily been motivated
by trade.[44][45] Starting from 1840, however, the Netherlands began a period of expansion to
enlarge and consolidate their possessions outside Java, mainly to protect areas already held, and
to prevent intervention from other European powers.[45] As a result, the Dutch became involved
in numerous wars against various native groups in the archipelago throughout the 19th century,
such as the Padri War, Java War and the long and costly Aceh War.[46][47][47] It was only in the
first half of the 20th century that the Dutch achieved dominance over what was to become
Indonesia's current boundaries,[48] with the addition of Western New Guinea in 1920.

In 1901, the Netherlands introduced the Dutch Ethical Policy that was aimed at improving living
conditions and welfare, expanding education to native peoples, [49] and preparing the archipelago
for self-government under Dutch control.[50] The policy, however, inadvertently contributed to
the Indonesian National Awakening, and subsequent rise of independence movements,[50] which
the Dutch actively suppressed.[51] During World War II, the Empire of Japan invaded and
occupied the archipelago, effectively ending Dutch rule.[52][53] Famine and forced labour
(romusha) were common during the occupation, and war crimes were committed in areas that
were deemed important for the Japanese war effort. A later United Nations report stated that the
Japanese occupation resulted in a total of 4 million deaths. [54] However, the occupation proved to
be fundamental for Indonesian independence, as the Japanese encouraged and facilitated
Indonesian nationalism, promoted nationalist figures such as Sukarno, Mohammad Hatta and Ki
Hajar Dewantara, and provided weapons and military training. [51]

Modern era

Sukarno, the founding father and first President of Indonesia

Just two days after the surrender of Japan, Sukarno and Hatta proclaimed Indonesian
independence on 17 August 1945,[55][56] and were selected as the country's first President and
Vice President respectively. The Netherlands attempted to re-establish their rule, and an armed
and diplomatic struggle ensued. In December 1949, the Dutch formally recognised Indonesian
independence in the face of international pressure, [57] with the exception of the Netherlands New
Guinea, which was later incorporated into Indonesia following the 1962 New York Agreement
and the disputed 1969 referendum that led to the ongoing Papua conflict.[58] Despite major
internal political, social and sectarian divisions during the conflict, Indonesians, on the whole,
found unity in their fight for independence.

In the late 1950s, Sukarno moved Indonesia from democracy towards authoritarianism, and
maintained his power base by balancing the opposing forces of the military and the Communist
Party of Indonesia (Partai Komunis Indonesia, PKI).[59] An attempted coup on 30 September
1965 was countered by the army, which led a violent purge that targeted communists, ethnic
Chinese and alleged leftists, during which the PKI was blamed for the coup and effectively
destroyed.[60][61][62] The most widely accepted estimates are that between 500,000 and one million
people were killed, with some estimates as high as three million. [63] The head of the military,
General Suharto, outmaneuvered the politically weakened Sukarno and was formally appointed
president in March 1968. His New Order administration[64] was supported by the United
States,[65][66][67] and encouraged foreign direct investment,[68][69] which was a major factor in the
subsequent three decades of substantial economic growth. However, his administration was
widely accused of corruption and suppression of political opposition.[70][71][72]

Indonesia was the country hardest hit by the 1997 Asian financial crisis.[73] This increased
popular discontent with the New Order and triggered mass protests across the country, which
eventually led to Suharto's resignation on 21 May 1998.[74] In 1999, East Timor voted to secede
from Indonesia, after a 25-year military occupation that was marked by international
condemnation of repression of the East Timorese.[75] In the post-Suharto era, a strengthening of
democratic processes has included a regional autonomy program, and the first direct presidential
election in 2004.[76] Political and economic instability, social unrest, corruption, and terrorism
slowed progress; however, in recent years the economy has performed strongly. Although
relations among different religious and ethnic groups are largely harmonious, sectarian
discontent and violence have persisted.[77] Indonesia was the worst hit country by the 2004
Indian Ocean earthquake and tsunami that killed an estimated 167,736 people, mainly in
Aceh.[78] The aftermath of the disaster played a part in achieving political settlement to an armed
separatist conflict in the region in 2005.[79]

Geography
Main article: Geography of Indonesia

Mount Semeru and Mount Bromo in East Java. Indonesia's seismic and volcanic activity is
among the world's highest.

Indonesia lies between latitudes 11°S and 6°N, and longitudes 95°E and 141°E. It is the largest
archipelagic country in the world, extending 5,120 kilometres (3,181 mi) from east to west and
1,760 kilometres (1,094 mi) from north to south.[80] According to the country's Coordinating
Ministry for Maritime Affairs, Indonesia has 17,504 islands (16,056 of which are registered at
the UN),[11] scattered over both sides of the equator, and with about 6,000 of them are
inhabited.[81] The largest are Java, Sumatra, Borneo (shared with Brunei and Malaysia),
Sulawesi, and New Guinea (shared with Papua New Guinea). Indonesia shares land borders with
Malaysia on Borneo, Papua New Guinea on the island of New Guinea, and East Timor on the
island of Timor, and maritime borders with Singapore, Malaysia, Vietnam, the Philippines,
Palau, and Australia.

At 4,884 metres (16,024 ft), Puncak Jaya is Indonesia's highest peak, and Lake Toba in Sumatra
is the largest lake, with an area of 1,145 km2 (442 sq mi). Indonesia's largest rivers are in
Kalimantan and New Guinea, and include Kapuas, Barito, Mamberamo, Sepik and Mahakam;
such rivers are communication and transport links between the island's river settlements. [82]
Climate

Main article: Climate of Indonesia

Typical Indonesian rainforest, mostly found in Kalimantan and Sumatra

Lying along the equator, Indonesia's climate tends to be relatively even year-round.[83] Indonesia
has two seasons—a wet season and a dry season—with no extremes of summer or winter.[84] For
most of Indonesia, the dry season falls between April and October with the wet season between
November and March.[84] Indonesia's climate is almost entirely tropical, dominated by the
tropical rainforest climate found in every major island of Indonesia, followed by the tropical
monsoon climate that predominantly lies along Java's coastal north, Sulawesi's coastal south and
east, and Bali, and finally the tropical Savanna climate, found in isolated locations of Central
Java, lowland East Java, coastal southern Papua and smaller islands to the east of Lombok.
However, cooler climate types do exist in mountainous regions of Indonesia 1,300 to 1,500
metres (4,300 to 4,900 feet) above sea level. The oceanic climate (Köppen Cfb) prevail in
highland areas with fairly uniform precipitation year-round, adjacent to rainforest climates, while
the subtropical highland climate (Köppen Cwb) exist in highland areas with a more pronounced
dry season, adjacent to tropical monsoon and savanna climates.

Indonesia map of Köppen climate classification.

Some regions, such as Kalimantan and Sumatra, experience only slight differences in rainfall and
temperature between the seasons, whereas others, such as Nusa Tenggara, experience far more
pronounced differences with droughts in the dry season, and floods in the wet. Rainfall is
plentiful, particularly in West Sumatra, West Kalimantan, West Java, and Papua. Parts of
Sulawesi and some islands closer to Australia, such as Sumba is drier. The almost uniformly
warm waters that make up 81% of Indonesia's area ensure that temperatures on land remain
fairly constant. The coastal plains averaging 28 °C (82.4 °F), the inland and mountain areas
averaging 26 °C (78.8 °F), and the higher mountain regions, 23 °C (73.4 °F). The area's relative
humidity ranges between 70 and 90%. Winds are moderate and generally predictable, with
monsoons usually blowing in from the south and east in June through October and from the
northwest in November through March. Typhoons and large scale storms pose little hazard to
mariners in Indonesian waters; the major danger comes from swift currents in channels, such as
the Lombok and Sape straits.

Geology

Main article: Geology of Indonesia

See also: Volcanoes of Indonesia

Major volcanoes in Indonesia. Indonesia is in the Pacific Ring of Fire area.

Tectonically, Indonesia is highly unstable, making it a site of numerous volcanoes and frequent
earthquakes.[85] It lies on the Pacific Ring of Fire where the Indo-Australian Plate and the Pacific
Plate are pushed under the Eurasian plate where they melt at about 100 kilometres (62 miles)
deep. A string of volcanoes runs through Sumatra, Java, Bali and Nusa Tenggara, and then to the
Banda Islands of Maluku to northeastern Sulawesi.[86] Of the 400 volcanoes, around 130 are
active.[87] Between 1972 and 1991, 29 volcanic eruptions were recorded, mostly on Java. While
volcanic ash has resulted in fertile soils (a factor in historically sustaining high population
densities of Java and Bali),[88] it makes agricultural conditions unpredictable in some areas. [89]

A massive supervolcano erupted at present-day Lake Toba around 70,000 BCE. It is believed to
have caused a global volcanic winter and cooling of the climate, and subsequently led to a
genetic bottleneck in human evolution, though this is still debated. [90] The 1815 eruption of
Mount Tambora and the 1883 eruption of Krakatoa were among the largest in recorded history.
The former resulted in 92,000 deaths and created an umbrella of volcanic ash which spread and
blanketed parts of the archipelago, and made much of Northern Hemisphere without summer in
1816.[91] The latter produced the loudest sound in recorded history, and resulted in 36,000 deaths
that are attributed to the eruption itself and the tsunamis it created. Significant additional effects
were also felt around the world years after the eruption.[92] Recent major disasters due to seismic
activity include the 2004 Indian Ocean earthquake and the 2006 Yogyakarta earthquake.

Biodiversity

Main articles: Fauna of Indonesia and Flora of Indonesia

Species endemic to Indonesia. Clockwise from top: Rafflesia arnoldii, orangutan, greater bird-of-
paradise, and Komodo dragon.

Indonesia's size, tropical climate, and archipelagic geography support a high level of
biodiversity.[14] Its flora and fauna is a mixture of Asian and Australasian species.[93] The islands
of the Sunda Shelf (Sumatra, Java, Borneo, and Bali) were once linked to mainland Asia, and
have a wealth of Asian fauna. Large species such as the Sumatran tiger, rhinoceros, orangutan,
Asian elephant, and leopard, were once abundant as far east as Bali, but numbers and distribution
have dwindled drastically. Sulawesi, Nusa Tenggara, and Maluku – having been long separated
from the continental landmasses—have developed their own unique flora and fauna.[94] Papua
was part of the Australian landmass, and is home to a unique fauna and flora closely related to
that of Australia, including over 600 bird species.[95] Forests cover approximately 70% of the
country.[96] However, the forests of the smaller, and more densely populated Java, have largely
been removed for human habitation and agriculture.

Indonesia is second only to Australia in terms of total endemic species, with 36% of its 1,531
species of bird and 39% of its 515 species of mammal being endemic. [97] Indonesia's 80,000
kilometres (50,000 miles) of coastline are surrounded by tropical seas. The country has a range
of sea and coastal ecosystems, including beaches, sand dunes, estuaries, mangroves, coral reefs,
seagrass beds, coastal mudflats, tidal flats, algal beds, and small island ecosystems. [19] Indonesia
is one of Coral Triangle countries with the world's greatest diversity of coral reef fish with more
than 1,650 species in eastern Indonesia only.[98]

British naturalist Alfred Russel Wallace described a dividing line (Wallace Line) between the
distribution of Indonesia's Asian and Australasian species. [99] It runs roughly north–south along
the edge of the Sunda Shelf, between Kalimantan and Sulawesi, and along the deep Lombok
Strait, between Lombok and Bali. Flora and fauna on the west of the line are more Asian, while
east from Lombok they are increasingly Australian until the tipping point at the Weber Line. In
his 1869 book, The Malay Archipelago, Wallace described numerous species unique to the
area.[100] The region of islands between his line and New Guinea is now termed Wallacea.[99]

Environment

Main article: Environment of Indonesia

Indonesia's large and growing population, and rapid industrialisation, present serious
environmental issues. They are often given a lower priority due to high poverty levels and weak,
under-resourced governance.[101] Issues include the destruction of peatlands, large-scale illegal
deforestation and related wildfires causing heavy smog over parts of western Indonesia,
Malaysia and Singapore; over-exploitation of marine resources; and environmental problems
associated with rapid urbanisation and industrial development, including air pollution, traffic
congestion, garbage management, and reliable water and waste water services.[101] These issues
contribute to Indonesia's poor ranking in the 2018 Environmental Performance Index, at 133 out
of 180 countries. The report also indicates that Indonesia's performance is among the lowest in
the Asia-Pacific region.[102]

Much of Indonesia's deforestation is caused by the expansion of palm oil industry that requires
land reallocation as well as changes to the natural ecosystems. [103] Expansions can generate
wealth for local communities, but it can also degrade ecosystems and cause social problems.[104]
This makes Indonesia the world's largest forest-based emitter of greenhouse gases.[105] Such
activity also threatens the survival of indigenous and endemic species, including 140 species of
mammals identified by the International Union for Conservation of Nature (IUCN) as threatened,
and 15 as critically endangered, including the Bali starling,[106] Sumatran orangutan,[107] and
Javan rhinoceros.[108]

Indonesia is considered at serious risk from projected effects of climate change. It is predicted
that unreduced emissions will see an average temperature rise of around 1℃ by mid-
century,[109][110] amounting to almost double the frequency of extremely hot days (above 35℃)
per year by 2030, a figure which is predicted to rise further by the end of the century.[109] This
will raise the frequency of draught and food shortages, having an impact on precipitation and the
patterns of wet and dry seasons upon which Indonesia's agricultural system is based. [110] It will
also encourage diseases and increases in wildfires, which threaten the country's huge
rainforest.[110] Rising sea levels, at current rates, will result in 42 million households in over
2,000 islands being at risk of submersion by mid-century.[111] A majority of Indonesia's
population live in low-lying coastal areas,[110] including the capital Jakarta, the fastest sinking
city in the world.[112] Poorer communities will likely be affected the most by climate change. [113]

Government and politics

Main article: Politics of Indonesia
A presidential inauguration by the MPR in the Parliament Complex Jakarta, 2014

Indonesia is a republic with a presidential system. As a unitary state, power is concentrated in the
central government. Following the fall of New Order in 1998, political and governmental
structures have undergone major reforms, with four constitutional amendments revamping the
executive, legislative and judicial branches. [114] The President of Indonesia is the head of state
and head of government, commander-in-chief of the Indonesian National Armed Forces (Tentara
Nasional Indonesia, TNI), and the director of domestic governance, policy-making, and foreign
affairs. The president appoints a council of ministers, who are not required to be elected
members of the legislature. The president may serve a maximum of two consecutive five-year
terms.[115]

The highest representative body at national level is the People's Consultative Assembly (Majelis
Permusyawaratan Rakyat, MPR). Its main functions are supporting and amending the
constitution, inaugurating and impeaching the president, [116][117] and formalising broad outlines of
state policy. The MPR comprises two houses; the People's Representative Council (Dewan
Perwakilan Rakyat, DPR), with 560 members, and the Regional Representative Council (Dewan
Perwakilan Daerah, DPD), with 132.[118] The DPR passes legislation and monitors the executive
branch. Reforms since 1998 have markedly increased its role in national governance, [114] while
the DPD is a new chamber for matters of regional management. [119][117]

Most civil disputes appear before the State Court (Pengadilan Negeri); appeals are heard before
the High Court (Pengadilan Tinggi). The Supreme Court of Indonesia (Mahkamah Agung) is the
country's highest court, and hears final cessation appeals and conducts case reviews. Other courts
include the Commercial Court, which handles bankruptcy and insolvency; the State
Administrative Court (Pengadilan Tata Negara) to hear administrative law cases against the
government; the Constitutional Court (Mahkamah Konstitusi) to hear disputes concerning
legality of law, general elections, dissolution of political parties, and the scope of authority of
state institutions; and the Religious Court (Pengadilan Agama) to deal with codified Islamic Law
(sharia) cases.[120] In addition, the Judicial Commission (Komisi Yudisial) monitors the
performance of judges.

Parties and elections

Main articles: List of political parties in Indonesia and Elections in Indonesia

 Joko Widodo
7th President of Indonesia.

Jusuf Kalla
10th and 12th Vice President of Indonesia

Since 1999, Indonesia has had a multi-party system. In all legislative elections since the fall of
New Order, no political party has managed to win an overall majority of seats. The Indonesian
Democratic Party of Struggle (PDI-P), which secured the most votes in the 2014 elections, is the
party of the current President, Joko Widodo.[121] The Great Indonesia Movement Party
(Gerindra) is the third largest political party.[122] Other notable parties include the Party of the
Functional Groups (Golkar), the Democratic Party, and the National Awakening Party (PKB).
Based on the 2014 elections, the DPR consists of 10 political parties, with a parliamentary
threshold of 3.5% of the national vote.[123] The first general election was held in 1955 to elect
members of the DPR and the Konstituante. At the national level, Indonesians did not elect a
president until 2004. Since then, the president is elected for a five-year term, as are the party-
aligned members of the DPR and the non-partisan DPD.[118][114] Beginning with 2015 local
elections, Indonesia starts to elect governors and mayors simultaneously on the same date.

Political divisions

Main article: Subdivisions of Indonesia

Indonesia consists of 34 provinces, five of which have special status. Each province has its own
legislature (Dewan Perwakilan Rakyat Daerah, DPRD) and an elected governor. The provinces
are subdivided into regencies (kabupaten) and cities (kota), led by regents (bupati) and mayors
(walikota) respectively and also their own legislature (DPRD Kabupaten/Kota). These are further
subdivided into districts (kecamatan or distrik in Papua), and again into administrative villages
(either desa, kelurahan, kampung, nagari in West Sumatra, or gampong in Aceh). This number
has evolved over time, the most recent change being the split of North Kalimantan from East
Kalimantan in October 2012.[124]

The village is the lowest level of government administration. Furthermore, it is divided into
several community groups (rukun warga, RW) which are further divided into neighbourhood
groups (rukun tetangga, RT). In Java, the village (desa) is divided into smaller units called dusun
or dukuh (hamlets), which are the same as RW. Following the implementation of regional
autonomy measures in 2001, regencies and cities have become key administrative units,
responsible for providing most government services. The village administration level is the most
influential on a citizen's daily life and handles matters of a village or neighbourhood through an
elected village chief (lurah or kepala desa).

Aceh, Jakarta, Yogyakarta, Papua, and West Papua have greater legislative privileges and a
higher degree of autonomy from the central government than the other provinces. Aceh has the
right to create certain elements of an independent legal system and several regional parties
participate only in elections within the province. [125] In 2003, it instituted a form of sharia.[126]
Yogyakarta was granted the status of Special Region in recognition of its pivotal role in
supporting the Republicans during the National Revolution and its willingness to join Indonesia
as a republic.[127] Papua, formerly known as Irian Jaya, was granted special autonomy status in
2001 and was split into Papua and West Papua in February 2003. [128] Jakarta is the country's
special capital region (Daerah Khusus Ibukota, DKI).

Aceh
North
Sumatra
West
Sumatra
 Riau
Riau
Islands
Bangka
Belitung
Jambi
South
Sumatra
Bengkulu
Lampung
Banten
Jakarta
West
Java
Central
Java
Yogyakarta
East
Java
Bali
West Nusa
Tenggara
East Nusa
Tenggara
West
Kalimantan
Central
Kalimantan
North
Kalimantan
East
Kalimantan
South
Kalimantan
North
Sulawesi
North
Maluku
Central
Sulawesi
Gorontalo
West
Sulawesi
South
Sulawesi
Southeast
Sulawesi
Maluku
West
Papua
Papua

Foreign relations

Main article: Foreign relations of Indonesia

Embassy of Indonesia, Canberra, Australia

Indonesia currently maintains 132 diplomatic missions abroad, including 95 embassies.[129] The
country adheres to what it calls a "free and active" foreign policy, seeking to play a role in
regional affairs commensurate with its size and location but avoiding involvement in conflicts
among other countries.[130] In contrast to Sukarno's anti-imperialistic antipathy to the West and
tensions with Malaysia, foreign policy since the New Order has been based on economic and
political cooperation with the West.[131] Indonesia maintains close relations with its neighbours,
and is a founding member of ASEAN and the East Asia Summit.[132] The country restored
relations with China in 1990 following a freeze in place since anti-communist purge in the mid
1960s.[133] Indonesia also developed close relations with the Soviet Union during the first half of
1960s.[134] As with the majority of countries in the Muslim world, Indonesia does not have
diplomatic relations with Israel and has strongly supported the state of Palestine. It does,
however, maintain quiet relations with Israel, particularly in trade, tourism and security.[135]

Indonesia has been a member of the United Nations since 1950, and was a founding member of
the Non-Aligned Movement (NAM) and the Organisation of Islamic Cooperation (OIC).[136]
Indonesia is signatory to the ASEAN Free Trade Area agreement, the Cairns Group, and the
World Trade Organization (WTO), and an occasional member of OPEC.[137] During the
Indonesia–Malaysia confrontation, Indonesia withdrew from the UN due to the latter's election to
the United Nations Security Council, although it returned 18 months later. It marked the first
time in UN history that a member state had attempted a withdrawal. [138] Indonesia has been a
humanitarian and development aid recipient since 1966, [139][140][141] and recently, the country has
expressed interest in becoming an aid donor.[142]

Military

Main articles: Indonesian National Armed Forces and Military history of Indonesia
Indonesian Armed Forces. Clockwise from top: Indonesian Army during training session, Sukhoi
Su-30, Pindad Anoa, and Indonesian naval vessel KRI Sultan Iskandar Muda 367.

Indonesia's Armed Forces (TNI) include the Army (TNI–AD), Navy (TNI–AL, which includes
Marine Corps), and Air Force (TNI–AU).[143] The army has about 400,000 active-duty personnel.
Defense spending in the national budget was 0.8% of GDP in 2017,[144] and is controversially
supplemented by revenue from military commercial interests and foundations. [145] The Armed
Forces was formed during the Indonesian National Revolution, when it undertook a guerrilla
warfare along with informal militia. As a result of this, and the need to maintain internal security,
all branches of the TNI have been organised along territorial lines, aimed at defeating internal
enemies and potential external invaders.[citation needed] Since its founding, the military has always
had a strong political influence, reaching its greatest extent during the New Order. Following
political reforms in 1998, the TNI's formal representation in parliament was removed.
Nevertheless, its political influence remains, albeit at a reduced level. [146]

Since independence, the country has struggled to maintain unity against local insurgencies and
separatist movements.[147] Some, notably in Aceh and Papua, have led to an armed conflict, and
subsequent allegations of human rights abuses and brutality from all sides. [148][149] The former
was resolved peacefully in 2005,[79] while the latter still continues, amid a significant, albeit
imperfect, implementation of regional autonomy laws, and a reported decline in the levels of
violence and human rights abuses, since the presidency of Susilo Bambang Yudhoyono.[150]
Other engagements of the army include the campaign against the Netherlands New Guinea to
incorporate the territory into Indonesia, the Konfrontasi to oppose the creation of Malaysia, the
mass killings of PKI, and the invasion of East Timor, which was–and remains–Indonesia's
largest military operation.[151][152]

Economy
Main articles: Economy of Indonesia and Economic history of Indonesia

Jakarta, the capital city and the country's commercial centre

Indonesia has a mixed economy in which both the private sector and government play significant
roles.[153] The country is the largest economy in Southeast Asia, a member of the G20,[154] and
classified as newly industrialized country. As of 2018, it is the world's 16th largest economy by
nominal GDP and 7th largest in terms of GDP at PPP, estimated to be US$1.074 trillion and
US$3.481 trillion respectively. Its per capita GDP in PPP is US$13,120 while nominal per capita
GDP is US$4,116.[8] The debt ratio to GDP is 29.2%.[155] The services are the economy's largest
sector and accounts for 43.6% of GDP (2017), followed by industry (39.3%) and agriculture
(13.1%).[156] Since 2009, it has employed more people than other sectors, accounting for 47.1%
of the total labour force, followed by agriculture (31.1%) and industry (21.7%). [157]

Over time, the structure of the economy has changed considerably. [158] Historically, it has been
heavily weighted towards agriculture, reflecting both its stage of economic development and
government policies in the 1950s and 1960s to promote agricultural self-sufficiency.[158] A
gradual process of industrialisation and urbanisation began in the late 1960s, and accelerated in
the 1980s as falling oil prices saw the government focus on diversifying away from oil exports
and towards manufactured exports.[158] This development continued throughout the 1980s and
into the next decade despite the 1990 oil price shock, during which the GDP rose at an average
rate of 7.1%. The consistent growth saw the official poverty rate falling from 60% to 15%. [159]
From the mid 1980s, the economy became more globally integrated as trade barriers were
reduced. The growth, however, ended with the 1997 Asian financial crisis, which severely
affected Indonesia both economically and politically. It caused a real GDP contraction by 13.1%
in 1998, and inflation reached 72% (later slowed to 2% in 1999). The economy reached its low
point in mid-1999 with only 0.8% real GDP growth.

A proportional representation of Indonesia's exports (2012)

Recent strong economic growth has been accompanied by relatively steady inflation, [160] and an
increase in GDP deflator and Consumer Price Index.[161] Since 2007, with improvement in
banking sector and domestic consumption, growth has accelerated to between 4% and 6%
annually.[162] This helped Indonesia weather the 2008–2009 Great Recession,[163] during which
the economy performed strongly. In 2011, the country regained the investment grade rating it
had lost in 1997.[164] As of 2017, 10.12% of the population lived below the poverty line and the
official open unemployment rate was 4.3%.[165][166]
Indonesia ran a trade surplus in 2016, with total exports and imports of US$140 billion and
US$132 billion, respectively. During the last five years, exports and imports have decreased at
an annual rate of 3 to 4.8%, from US$224 billion and US$173 billion, respectively in 2011. The
country's main exports are led by palm oil and coal briquettes, with jewellery, cars and vehicle
parts, rubber, and copper ore making up the majority of other exports, while imports mainly
consist of refined petroleum and crude petroleum, with telephones, computers, vehicle parts and
wheat cover the majority of other imports. The country's main export markets are China (12%),
United States (11%), Japan (11%), Singapore (8%) and India (7.2%), while its main import
partners are China (23%), Singapore (11%), Japan (9.8%), Thailand (6.5%) and Malaysia
(5.4%).[15]

Transport

Main article: Transport in Indonesia

Major transport in Indonesia. Clockwise from top: TransJakarta bus, Jabodetabek Commuter
Line, Garuda Indonesia Boeing 737-800, Pelni ship

Indonesia's transport system has been shaped over time by the economic resource base of an
archipelago, and the distribution of its 250 million people highly concentrated on Java.[167] All
transport modes play a role in the country's transport system and are generally complementary
rather than competitive. In 2016, the transport sector generated about 5.2% of GDP. [168]

The road transport system is predominant, with a total length of 537,838 kilometres (334,197
miles) as of 2016.[169] Jakarta has the longest bus rapid transit system in the world, boasting some
230.9 kilometres (143.5 miles) in 13 corridors and 10 cross-corridor routes.[170] Rickshaws such
as bajaj and becak, and share taxis such as Angkot and Metromini are a common sight in the
country. Most of Indonesia's railways are located in Java, used for both passenger and freight
transport. The inter-city rail network is complemented by local commuter rail services in Greater
Jakarta, Surabaya and Bandung. Mass rapid transit and light rail transit systems are currently
under construction in Jakarta and Palembang,[171][172] and a plan to build a high-speed rail was
announced in 2015, the first in Southeast Asia.[173]

Indonesia's largest airport, Soekarno–Hatta International Airport is the busiest in the Southern
Hemisphere, serving 63 million passengers in 2017.[174] Ngurah Rai International Airport and
Juanda International Airport are the country's second and third busiest airport respectively.
Garuda Indonesia, the country's flag carrier since 1949, is one of the world's leading airlines and
a member of the global airline alliance SkyTeam. Port of Tanjung Priok is the busiest and most
advanced Indonesian port,[175] handling more than 50% of Indonesia's trans-shipment cargo
traffic.

Energy

Main article: Energy in Indonesia

In 2016, Indonesia was the world's 9th largest energy producer with 16.8 quadrillion BTU, and
the 15th largest energy consumer, with 7.5 quadrillion BTU.[176] The country has significant
energy resources, such as 22 billion barrels of conventional oil and gas reserves (of which about
4 billion are recoverable), 8 billion barrels of oil-equivalent of coal-based methane (CBM)
resources, and 28 billion tonnes of recoverable coal.[177] While reliance of domestic coal and
imported oil has increased,[178] Indonesia has seen progress in renewable energy, with
hydropower being the country's largest source of renewable power, and has the potential for
geothermal, solar, wind, biomass and ocean energy. [179] Indonesia has set out to achieve 23% use
of renewable energy by 2025, and 31% by 2050.[178] As of 2015, Indonesia's total national
installed power generation capacity stands at 55,528.51 MW. [180]

Jatiluhur Dam, the country's largest dam, serves several purposes including the provision of
hydroelectric power generation, water supply, flood control, irrigation and aquaculture. The
earth-fill dam is 105 m (344 ft) high and withholds a reservoir of 3,000,000,000 m3
(2,432,140 acre⋅ft). It helps supplying water to Jakarta and irrigating 240,000 ha (593,053 acres)
of rice fields,[181] and has an installed capacity of 186.5 MW which feeds into the Java grid
managed by the State Electricity Company (Perusahaan Listrik Negara, PLN).

Science and technology

Main article: Science and technology in Indonesia

Palapa satellite launch in 1984.

Indonesia's expenditure on science and technology is relatively low, at less than 0.1% of GDP
(2017).[182] As a result, it is not considered as a leading country on the subject. However, there
are several examples of notable scientific and technological developments by Indonesians.
Living in agrarian and maritime culture, they have been famous in some traditional technologies.
In the former, as with other nations in Southeast Asia, they are famous in paddy cultivation
technique, terasering. Bugis and Makassar people are well known in the latter, making wooden
sailing vessel called pinisi boats.[183] In the 1980s, Indonesian engineer Tjokorda Raka Sukawati
invented a road construction technique named Sosrobahu that allows long stretches of flyovers to
be constructed above existing main roads with minimum traffic disruption. It later became
widely used in several countries.[184] The country is also an active producer of passenger trains
and freight wagons with its state-owned train manufacturer company, the Indonesian Railway
Industry (INKA), and has exported trains abroad.[185]

Indonesia has a long history in developing military and small commuter aircraft as the only
country in Southeast Asia to produce and develop its own aircraft. With state-owned aircraft
company, the Indonesian Aerospace (PT. Dirgantara Indonesia), Indonesia has produced aircraft
components for Boeing and Airbus, and with EADS CASA of Spain, developed the CN-235
aircraft that has been exported abroad.[186] Former President B. J. Habibie played an important
role in this achievement.[187] Indonesia has also joined the South Korean program to manufacture
the fifth-generation jet fighter KAI KF-X.[188]

Indonesia has its own space program and space agency, the National Institute of Aeronautics and
Space (Lembaga Penerbangan dan Antariksa Nasional, LAPAN). In the 1970s, Indonesia
became the first developing country to operate its own satellite system called Palapa.[189] It is a
series of communication satellites owned by Indosat Ooredoo. The first satellite, PALAPA A1
was launched on 8 July 1976 from the Kennedy Space Center in Florida, United States.[190] As of
2017, Indonesia has launched 16 satellites for various purposes,[191] and the space agency has
expressed desire to put satellites in orbit with native launch vehicles by 2040. [192]

Tourism

Main article: Tourism in Indonesia

Borobudur, the world's largest Buddhist temple, is the single most visited tourist attraction in
Indonesia.[193]

Tourism contributes around US$28.2 billion to GDP in 2017.[194] In the same year, Indonesia
received 14.04 million visitors, a growth of 21.8% in one year, [195] spending an average of
US$2,009 per person during their visit. China, Singapore, Malaysia, Australia, and Japan are the
top five source of visitors to Indonesia. Since January 2011, Wonderful Indonesia has been the
slogan of an international marketing campaign directed by the Ministry of Tourism to promote
tourism.[196]

Nature and culture are major attractions of Indonesian tourism. The former can boast a unique
combination of tropical climate, vast archipelago and long stretch of beaches, and are
complemented by a rich cultural heritage that reflects Indonesia's dynamic history and ethnic
diversity. Indonesia has a well-preserved natural ecosystem with rain forests that stretch over
about 57% of Indonesia's land (225 million acres). Forests on Sumatra and Kalimantan are
examples of popular destinations, such as the Orangutan wildlife reserve. Moreover, Indonesia
has one of world's longest coastlines, measuring 54,716 kilometres (33,999 mi). The ancient
Prambanan and Borobudur temples, Toraja and Bali, with its Hindu festivities, are some of the
popular destinations for cultural tourism.

According to Conservation International, Raja Ampat Islands has the highest recorded level of
diversity in marine life.[197]

Indonesia has 8 UNESCO World Heritage Sites, including the Borobudur Temple Compounds
and the Komodo National Park; and a further 19 in tentative list that includes the Jakarta Old
Town, Bunaken National Park and Raja Ampat Islands.[198] The heritage tourism is focused on
specific interest on Indonesian history, such as colonial architectural heritage of the Dutch East
Indies. Other activities include visiting museums, churches, forts and historical colonial
buildings, as well as spending some nights in colonial heritage hotels. The popular heritage
tourism attractions include the Jakarta Old Town and the royal Javanese courts of Yogyakarta,
Surakarta and the Mangkunegaran.

The 2017 Travel and Tourism Competitiveness Report ranks Indonesia 42nd out of 136 countries
overall with a score of 4.2.[194] It ranks the price competitiveness of Indonesia's tourism sector
the 5th out of 136 countries. It states that Indonesia has a strong visa policy and scored well on
international openness (ranked 2nd and 17th respectively). The country also scores well on
natural and cultural resources (ranked 17th and 23rd respectively). However, Indonesia has a low
score in infrastructure (ranked 96th), as some aspect of tourist service infrastructure are
underdeveloped.[194]

Demographics
Main articles: Demographics of Indonesia, Indonesians, and Women in Indonesia

Population pyramid 2016

The 2010 census recorded Indonesia's population as 237.6 million, with high population growth
at 1.9%.[199] 58% of the population lives in Java,[200] the world's most populous island.[13] The
population density is 138 people per km2 (357 per sq mi), ranking 88th in the world,[201] although
Java has a population density of 1,067 people per km 2 (2,435 per sq mi). The population is
unevenly spread throughout the islands within a variety of habitats and levels of development,
ranging from the megalopolis of Jakarta to uncontacted tribes in Papua.[202] In 1961, the first
post-colonial census gave a total population of 97 million. [203] The country currently possess a
relatively young population, with a median age of 30.2 years (2017 estimate). [81] The population
is expected to grow to around 295 million by 2030 and 321 million by 2050.[204] Around 8
million Indonesians live overseas, with most of them settled in Malaysia, Netherlands, Saudi
Arabia, United Arab Emirates, Hong Kong, Singapore, United States, and Australia.[205]

Ethnicity and language

Main articles: Ethnic groups in Indonesia, Native Indonesians, and Languages of Indonesia
A map of major ethnic groups in Indonesia

Indonesia is a very ethnically diverse country, with around 300 distinct native ethnic groups. [206]
Most Indonesians descend from Austronesian-speaking peoples whose languages can be traced
to Proto-Austronesian, which possibly originated in what is now Taiwan. Another major
grouping are the Melanesians, who inhabit eastern Indonesia (Maluku Islands and Western New
Guinea).[30][207][208] The Javanese are the largest ethnic group, comprising 40.2% of the
population.[4] They are predominantly located in the central to eastern parts of Java and also
significant numbers in most provinces of Indonesia. The Sundanese, Batak and Madurese are the
largest non-Javanese groups.[b] A sense of Indonesian nationhood exists alongside strong
regional identities.[209]

A manuscript from the early 1800s from central Sumatra, in Batak Toba language, one of many
languages of Indonesia

The country's official language is Indonesian, a variant of Malay based on its prestige dialect,
which for centuries had been the lingua franca of the archipelago. It was promoted by
nationalists in the 1920s, and declared the official language under the name Bahasa Indonesia in
1945.[210] As a result of contact with other languages spanning centuries, it is rich in local and
foreign influences, including from Javanese, Sundanese, Minangkabau, Hindi, Sanskrit, Chinese,
Arabic, Dutch, Portuguese and English.[211][212][213] Nearly every Indonesian speaks the language
due to its widespread use in education, academics, communications, business, politics, and mass
media. Most Indonesians also speak at least one of more than 700 local languages, [3] often as
their first language. Some belong to the Austronesian language family, while over 270 Papuan
languages are spoken in eastern Indonesia.[3] Of these, Javanese is the most widely spoken.[81]

In 1930, Dutch and other Europeans (Totok), Eurasians, and derivative people like the Indos,
numbered 240,000 or 0.4% of the total population.[214] Historically, they constituted only a tiny
fraction of the native population and continue to do so today. Despite the Dutch presence for
almost 350 years, the Dutch language has no official status[215] and the small minority that can
speak the language fluently are either educated members of the oldest generation, or employed in
the legal profession,[216] as certain law codes are still only available in Dutch. [217]

Urban centres
  v
 t
 e

Largest cities or towns in Indonesia

Statistics Indonesia (BPS) 2014[218]
Ran Provin Ran
Name Pop. Name Province Pop.
k ce k
10,075,3 South 1,429,2
1 Jakarta Jakarta 11 Makassar
10 Sulawesi 42
Surabay East 2,853,66 West 1,030,7
2 12 Bogor
a Java 1 Java 20
West 2,663,01 Riau 1,030,5
3 Bekasi 13 Batam
Java 1 Islands 28
West 2,470,80 Pekanbar 1,005,0
4 Bandung 14 Riau
Java 2 u 14
North
2,191,14 Bandar Lampun
5 Medan Sumatr 15 960,695
0 Lampung g
Jakarta a
West 2,033,50 West Bekasi
6 Depok 16 Padang 880,646
Java 8 Sumatra
Tangera 1,999,89
7 Banten 17 Denpasar Bali 863,600
ng 4
Semaran Central 1,584,88
8 18 Malang East Java 845,973
g Java 1 Bandung
Surabaya
South East
Palemba 1,558,49 Samarind
9 Sumatr 19 Kalimant 797,006
ng 4 a
a an
South South
1,492,99 Banjarma
10 Tangera Banten 20 Kalimant 666,223
9 sin
ng an

Religion

Main article: Religion in Indonesia

Religion in Indonesia (2010)[5]
Religion Percent
Islam   87.2%
Protestantism   7%
Roman Catholicism   2.9%
Hinduism   1.6%
Buddhism   0.72%
Confucianism and others   0.55%

While religious freedom is stipulated in the constitution, [219][117] the government officially
recognises only six religions: Islam, Protestantism, Roman Catholicism, Hinduism, Buddhism,
and Confucianism;[220] although indigenous faiths are also recognised.[221] Indonesia is the
world's most populous Muslim-majority country with 227 million adherents in 2017, with the
majority being Sunnis (99%).[222][81] The Shias and Ahmadis respectively constitute 0.5% and
0.2% of the Muslim population.[223][224] Christians made up almost 10% of the population (7%
Protestant, 2.9% Roman Catholic), 1.6% were Hindu, and 0.8% were Buddhist or other. Most
Indonesian Hindus are Balinese,[225] and most Buddhists are ethnic Chinese.[226] An
overwhelming majority of Indonesians consider religion to be very important, [227] and its role are
present in almost all aspects of society, including politics, education, marriage, [228] and public
holidays. Ten out of 15 national holidays scheduled for 2019 are related to religion. [229]

A Hindu shrine dedicated to Sri Baduga Maharaja in Pura Parahyangan Agung Jagatkarta,
Bogor. Hinduism left a significant impact and imprint in Indonesian art and culture.

Prior to the arrival of Hinduism, Buddhism and Abrahamic religions, the natives of the
Indonesian archipelago practiced indigenous animism and dynamism, beliefs that are common to
Austronesian people.[230] They venerated and revered ancestral spirit, and believed that
supernatural spirits (hyang) may inhabit certain places such as large trees, stones, forests,
mountains, or sacred places.[230] Examples of Indonesian native belief systems include the
Sundanese Sunda Wiwitan, Dayak's Kaharingan, Torajan Aluk' To Dolo, Manusela and Nuaulu's
Naurus, Batak's Parmalim faith, and the Javanese Kejawèn. They have had significant impact on
how other faiths are practiced, evidenced by a large proportion of people—such as the Javanese
abangan, Balinese Hindus, and Dayak Christians—practicing a less orthodox, syncretic form of
their religion.[231]

Hindu influences reached the archipelago as early as the first century CE. [232] Around 130, a
Sundanese kingdom named Salakanagara emerged in western Java, and is the first historically
recorded Indianised kingdom in the archipelago, created by an Indian trader after marrying a
local Sundanese princess.[233] Arriving around the sixth century,[234] the history of Buddhism in
Indonesia is closely related to that of Hinduism, as a number of empires based on Buddhist
culture were established around the same period. The archipelago has witnessed the rise and fall
of powerful and influential Hindu and Buddhist empires such as Majapahit, Sailendra, Srivijaya
and Mataram. Though no longer a majority, Hinduism and Buddhism remain defining influences
in Indonesian culture.

Eid al-Fitr mass prayer in Istiqlal Mosque, Jakarta

Islam was introduced to the archipelago by Sunni traders of the Shafi'i school of jurisprudence,
as well as Sufi traders from the Indian subcontinent and southern Arabian peninsula.[235] Its
spread was accelerated by missionary works, such as by the Wali Sanga and Chinese explorer
Zheng He, and military campaigns by several sultanates. [236][237] For the most part, Islam overlaid
and mixed with non-Islamic cultural and religious influences that resulted in a distinct form of
Islam,[40] particularly in comparison to the Middle East.[238] Trends of thought within Islam in the
country can be broadly categorized into two orientations; "modernism" which closely adheres to
orthodoxy while embracing modern learning, and "traditionalism" which tends to follow the
interpretations of local religious leaders and teachers at Islamic boarding schools (pesantren),
that are supported by Indonesia's two largest Islamic civil society groups Muhammadiyah and
Nahdlatul Ulama respectively.

Mass at the Jakarta Cathedral

Catholicism was brought to the archipelago by Portuguese traders and missionaries such as Jesuit
Francis Xavier, who visited and baptised several thousand locals.[239][240] Its spread faced
difficulty due to the VOC policy of banning the religion and the Dutch hostility due to the Eighty
Years' War against Catholic Spain's rule. In present-day Flores, the royal house of Larantuka
formed the only native Catholic kingdom in Southeast Asia around 16th century, with the first
king named Lorenzo.[241] Protestantism is largely a result of Calvinist and Lutheran missionary
efforts during the Dutch colonial era.[242][243][244] Although they are the most common branch, a
multitude of other denominations can be found elsewhere in Indonesia.[245] The Batak Protestant
Christian Church, founded in 1861 by German Lutheran missionary Ludwig Ingwer
Nommensen, is the largest one.[246]
Education and health

Main articles: Education in Indonesia and Health in Indonesia

Bandung Institute of Technology in West Java

Education in Indonesia is compulsory for 12 years.[247] Parents can choose between state-run,
non sectarian public schools supervised by the Ministry of Education and Culture or private or
semi-private religious (usually Islamic) schools supervised and financed by the Department of
Religious Affairs.[248] Private international schools, which are not based on the national
curriculum, are also available. The enrolment rate is 90% for primary education, 76% for
secondary education, and 24% for tertiary education (2015). The literacy rate is 95.22% (2016)
and the government spends about 3.59% of GDP (2015) on education.[249] In 2018, there were
more than 4,500 higher educational institutions in Indonesia. [250] The top universities in the
country are University of Indonesia, Bandung Institute of Technology and Gadjah Mada
University.[250] All of them are located in Java. Andalas University is pioneering the
establishment of a leading university outside of Java. [251]

Government expenditure on healthcare is about 3.1% of GDP in 2012 [252] and is expected to
increase by 11.7% a year and reach US$47.1 billion by 2022.[253] Citizens are protected under the
National Health Insurance (Jaminan Kesehatan Nasional, JKN), a scheme to implement
universal health care launched in 2014.[254] Under JKN, citizens will receive coverage for a range
of health services from public as well as private firms that have opted to join the scheme. In
recent decades, health indicators have significantly improved such as rising life expectancy
(from 63 in 1990 to 71 in 2012) and declining child mortality (from 84 deaths per 1,000 births in
1990 to 27 deaths in 2015).[255] Nevertheless, Indonesia continues to face health challenges that
include maternal and child health, low air quality, malnutrition, high rate of smoking, and
communicable diseases.

Issues

See also: Human rights in Indonesia

Close to 80% of Indonesia's population lives in the western parts of the archipelago, [256] but they
are growing at a slower pace than the rest of the country. This has created a gap in wealth,
unemployment rate, and health between densely populated islands and economic centres (such as
Sumatra and Java) and sparsely populated, disadvantaged areas (such as Maluku and
Papua).[257][258] Racism, especially against Chinese Indonesians since the colonial period, is still
common today.[259][260] Religious intolerance has long been a feature of the country's society. In
2017, the Chinese Christian governor of Jakarta Basuki Tjahaja Purnama was sentenced to two
years in prison after being found guilty of blasphemy.[261] LGBT issues have recently gained
attention in Indonesia.[262] While homosexuality is legal in most parts of the country, it is illegal
in Aceh and South Sumatra.[263] LGBT people and activists have regularly faced fierce
opposition, intimidation, and discrimination, launched even by authorities.[261]

Culture
Main article: Culture of Indonesia

Cultural history of the Indonesian archipelago spans more than two millennia. Influences from
the Indian subcontinent, mainland China, the Middle East, Europe,[264][265] and the Austronesian
peoples have historically shaped the cultural, linguistic and religious make-up of the archipelago.
As a result, modern-day Indonesia has a multicultural, multilingual and multi-ethnic
society,[3][206] with complex cultural mixture that differs significantly from the original
indigenous cultures. Indonesia currently holds 9 items of UNESCO's Intangible Cultural
Heritage, which include wayang puppet theatre, kris, batik, education and training on making
Indonesian batik, angklung, saman dance, noken, and the three genres of traditional Balinese
dance.[266]

Art and architecture

Main articles: Indonesian art and Architecture of Indonesia

Traditional Balinese painting depicting cockfighting

Indonesian arts include both age-old art forms developed through centuries, and a recently
developed contemporary art. Despite often displaying local ingenuity, Indonesian arts have
absorbed foreign influences—most notably from India, the Arab world, China and Europe, as a
result of contacts and interactions facilitated, and often motivated, by trade. [267] The art of
painting is quite developed in Bali, where its people are famed for their artistry.[268] Their
painting tradition started as classical Kamasan or Wayang style visual narrative, derived from
visual art discovered on candi bas reliefs in eastern Java.[268] It is notable for its highly vigorous
yet refined intricate art that resembles baroque folk art with tropical themes. [268]
An avenue of Tongkonan houses in a Torajan village

Megalithic sculpture has been discovered on several sites in Indonesia. [269] Subsequently, tribal
art has flourished within the culture of Nias, Batak, Asmat, Dayak and Toraja.[270][271] Wood and
stone are common materials used as the media for sculpting among these tribes. Between the 8th
and 15th century, Javanese civilisation has developed a refined stone sculpting art and
architecture which was influenced by Hindu-Buddhist Dharmic civilisation. The temples of
Borobudur and Prambanan are among the most famous examples of the practice. [272]

As with the arts, Indonesian architecture has absorbed foreign influences that has brought
cultural changes and profound effect on building styles and techniques. The most dominant
influence has traditionally been Indian; however, Chinese, Arab, and European influences have
also been significant. Traditional carpentry, masonry, stone and woodwork techniques and
decorations have thrived in vernacular architecture, with numbers of traditional houses' (rumah
adat) styles have been developed. The traditional houses and settlements of the numerous ethnic
groups of Indonesia vary widely and have their own specific history. They are at the centre of a
web of customs, social relations, traditional laws and religions that bind the villagers
together.[273] Examples include Toraja's Tongkonan, Minangkabau's Rumah Gadang and
Rangkiang, Javanese style Pendopo pavilion with Joglo style roof, Dayak's longhouses, various
Malay houses, Balinese houses and temples, and also various styles of rice barns (lumbung).

Music, dance and clothing

Main articles: Music of Indonesia, Dance in Indonesia, and National costume of Indonesia
Indonesian music and dance. Clockwise from top: A gamelan player, Angklung, Sundanese
Jaipongan Mojang Priangan dance, Balinese Pendet dance

The music of Indonesia predates historical records. Various indigenous tribes incorporate chants
and songs accompanied with musical instruments in their rituals. Angklung, kacapi suling,
siteran, gong, gamelan, degung, gong kebyar, bumbung, talempong, kulintang and sasando are
examples of traditional Indonesian instruments. The diverse world of Indonesian music genres
are the result of the musical creativity of its people, and subsequent cultural encounters with
foreign influences. These include gambus and qasida from the Middle East,[274] keroncong from
Portugal,[275] and dangdut—one of the most popular music genres in Indonesia—with notable
Hindi influence as well as Malay orchestras.[276] Today, the Indonesian music industry enjoys
both nationwide and regional popularity in Malaysia, Singapore and Brunei, due to common
culture and intelligible languages between Indonesian and Malay.

An Indonesian batik

Indonesian dances have a diverse history, with more than 3,000 original dances. Scholars believe
that they have had their beginning in rituals and religious worship, [277] such as war dances, dance
of witch doctors, and dance to call for rain or any agricultural-related rituals such as Hudoq.
Indonesian dances derive its influences from the archipelago's three distinct historical eras: the
prehistoric and tribal era, the Hindu-Buddhist era, and the Islamic era. In recent times, modern
dances are also showcased in show business, such as those that accompany music performances
or entertainment. Influenced by Western culture, urban teen dances such as street dances have
gained popularity among the Indonesian youth. Traditional dances, however, such as the
Javanese, Sundanese, Minang, Balinese, Saman continue to be a living and dynamic traditions.

Indonesia has a variety style of clothing as a result from its long and rich cultural history. Its
national costume is derived from the indigenous culture of the country and traditional textile
traditions. Since Java is the political, economic and cultural center of Indonesia, the Javanese
Batik and Kebaya[278] are arguably Indonesia's most recognised national costume, although they
originally belong not only to the Javanese, but also Sundanese and Balinese cultures as well. [279]
Each province in the country has their own representation of traditional attire and dress, [264] such
as Ulos of Batak from North Sumatra; Songket of Malay and Minangkabau from Sumatra; and
Ikat of Sasak from Lombok. National costumes are worn during traditional weddings, formal
ceremonies and music performances where attires of regional costumes are clearly visible
ranging from traditional to modern attire, as well as on government and official occasions, [279]
with the most visible display being those worn by diplomats, the President and the First Lady. In
2009, Batik was recognised by UNESCO as a Masterpiece of Oral and Intangible Heritage of
Humanity.[280]

Theatre and cinema

Main article: Cinema of Indonesia

Pandava and Krishna in an act of the wayang wong performance

Wayang, the Javanese, Sundanese, and Balinese shadow puppet theatre display several
mythological legends such as Ramayana and Mahabharata.[281] Various Balinese dance drama
can also be included within the traditional form of Indonesian drama. Another form of local
drama is the Javanese Ludruk and Ketoprak, the Sundanese Sandiwara, and Betawi
Lenong.[282][283] These dramas incorporate humor and jest, and often involve audiences in their
performances.[284] Some theatre tradition involves not only drama but also music, dancing and
the silat martial art such as Randai from Minangkabau people of West Sumatra. It is usually
performed for traditional ceremonies and festivals,[285][286] and based on semi-historical
Minangkabau legends and love story.[286] Modern performing art also developed in Indonesia
with their distinct style of drama. Notable theatre, dance, and drama troupe such as Teater Koma
are popular in the country as it often portrays social and political satire of Indonesian society.[287]
Advertisement for Loetoeng Kasaroeng (1926), the first fiction film produced in the Dutch East
Indies.

The first domestically produced film in the archipelago was Loetoeng Kasaroeng, a silent film
by Dutch director L. Heuveldorp. This adaptation of the Sundanese legend was made with local
actors by the NV Java Film Company in Bandung. After independence, the film industry
expanded rapidly, with six films made in 1949 rising to 58 in 1955. Djamaluddin Malik's Persari
Film often emulated American genre films and the working practices of the Hollywood studio
system, as well as remaking popular Indian films.[288] The Sukarno government used the cinema
for nationalistic, anti-Western purposes and foreign films were subsequently banned. After the
overthrow of Sukarno, films during the New Order were regulated through a censorship code
that aimed to maintain social order.[289] The film industry's popularity peaked in the 1980s and
dominated cinemas,[290] although it declined significantly in the early 1990s. [291] Films made
during this period include Pintar-pintar Bodoh (1982), Maju Kena Mundur Kena (1984),
Nagabonar (1987), Catatan Si Boy (1989), and Warkop's comedy films. Deddy Mizwar, Eva
Arnaz, Meriam Bellina, and Rano Karno were among the well-known actors during this period.

Independent filmmaking was a rebirth of the film industry in the post-Suharto era, where films
started addressing topics that were previously banned, such as religion, race, and love.[289]
Between 2000 and 2005, the number of films released each year steadily increased. [290] Riri Riza
and Mira Lesmana were among the new generation of film figures who co-directed Kuldesak
(1999), Petualangan Sherina (2000), Ada Apa dengan Cinta? (2002) and Laskar Pelangi (2008).
In 2016, Warkop DKI Reborn: Jangkrik Boss Part 1 smashed box office records, becoming the
most-watched Indonesian film with 6.8 million tickets sold.[292] Indonesia has held annual film
festivals and awards, including the Indonesian Film Festival (Festival Film Indonesia) that has
been held intermittently since 1955. It hands out the Citra Award, the film industry's most
prestigious award. From 1973 to 1992, the festival was held annually and then discontinued until
it was later revived in 2004.

Media and literature

Main articles: Media of Indonesia and Indonesian literature

MetroTV at Gelora Bung Karno Stadium, reporting the 2010 AFF Championship.

Media freedom increased considerably after the fall of New Order, during which the Ministry of
Information monitored and controlled domestic media, and restricted foreign media. [293] The
television market includes several national commercial networks and provincial networks that
compete with public TVRI, which held monopoly on TV broadcasting from 1962 to 1989. By
early 21st century, the improved communications system had brought television signals to every
village and people can choose from up to 11 channels.[294] Private radio stations carry their own
news bulletins and foreign broadcasters supply programs. The number of printed publications
has increased significantly since 1998.[294] More than 30 million cell phones are sold each year
and 27% of them are local brands.[295]

Pramoedya Ananta Toer (c. 1955)

Like other developing countries, Indonesia began the development of Internet in the early 1990s.
Its first commercial Internet service provider, PT. Indo Internet, began operation in Jakarta in
1994.[296] With estimated users of 88 million as of 2016, Indonesia is among the largest countries
by number of Internet users,[297] though penetration is relatively low. The majority of Internet
users are between the ages of 18 and 25, with an average usage of 4.7 hours daily, [298] and
depend primarily on mobile phones for access, which outnumber both laptop and personal
computer users.[297]
The oldest evidence of writing in the Indonesian archipelago is a series of Sanskrit inscriptions
dated to the 5th century. Many of Indonesia's peoples have strongly rooted oral traditions, which
help to define and preserve their cultural identities.[299] In written poetry and prose, a number of
traditional forms dominate, mainly syair, pantun, gurindam, hikayat and babad. Some of these
works are Syair Raja Siak, Syair Abdul Muluk, Hikayat Abdullah, Hikayat Bayan Budiman,
Hikayat Hang Tuah, Sulalatus Salatin, and Babad Tanah Jawi.[300]

Early modern Indonesian literature originates in Sumatran tradition. [301] Balai Pustaka, the
government bureau for popular literature, was instituted around 1920 to promote the
development of indigenous literature. It adopted Malay as the preferred common medium for
Indonesia. Important figures in modern Indonesian literature include: Dutch author Multatuli,
who criticised treatment of natives under Dutch colonial rule; Sumatrans Mohammad Yamin and
Hamka, who were influential pre-independence nationalist writers and politicians; [302] and
proletarian writer Pramoedya Ananta Toer, Indonesia's most famous novelist.[303][304] Pramoedya
earned several accolades, and was often discussed as Indonesia's and Southeast Asia's best
candidate for a Nobel Prize in Literature.[305] Literature and poetry flourished even more in the
first half of the 20th century. Major authors include Chairil Anwar (Aku), Marah Roesli (Sitti
Nurbaya), Merari Siregar (Azab dan Sengsara), Abdul Muis (Salah Asuhan), Djamaluddin
Adinegoro (Darah Muda), Sutan Takdir Alisjahbana (Layar Terkembang), and Amir Hamzah
(Nyanyi Sunyi) whose works are among the most well known in Maritime Southeast Asia.[306]

Cuisine

Main article: Indonesian cuisine

Nasi Padang with rendang, gulai and vegetables

Indonesian cuisine is one of the most diverse, vibrant and colourful in the world, full of intense
flavour.[307][308] Many regional cuisines exist, often based upon indigenous culture and foreign
influences such as Chinese, European, Middle Eastern, and Indian precedents. [309] Rice is the
main staple food and is served with side dishes of meat and vegetables. Spices (notably chili),
coconut milk, fish and chicken are fundamental ingredients.[310]

Some popular dishes such as nasi goreng, gado-gado, sate, and soto are very common in the
country and considered as national dishes. The Ministry of Tourism, however, chose tumpeng as
the official national dish in 2014, describing it as binding the diversity of various culinary
traditions.[308] Another popular dishes include rendang, one of the many Padang cuisines along
with dendeng and gulai. In 2017, rendang was chosen as the "World's Most Delicious Food" by
the CNN Travel reader's choice.[311] Another fermented food is oncom, similar in some ways to
tempeh but uses a variety of bases (not only soy), created by a different fungi, and particularly
popular in West Java.

Sports

Main article: Sport in Indonesia

A demonstration of Pencak Silat, a form of martial arts

Sports are generally male-oriented and spectators are often associated with illegal gambling. [312]
Badminton and football are the most popular sports in the country. Indonesian badminton players
have won the Thomas Cup (the world team championship of men's badminton) 13 times since it
was held in 1949, as well as numerous Olympic medals since the sport gained full Olympic
status in 1992. Indonesian women have won the Uber Cup, the female equivalent of the Thomas
Cup, 3 times, in 1975, 1994 and 1996. Liga 1 is the country's premier football club league. On
the international stage, Indonesia has experienced limited success despite being the first Asian
team to participate in the FIFA World Cup in 1938 as Dutch East Indies.[313] On continental
level, Indonesia won the bronze medal in the 1958 Asian Games. Indonesia's first appearance in
the AFC Asian Cup was in 1996, and successfully qualified for the next three tournaments. They,
however, failed to progress through the next stage in all occasions.

Another popular sports include boxing and basketball, which has a long history in Indonesia and
was part of the first National Games (Pekan Olahraga Nasional, PON) in 1948.[314] Some of the
famous Indonesian boxers include Ellyas Pical, three times IBF Super flyweight champion; Nico
Thomas, Muhammad Rachman, and Chris John.[315] In motorsport, Rio Haryanto became the
first Indonesian to compete in Formula One in 2016.[316] Sepak takraw, and karapan sapi (bull
racing) in Madura are some examples of traditional sports in Indonesia. In areas with a history of
tribal warfare, mock fighting contests are held, such as caci in Flores and pasola in Sumba.
Pencak Silat is an Indonesian martial art and in 1987, became one of the sporting events in
Southeast Asian Games, with Indonesia appearing as one of the leading forces. In Southeast
Asia, Indonesia is one of the major sport powerhouses by winning the Southeast Asian Games 10
times since 1977, most recently in 2011.
See also
 Indonesia portal

 Asia portal

 Islands portal

 List of Indonesia-related topics

 Index of Indonesia-related articles
 Outline of Indonesia
 Indonesia – Wikipedia book

Notes
1.

 Temporarily withdrew on 20 January 1965.

2.  Small but significant populations of ethnic Chinese, Indians, Europeans and Arabs are
concentrated mostly in urban areas.

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