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Computers in the Schools

Interdisciplinary Journal of Practice, Theory, and Applied Research

ISSN: 0738-0569 (Print) 1528-7033 (Online) Journal homepage: http://www.tandfonline.com/loi/wcis20

st
Why 3D Print? The 21 -Century Skills Students
Develop While Engaging in 3D Printing Projects

Torrey Trust & Robert W. Maloy

st
To cite this article: Torrey Trust & Robert W. Maloy (2017) Why 3D Print? The 21 -Century
Skills Students Develop While Engaging in 3D Printing Projects, Computers in the Schools, 34:4,
253-266, DOI: 10.1080/07380569.2017.1384684

To link to this article: https://doi.org/10.1080/07380569.2017.1384684

Published online: 26 Oct 2017.

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COMPUTERS IN THE SCHOOLS
, VOL. , NO. , –
https://doi.org/./..

Why D Print? The st -Century Skills Students Develop


While Engaging in D Printing Projects
Torrey Trust and Robert W. Maloy
University of Massachusetts Amherst, Teacher Education and Curriculum Studies Department, College of
Education, Amherst, Massachusetts, USA

ABSTRACT KEYWORDS
The emergence of 3D printing has raised hopes and concerns D printers; D modeling;
about how it can be used effectively as an educational technol- st -century skills; creativity;
ogy in school classrooms. This paper presents the results of a sur- technology literacy
vey asking teachers from multiple grade levels and subject fields
about the impact of 3D projects on student learning. Teachers
were asked about the kinds of 3D projects they were doing with
students and what skills or knowledge students were develop-
ing by participating in those projects. Participants reported that
their students developed a number of skills while working on 3D
printing projects, including 3D modeling, creativity, technology
literacy, problem-solving, self-directed learning, critical thinking,
and perseverance. Parallels between teacher-identified skills and
widely cited lists of 21st -century skills suggest that 3D projects are
a promising approach to preparing students for life and work in a
digital age.

What do genetically modified dragons, monuments for people whose accomplish-


ments have been lost or neglected in history, DNA molecules, and replicas of
Native American dwellings have in common? All were designed by elementary
and secondary school students and then 3D printed as part of the 2015–2016
3D Printing 4 Learning project, a technology education initiative organized by
the College of Education at a university in western Massachusetts. Through this
project, several hundred students, in classes taught by teams of pre-service and
in-service teachers, engaged in 3D modeling and printing through activities that
linked required curriculum content with the use of an exciting new educational
technology (Maloy, Trust, Kommers, LaRoche, & Malinowski, 2017; Trust, Maloy, &
Kommers, 2017).
Across the United States, schools are purchasing 3D printers and asking teach-
ers to embed 3D projects into the academic curriculum so that students at every
grade level can design and print objects as part of classroom learning activities.
Advocates believe 3D printers can foster innovative new learning experiences for

CONTACT Torrey Trust, Ph.D torrey@umass.edu University of Massachusetts Amherst, Teacher Education and
Curriculum Studies,  North Pleasant Street, Amherst, MA -, USA.
Color versions of one or more of the figures in the article can be found online at www.tandfonline.com/wcis.
©  Taylor & Francis Group, LLC
254 T. TRUST AND R. W. MALOY

students, while others worry that 3D projects are not only expensive but will take
time away from preparing students to succeed on high stakes achievement tests.
Advocates and critics alike want to know just what skills and knowledge students
are learning from their 3D project experiences.
To begin answering the “what skills and knowledge are students learning” ques-
tion, we surveyed 51 educators about the impact of 3D projects on student learning
in classrooms. We asked teachers what kinds of 3D projects they were doing
with students and what skills or knowledge the students were demonstrating by
participating in those projects. The teachers responded with pages of open-ended
comments that offered a window into the kinds of learning experiences 3D projects
create for students.

3D Printing
3D printing is the “process of creating an object using a machine that puts down
material layer by layer in three dimensions until the desired object is formed” (Edu-
cause Learning Initiative, 2012, p. 1). To start a 3D printing project, users design
what they want to print using a 3D modeling program, such as Tinkercad, or they
select an already constructed design from an online database, such as Thingiverse
or Smithsonian X 3D. Before the digital 3D model can be printed, it needs to be
uploaded to a slicing software (e.g., Cura). There are a number of settings the user
can adjust in the slicing software, such as fill, size, quality, support type, print speed,
and temperature, to prepare the 3D digital model for printing. Once the settings are
adjusted and the 3D printer is connected to the computer, the user can start the 3D
printing process. Most 3D printers create objects by heating PLA or ABS plastic ink
to high temperatures (i.e., 180–240 degrees Celsius) and depositing the melted plas-
tic in 0.1mm-0.4mm layers on a print bed. The plastic dries quickly which allows
the printer to build upon the previous layers to create a 3D physical object. Profes-
sional grade 3D printers can create objects using a number of different materials
(e.g., cement, bronze, glass, wood).
The applications of this technology are vast, extending from manufacturing
and sales to medicine and scientific exploration. 3D printers have even been
used to build cars and houses. With its many applications and increasing afford-
ability, 3D printing “opens up novel opportunities that have never before been
feasible for creative production and prototypes” (Canesca, Fonda, & Zennaro,
2013, p. 13). Campbell, Williams, Ivanova, and Garrett (2011) described 3D
printing as “a revolutionary emerging technology that could up-end the last two
centuries of approaches to design and manufacturing with profound geopolit-
ical, economic, social, demographic, environmental, and security implications”
(para. 2).
In school settings, 3D printers can inspire constructionist learning experiences
(Harel & Papert, 1991) that encourage students to play, design, and discover through
the action of building. When designing 3D models, learning is an active process of
making and constructing knowledge rather than a passive process of listening to
COMPUTERS IN THE SCHOOLS 255

information (Fleming, 2015). According to the authors of the 2015 K-12 Horizon
Report:
One of the most significant aspects of 3D printing for education is that it enables more
authentic exploration of objects and concepts that may not be readily available to schools.
For math, it can help students visualize graphs and mathematical models; in geography, 3D
printing can help students better understand geological formations at scale; and in history,
replicas of ancient artifacts can enable more hands-on learning (Johnson, Adams Becker,
Estrada, & Freeman, 2015, pp. 40–41).

3D printers can support innovative new learning experiences for students


through design, making, and solving authentic problems.
However, there are a number of challenges that teachers face when using 3D
printers in their classrooms. They are slow; it can take up to an hour to build a
4-inch model. At that pace, it could take a teacher an entire week to print all of the
models for a class project. Oftentimes, prints fail due to user, design, and printer
errors. Consumer-based 3D printers are relatively new to the market and still have
bugs that need to be worked out, which means that sometimes prints can fail due to
hardware issues. In other cases, prints fail due to incorrect print settings or printing
a 3D digital model that is not well designed (e.g., there are parts of the model float-
ing in mid-air without support). Oropallo and Piegl (2016) identified a number of
different challenges with using a 3D printer, including design, process, error con-
trol, hardware issues, and 3D modeling software. There is a steep learning curve for
setting up, using, and designing for 3D printers, which takes time away from teach-
ers’ already busy schedules. While 3D printers have potential for reshaping learning
in classroom settings, teachers must weigh the costs of using this new technology
given its many challenges.

Digital age skills and knowledge


We sought to explore teachers’ perceptions about the skills and knowledge students
develop during 3D printing projects because of the continuing debate in American
education about what school is supposed to accomplish for students. That debate is
not new, for as historian Diane Ravitch (2000) noted, “The great educational issues
of the twentieth century in the United States centered on questions of who was to be
educated and what were they to learn” (p.14). Schools in the 20th century focused on
preparing working class and immigrant students for roles as workers in an industrial
society, emphasizing the skills and knowledge of vocational education and domestic
work (Cremin, 1988, Katznelson & Weir, 1988; Tyack, 1974).
By the mid-1980s, however, the number of professional, managerial, and techni-
cal workers exceeded the number of manufacturing workers for the first time—just
as manufacturing workers exceeded those who worked on farms for the first time
around the turn of the 20th century. Society was furthered transformed by the
computer revolution that has reached into every aspect of American life. “Infor-
mation technology changes everything,” foresaw William E. Halal (2008), and as
“computer power continues to rise exponentially, and artificial intelligence (AI)
256 T. TRUST AND R. W. MALOY

becomes human-like, all this capacity will soon allow almost any social function to
be performed online” (p. 59).
What skills and knowledge do students need to work and live in today’s
information-based, technology-driven society? For many educators, the answer is
21st -century skills, defined as a “broad set of knowledge, skills, work habits, and
character traits that are believed—by educators, school reformers, college profes-
sors, employers, and others—to be critically important to success in today’s world,
particularly in collegiate programs and contemporary careers and workplaces”
(Glossary of Education Reform, 2016, para. 1). Comparing the recommendations
of six major 21st -century learning reports, the Hanover Research (2011) found four
skills cited by all of them: collaboration and teamwork, creativity and imagination,
critical thinking, and problem-solving. Additionally, five of the reports cited the
centrality of flexibility and adaptability and leadership. Seeking to address a global
achievement gap by promoting a 21st -century education, Tony Wagner (2008) of the
Harvard University Change Leadership Group, identified the following must-have
skills of the future:
r Critical thinking and problem solving
r Collaboration across networks and leading by influence
r Agility and adaptability
r Initiative and entrepreneurialism
r Effective oral and written communication
r Accessing and analyzing information
r Curiosity and imagination
Each of these reports stressed the importance of students learning not only the
traditional basics of reading, writing, and mathematics but also the skills and knowl-
edge needed for a digital age.
3D printers may be an important new resource that can propel student learning
more directly into the 21st century, or they may just be an extra technology that
the schools that can afford them may use for student enrichment once the basic
curriculum has been taught. As teachers and administrators seek to balance the
time and expense of acquiring and using 3D technology with society’s demands
that schools prepare students for life and work in a digital age, they must con-
sider how 3D printers shape students’ skills and knowledge. No one has a definitive
answer, and to date, no study has asked the K-12 teachers who are using 3D print-
ers in their classes for their views on what students are learning. As a result, this
study was designed to address the need for understanding how 3D printing projects
shape students’ skills and knowledge. The following research questions guided our
study:
1. What skills and knowledge do teachers believe that students develop while
working on 3D printing projects?
2. How do teachers see 3D printing projects supporting students’ development
of 21st -century skills?
COMPUTERS IN THE SCHOOLS 257

Methods

Data collection
We created an anonymous online survey to collect qualitative data regarding the
use of 3D printers in classroom settings. Andrews, Nonnecke, and Preece (2003)
noted that “electronic surveys provide a way to conduct studies when it is impracti-
cal or financially unfeasible to access certain populations” (p. 186). Since 3D print-
ers are new to the field of education, there is only a small population of educators
using 3D printers, and these educators are located in different states and countries.
In order to reach these educators, to learn from their experiences and expertise,
we crafted an online survey using Andrews and colleagues’ recommendations for
designing quality electronic surveys. We developed, discussed, and revised the sur-
vey before creating the final version using Qualtrics, a commercial survey creation
tool.
The survey consisted of two pages. We kept the survey short to encourage par-
ticipation from educators, who are pressed for time with their busy schedules. The
first page of the survey featured the consent form, which provided potential partic-
ipants with information about the research study and asked participants to agree to
the consent form before moving on to the rest of the questions. The second page of
the survey consisted of questions related to demographics (i.e., location, grade level,
subject taught), a multiple-choice question (i.e., “Which of the following skills and
knowledge do you feel your students have developed by engaging in a 3D printing
project?”), and three open-ended prompts: (a) “Please describe how your students
demonstrated one or more of the skills and knowledge listed above during a 3D
printing project; (b) “What do you feel your students gain from 3D printing projects
that they might not be able to gain from designing an object with physical materi-
als?” and (c) “Based on your own experience, what are the benefits of integrating
3D printing into classrooms?” The multiple-choice question and first open-ended
prompt were designed to help us uncover the skills and knowledge that students
develop by engaging in 3D printing projects. The second prompt stemmed from
our previous research study (Maloy et al., 2017) in which we found that some edu-
cators struggled to determine if 3D printing and modeling added value to student
learning. The final question was included to help us identify benefits to 3D printing
that extended beyond students’ development of knowledge and skills.
To collect data from educators who had experience using 3D printers in their
classrooms, we contacted educators who presented, blogged, or tweeted about using
3D printers and asked them to complete the survey. We also tweeted a link to the
survey on Twitter using the hashtags #3Dprinting and #edtech and shared the survey
in various Edmodo subject communities. To increase our response rate, we asked for
help from the International Society for Technology in Education (ISTE) 3D network
with distributing the survey. We spent three months, from January to March 2017,
posting, tweeting, and sharing the survey. Once the number of survey responses
began to decrease noticeably we closed the survey.
258 T. TRUST AND R. W. MALOY

Participants
Fifty-one (51) educators completed the online survey. The majority of respondents
(n = 45; 88%) were located in the United States. These individuals lived in 21 dif-
ferent states as well as Puerto Rico (n = 1). The four international participants were
located in the following countries: Canada, Colombia, Finland, and Sudan. The par-
ticipants reported teaching in elementary schools (kindergarten-5th grade) (n = 9;
18%), middle schools (6th-8th grade) (n = 17; 33%), high schools (9th-12th grade)
(n = 13; 25%), or multiple grade levels from kindergarten to 12th grade (n = 8;
16%). Three participants (6%) were college/university faculty. Participants reported
teaching one or more of the following subjects: technology (n = 26), science (n =
8), STEM (science, technology, engineering, and mathematics) (n = 7), art (n = 3),
social studies (n = 3), English/language arts (n = 3), math (n = 3), and multiple
subjects/elementary (n = 3).

Data analysis

To address our research questions, we conducted a thematic analysis (Braun &


Clarke, 2006) of the survey data. Braun and Clarke identified six phases that are crit-
ical to thematic analysis: becoming familiar with the data, generating initial codes,
finding themes, assessing the fit of the themes, defining themes, and developing a
report. These six phases guided our data analysis process. We started by individu-
ally reviewing the responses to the multiple-choice and open-ended questions. We
then conducted open coding of the entire dataset. We met to compare and refine
our initial list of codes. We used our initial list of codes, the multiple-choice survey
data, and previous research about 21st -century skills to identify and develop themes
for the open-ended survey responses. For example, responses related to solving real-
world problems or addressing 3D printer issues, were coded as “problem solving.”
Both Hanover Research (2011) and Wagner (2008) identified problem solving as a
fundamental 21st -century skill. We used the themes to re-code the dataset. Then, we
generated a report that included each theme with supporting quotes and used this
to organize our findings.

Findings
Participants reported that their students developed a variety of skills while working
on 3D printing projects. When asked to select which skills students developed while
working on 3D printing projects, participants chose between 1 and 15 skills, with an
average of 10. The most commonly reported skills included 3D modeling, creativity,
technology literacy, problem solving, self-directed learning, perseverance, and crit-
ical thinking (see Figure 1). The following section provides more details about each
of these skills.

3D Modeling
The majority of participants (92%) cited 3D modeling as the top skill students
learned from participating in 3D projects. 3D modeling is an essential part of the
COMPUTERS IN THE SCHOOLS 259

Figure . Skills that students develop while working on D printing projects.

design process, as students must create or modify 3D artifacts in a digital environ-


ment before printing them. For example, a high school biology teacher shared, “In
one project, my students determined a problem (e.g., to create simple and cheaply
produced arms, hands, etc … for people in deprived areas or to create a self-filtering
water bottle) … they design it in CAD and then 3D print it.” One of the bene-
fits of using 3D modeling software is that students can quickly and easily revise
and redesign their models based on feedback before printing. For example, as high
school students engaged in a 3D printing project based on the design thinking
model, they “conducted multiple interviews with their friends and ideated and iter-
ated on the feedback using Tinkercad or 123D Design.” These students were able to
design, solicit feedback, and revise in order to create 3D models that their friends
could use.
Participants listed a number of different 3D modeling programs, including Tin-
kercad, 123D Design, Blender, and Fusion 360. One teacher described how his stu-
dents used different programs based on their 3D modeling skills: “Our students
begin using Tinkercad and graduate to Fusion 360, giving them the 3D modeling
skills useful in engineering and design careers.” This individual, like many of the
educators in our study, felt that 3D modeling is a valuable skill for future careers.
One teacher noted that “by learning to use the tools, they [students] are gaining
valuable skills that I believe will transfer to success in their future education and
careers.”
While 3D modeling is an important part of 3D printing projects, it can be a chal-
lenging skill to learn. Students must be able to “work in a 3D space on a 2D screen.”
They also need to learn how “to manipulate 3D objects” (e.g., change the thickness
of the walls on a house) so that the objects will not fall apart during printing. A
computer science teacher from Columbia shared how her student experienced the
frustration of 3D modeling firsthand during a design project:
“Translating” the proposed models into reality is not as straightforward as students think.
Last year after carefully surveying a car piece and meticulously analyzing, measuring and
finally designing it on Tinkercad, a Junior learned the hard way that for his object to be
functional he had to include many more variables in his design and printing process. He
260 T. TRUST AND R. W. MALOY

had to adapt his design to the limitations of the printer, look up how to solve problems such
as wall thickness and stringing and be patient enough to try out his model several times
before achieving the desired product.

This student had to use a number of different skills, including self-directed learn-
ing, mathematical reasoning, and problem solving in order to overcome the chal-
lenges of 3D modeling.
Interestingly, 10% of the participants did not report that their students developed
3D modeling skills. This may be due to students finding 3D digital models online
(e.g., Thingiverse, Smithsonian X 3D database) and sending them directly to the
printer.

Creativity
Most participants (90%) felt that their students developed creative thinking and
design skills by working on 3D printing projects. Teachers described students
completing an extensive array of creative projects that ranged across the curriculum
at every grade level. Students in social studies classes designed historical artifacts
associated with U.S. presidents and their uses of presidential power, objects that
symbolized the impacts of political dictators from different countries, new monu-
ments for individuals who had been neglected or omitted from the class textbook,
holiday-themed Christmas tree ornaments from people vacationing in Europe,
thrones for Greek and Roman gods, and new products, including jewelry, that
could be sold online or in stores.
Students in art and technology classes designed virtual reality glasses for cell
phones, new styles of high heel shoes, improved drainage systems for water
runoff, roadway patterns to prevent traffic congestion, a prosthetic leg for a Bar-
bie doll, and 3D tactile picture books. Students in science classes created 3D cell
models, balloon-powered toy cars, supports for roller coasters, objects represent-
ing the laws of motion, equipment needed to live on the planet Mars, geneti-
cally modified dragons, and models of animals found at a local zoo. Elementary
school students created bookmarks, key chains, spinners, light sabers, sundials, and
figurines.
Students developed their creative thinking skills by working on innovative
projects, figuring out how to design 3D models, and overcoming challenges during
the design process. For example a K-8 technology teacher commented, “As student
try to create an object that requires four or more different shapes, they have to
problem solve and be creative to figure out what shapes can be combined together
to create the desired object.” Another teacher noted that “students had to learn a
new technology (Tinkercad.com software) to create shapes. They had to be creative,
problem solve when issues arose, and get through the challenges of working in
3D.” These examples highlight the different ways that students can develop creative
thinking skills while working on 3D printing projects.
COMPUTERS IN THE SCHOOLS 261

Technology literacy
Technology literacy, including the basic computer skills in order to complete 3D
printing projects, was the third most important skill reported by survey participants
(88%). One participant shared that her elementary school students had to “apply
the skills and knowledge acquired during the unit … [and] learn fundamentals of
technology literacy (Gmail login, integration with Tinkercad, basic Internet liter-
acy, email proficiency, keyboard/mouse use).” Unlike 3D modeling, which is defined
more narrowly in terms of the skills needed to do a 3D project, technology literacy
is defined more broadly in terms of how students learned to become functioning
members of a technological society. As one teacher said, “I believe the added com-
ponent of digital literacy, computer use (organically rather than imposed instruc-
tion) as well as the added hook of understanding three-dimensional reasoning is
an important step toward being competent members of a technologically minded
society.”
Participants also reported that students developed technology literacy skills by
learning how to use, and troubleshoot, a 3D printer. For instance, one teacher shared
that they only recently “received our printer and my students are just now begin-
ning to learn [to] use it. Understanding the concepts of how the printer operates
and then how to adapt it to our interests (aviation) is key now.” Another participant
wrote, “Most of the project was learning what the printer could and could not do.
While students could easily draw things in CAD, those items did not always print
correctly due to size or scale or resolution. Once those problems were addressed,
everything seemed to work much better.” A higher education faculty member from
Finland described how her students developed advanced technology literacy skills
from working with 3D printers:
[Students] operated 5 different printer types, learning their individual quirks and trou-
bleshooting methods. All team members freely shared their experiences of how they solved
adhesion problems (too little or too much), manifold issues, design issues, and material
considerations. Spontaneous pairs formed to work exclusively on specific issues, such as
two-tone printing (we had two machines capable of that) and detailed, 0.1mm layer height
work.

These students developed their technology literacy skills by using and trou-
bleshooting a new technology.

Problems
More than 88% of the teachers identified problem solving as a key skill learned by
students. One teacher shared, “I think the most beneficial skill they [students] learn
is problem solving. Looking at something and figuring out how to make it work is
a life skill many of us don’t learn very early on.” Participants identified two different
types of problems that students worked to solve: (a) problems related to the 3D
printing process and (b) real-world problems addressed by designing 3D prints.
262 T. TRUST AND R. W. MALOY

In survey comments, teachers noted how working with 3D modeling tools and
printers presents new challenges for teachers and students alike. For example, stu-
dents have to figure out how to put together, create, and manipulate 3D digital
objects to design a model. Novice programs, like Tinkercad, in which users cre-
ate models using pre-designed shapes, can also limit students’ creativity and ability
to construct a working prototype or model. A high school teacher noted that when
her students tried to use Tinkercad to design replicas of animals from the Memphis
Zoo, “the students struggled making their animal look ‘normal’ and had to redesign
as they worked through the CAD software.”
Another challenge of 3D printing is constructing models that will not fail dur-
ing the printing process. A middle school social studies teacher described how her
student worked to create a 3D replica of a Native American dwelling that was not
suited for 3D printing:
One of my students was attempting to model a Seminole chickee, which has fairly thin sup-
port structures that nevertheless hold together an entire dwelling, and which also extend
from the ground through one suspended level and to a thatch-style roof. Over time, she
utilized self-directed learning with analytical and problem solving skills through practice,
trial and error, physical craft modeling, and sketching architectural models of what a 3D-
printed chickee would look like, attempting to answer the question of how strong the struc-
ture would be with thin supports in order to also be technologically cost-effective.

This student used a number of different skills to determine how to create a 3D model
that would print, given the constraints of the 3D printing process. While prints may
fail due to poor design, prints can also fail due to hardware issues related to the
3D printer. Students must determine how to troubleshoot the printer to fix printing
issues. One teacher noted, “When a print fails, there is a troubleshooting session and
debriefing as to why it did not work,” and this process encourages the development
of problem-solving skills.
Another way that students developed problem-solving skills was by identify-
ing actual problems to address with a 3D object. For example, a middle school
STEM (science, technology, engineering and mathematics) teacher shared, “Last
year my students took part in handchallenge.com and also designed a 3D printed
tactile picture book [for visually impaired individuals].” In some cases, students
had the opportunity to identify their own real-world problems to solve. Each
of these authentic learning activities supported students in developing problem-
solving skills which, one teacher noted, is “one of the most essential skills that stu-
dents experience.”

Self-directed learning

Many of the respondents (78%) cited self-directed learning as a 21st -century skill
that students developed while working on 3D printing projects. Since 3D printers
are emerging technologies, students and teachers alike are novice users. In many
cases, this means that students must take ownership of their learning to successfully
COMPUTERS IN THE SCHOOLS 263

complete a 3D printing project. A language arts teacher reported that her students
taught themselves everything they needed to know about 3D printing in order to
create 3D models, noting how “they are motivated to read discussions, websites, and
manuals.” These same students even wrote “persuasive letters for grants to fund our
filament pool [printer ink].” A middle school librarian shared that her students “ask
a classmate for help and … go to the Internet for help” when they face a challenge
related to their 3D printing projects. Participants noted that the prospect of cre-
ating a 3D physical model motivated students to take ownership of their learning.
One participant shared that even though students were not given class time to work
on a 3D printing project, “they are working on it at home, on their phones, during
their lunch periods, or in class only when they have finished their challenges for the
week.”

Perseverance
Given that a number of problems can arise during 3D modeling and printing, stu-
dents must be able to persevere through challenges in order to generate a 3D printed
physical model. For example, a participant shared, “The printer doesn’t generally
print perfectly on the first attempt. The students are motivated to have a finished
project that works and persevere through several prototypes until they have a sat-
isfactory finished product.” Many of the participants (76%) commented about the
importance of perseverance in the face of setbacks and frustrations that can occur
during 3D projects. A K-12 technology teacher shared that “the most important
skill 3D printing teaches my students is perseverance.” At every age, that teacher
noted that “students are quick to give up” when 3D designs have to be reworked or
designs fail to print. “Many students do not want to revise their work,” according to
the teacher, but revision is a “crucial part of design. The cool factor of 3D printing
keeps them engaged.” Another teacher wrote that while “the printer doesn’t gener-
ally print perfectly on the first attempt, the students are motivated to have a finished
project that works and persevere through several prototypes until they have a sat-
isfactory finished product.” Participants noted that the “excitement factor” of 3D
printing motivated students to sustain their learning through challenges.

Critical thinking

Nearly 75% the participants felt that their students developed critical thinking skills
while building and printing 3D models. One teacher shared that the action of
designing a 3D model required a deeper understanding and critical reflection of the
content, “Students have to design more, not just a quick sketch; this involves more
critical thinking skills.” Another teacher stated that “using physical materials is a
great start to help foster creativity and develop basic analytical and critical thinking
skills.” A high school teacher reported that engaging students in solving real-world
problems, such as “drainage to prevent flooding [and] a highway system to prevent
264 T. TRUST AND R. W. MALOY

congestion,” requires creating an effective solution and working as a team to do so.


“This type of project requires perseverance, teamwork, creativity, critical thinking,
and problem solving.”

Other skills

In addition to the skills listed herein, participants also reported that their students
developed analytical thinking (65%), teamwork (61%), decision-making (59%),
mathematical reasoning (59%), communication (59%), and/or adaptability skills
(57%). Students developed analytical thinking skills by visualizing and solving com-
plex problems; teamwork skills by collaborating with classmates,; decision-making
skills from determining what to create and how to design a 3D model; mathemat-
ical reasoning skills by using geometry to design models; communication skills by
interviewing clients, helping classmates, and collaborating on projects; and adapt-
ability skills from engaging in the trial-and-error process of building a 3D printed
model. A number of participants noted that students developed more than one of
these skills while working on their projects. For instance, a K-12 library and infor-
mation science teacher stated that the iterative design process required “teamwork,
cooperation, creativity, analytical skills, development of technological literacy and
mathematical reasoning. The students often need to (and do) adjust design and
scale several times in order to achieve the outcome they originally had in mind.”
Another teacher noted that her students “demonstrated mastery of transforma-
tional geometry and personal narratives by designing and creating a 3D artifact.
This reinforced math reasoning, problem solving, decision making, teamwork, and
creativity.”

Discussion
While 3D printing is a relatively new technology to the field of education, accord-
ing to the teachers in this study, 3D printing projects seem to have the potential
to encourage and support students in developing 21st -century skills (see Table 1).

Table . Comparison of survey data and st -century skills literature.


st -century skill Literature Survey data

Collaboration and teamwork Hanover Research () Teamwork (%)


Wagner ()
Creativity and imagination Hanover Research () Creativity (%)
Wagner ()
Critical thinking Hanover Research () Critical thinking (%)
Wagner ()
Problem solving Hanover Research () Problem solving (%)
Wagner ()
Agility, flexibility and adaptability Hanover Research () Adaptability (%)
Wagner ()
Leadership Hanover Research () Not reported by participants
Initiative and entrepreneurialism Wagner () Self-directed learning (%)
Accessing and analyzing information Wagner () Not reported by participants
COMPUTERS IN THE SCHOOLS 265

The ways that 3D projects support constructivist approaches to teaching and learn-
ing is evident in the survey findings. By using 3D tools to create models and visual-
izations in subjects ranging from history and literature to mathematics and science,
students and teachers build a “culture of innovation” in classrooms (Educause Learn-
ing Initiative, 2012, p. 2). Central to that culture is enabling students to create and
construct knowledge as they transform ideas from their imaginations into physical
objects and models that represent those ideas. The scope of projects described by
teachers in the open-ended response sections of the survey demonstrate how fully
students are embracing learning by using 3D technologies.
More than 75% of participants reported that their students developed creativity,
critical thinking, problem solving, and self-directed learning skills, which are con-
sidered 21st -century skills (Hanover Research, 2011). A little more than half indi-
cated that their students developed adaptability and teamwork skills while working
on 3D printing projects. Most participants reported that their students developed
3D modeling and technology literacy skills. While these are not identified in the
literature as 21st -century skills, knowing how to use and troubleshoot current and
emerging technologies is an important skill that can be applied in a number of dif-
ferent professions.
Interestingly, less than half of the participants felt that their students developed
content knowledge while working on 3D printing projects. This may be due to teach-
ers using 3D printers for extracurricular activities (e.g., jewelry design, cell phone
covers). Or, teachers might struggle to draw a connection between 3D printing
projects and standards-based content knowledge. To ensure the successful adop-
tion of 3D printers in schools, teachers should connect with curriculum coaches,
teacher education faculty, or discipline experts to identify ways to align their 3D
printing projects with standards-based content knowledge.

Conclusion
The arrival of 3D printers in K-12 schools has generated considerable excitement
about how this powerful new technology can impact student learning. Educators,
policymakers, and community members are asking, “Why 3D Print?” as they weigh
the costs and benefits of investing in 3D technology for schools. In this study, we
found that a majority of teachers, from multiple grade levels and subject fields, who
are using 3D printing in their classes, believe these tools promote student learn-
ing of 21st -century skills. Not only does using this technology introduce students to
the procedures and practices of 3D modeling, but it also promotes creativity, tech-
nology literacy, problem solving, perseverance, and critical thinking. To a lesser
degree, those same teachers see 3D printing supporting teamwork, communica-
tion, decision making, mathematical reasoning, and adaptability among students.
While these findings are tentative and invite further in-depth research, 3D printing
does provide engaging ways to motivate the learning of 21st -century skills in school
classrooms.
266 T. TRUST AND R. W. MALOY

ORCID
Torrey Trust http://orcid.org/0000-0001-5421-2197

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