15

CHAPTER 2

LITERATURE REVIEW

2.1 GENERAL

This chapter deals with the major constituent material of

concrete the aggregates, steel slag and its production and properties. In
addition, an attempt has been made to review the literature briefly on the
utilization of steel slag in concrete and the past studies on concrete with
steel slag as a replacement material both for coarse and fine aggregates.

2.2.1 CONCRETE

James Mitchell Crow (2008) briefs the history of concrete in a

technical magazine Chemistry world. He reported that humans have been
using concrete in their pioneering architectural feats for millennia. The
basic ingredients sand and gravel (aggregate), a cement like binder, and
water were being mixed at least as far back as Egyptian times. The Romans
are well-documented masters of the material, using it to create such
wonders as the Pantheon in Rome, topped with its gravity defying
43.3 metre diameter concrete dome, now over 2000 years old but still the
world’s largest non- reinforced concrete dome. Modern concrete was born
in the early nineteenth century, with the discovery of Portland cement, the
key ingredient used in concretes today. The process of roasting, and then
grinding to a powder, limestone and clay to make ‘artificial stone’ was
 16

patented in the year 1824 by Joseph Aspidin of Leeds, UK, and later refined
by his son William into a material very close to the cement used today.

Mindess et al (2003) have reported that concrete is the most

widely used material on earth after water. Many aspects of our daily life
depend directly or indirectly on concrete. Concrete is prepared by mixing
various constituents like cement, aggregates, water, etc., which are
economically available. Concrete is unique among major construction
materials because it is designed specifically for particular civil engineering
projects. Concrete is a composite material composed of granular materials
like coarse aggregates embedded in a matrix and bound together with
cement or binder which fills the space between the particles and glues them
together.

2.3 AGGREGATES

Alexander et al (2005) states that aggregate are essential in

making concrete into an engineering material. They give concrete its
necessary volumetric stability. They impart to the concrete properties of
thermal movement that are largely compatible with steel, and manageable
from a structural point of view-which pure paste would not do. They have
an enormous influence on reducing moisture related deformations of
concrete, a fact that renders pure paste and rich mortars very difficult to
work with. Aggregates are generally the more durable and stable of the
materials incorporated into concrete mixtures, and thus provide durability.

Mindess et al (2003) have reported that certain properties of

aggregates must be known before designing a particular mixture for any
construction project. These include shape and gradation, moisture content,
unit weight, specific gravity, void ratio and chemical properties. For good
 17

workability the ideal aggregate particle should be close to spherical in

shape, and well rounded with a relatively smooth surface. The shape of
aggregates and particle characteristics greatly influences the cement paste
requirements. The rough angular shape of crushed aggregates favorably
influences the tensile strength of concrete by increasing the amount of
surface area for bonding with cement paste and reducing high internal stress
concentrations.

Mindess et al (2003) also states that aggregates provide

dimensional stability and wear resistance for concrete. Not only do they
provide strength and durability to concrete, but they also influence the
mechanical and physical properties of concrete. Aggregates act as a filler
material and lower the cost of concrete. Aggregates should be hard, strong,
free from undesirable impurities and chemically stable. They should not
interfere with the cement or any of the materials incorporated into concrete.
They should be free from impurities and organic matters which may affect
the hydration process of cement. The workability, strength, durability and
moisture susceptibility of concrete are greatly influenced by the
characteristics of aggregates. The size and grading of aggregates are
important parameters in the design of a mix for a particular project because
they can influence the workability of fresh concrete and its hardened
strength. The porosity of aggregates and their absorption capacity affects
the resistance of concrete to freezing and thawing.

Shetty (1982) have reported that aggregates are the important

constituents in concrete. They give body to the concrete, reduce shrinkage
and effect economy. Earlier aggregates were considered as chemically inert
material but now it has been recognized that some of the aggregates are
chemically active and also certain aggregates exhibit chemical bond at the
interface of aggregate and paste. The mere fact that the aggregates occupy
 18

70-80 percent of the volume of concrete, their impact on various

characteristics and properties of concrete is undoubtedly considerable.

2.4 ALTERNATE AGGREGATES IN CONCRETE

De Brito et al (2013) have explored that there is a growing

interest in using waste materials as alternative aggregate materials and
significant research is made on the use of many different materials as
aggregate substitutes such as coal ash, blast furnace slag, fibre glass waste
materials, waste plastics, rubber waste, sintered sludge pellets and others.
The consumption of waste materials can be increased manifold if these are
used as aggregate into cement mortar and concrete. This type of use of a
waste material can solve problems of lack of aggregate in various
construction sites and reduce environmental problems related to aggregate
mining and waste disposal. The use of waste aggregates can also reduce the
cost of the concrete production. As the aggregates can significantly control
the properties of concrete, the properties of the aggregates have a great
importance. Therefore a thorough evaluation is necessary before using any
waste material as aggregate in concrete.

Mindess et al (2003) identified a wide range of materials can be

used as an alternative to natural aggregates. When any new material is used
as a concrete aggregate, three major considerations are relevant:
(1) economy, (2) compatibility with other materials and (3) concrete
properties. The economical use of non traditional materials in concrete
depends on various factors, like transportation required to bring the
materials from industry to the site of construction, quantity available, and
the mix design requirements. The separation of any useful materials from
undesired substances would be costly as well. Crushing the aggregates to
particular sizes is also an important issue. The aggregates should not react
 19

adversely with other constituents of the concrete mixture. They should not
change the properties of the concrete adversely. The aggregates have vital
role in concrete and provide strength and durability to concrete. The use of
industrial byproducts in the concrete has received increasing attention in the
recent years.

Schroeder (1994) reported that many of the waste materials were

non-decaying elements and will remain in the environment for hundreds
and perhaps thousands of years. This situation combined with the ever
increasing consumer population and demand, has resulted in a waste
disposal crisis. The facts about reduced cost on extracting and processing
new raw material and consumption of virgin materials through reusing
these materials are stated in various studies since the past decades.

2.5 STEEL SLAG

Indian Minerals Yearbook (2011) reported that the steel slags are
produced at steel melting shop during steel manufacturing. To produce
steel, removal of excess silicon and carbon from iron is achieved through
oxidation by adding limestone and coke. The steel slag contains higher
amount of iron and its physical characteristics are similar to air-cooled iron
slag. The slag is cooled, crushed and screened. The fines are utilized in
sinter making and lumps are charged in the blast furnace. The iron content
is the major basic difference between BF slag and steel slag. In BF slag,
FeO is around 0.5%, whereas, in case of steel slag, total iron content varies
from 16 to 23%.

The American Society for Testing and Materials (ASTM, 1997)

defines the blast furnace slag as “the non-metallic product consisting
essentially of calcium silicates and other bases that is developed in a molten
 20

condition simultaneously with iron in a blast furnace”. It is a non-metallic

product, consisting essentially of calcium silicates and ferrites combined
with fused oxides of iron, aluminum, manganese, calcium and magnesium
that are developed simultaneously with steel in basic oxygen, electric arc, or
open hearth furnaces.

The German Research Association for Iron and Steel Slag (2004)
described steel slag in its report as a non-metallic by-products generated
from the non-metallic constituents of the raw materials ore, coke and fluxes
during the production of steel. After slow cooling in air they form an
artificial crystalline rock. Their formation was comparable to that of natural
magmatic rocks like basalt or granite. Molten slag fulfilled important
metallurgical functions and must be distinguished from ashes which were
residues of incineration processes. Steel slag was separated from the liquid
metal at the end of the metallurgical treatment by means of their lower
density. The separated slag underwent appropriate heat treatment processes
followed by mechanical processing to provide the specific properties
required by standards and regulations

2.5.1 Production of Steel Slag

Anis S. Shatnawi et al (2008) explained about the production of

the Steel slag. Virtually all steel is now made in integrated steel plants using
a version of the basic oxygen process or in specialty steel plants (mini
mills) by using an electric arc furnace process. The open hearth furnace
process is no longer used. In the basic oxygen process, hot liquid blast
furnace metal, scrap and fluxes, which consist of lime (CaO) and dolomitic
lime (CaO.MgO or “dolime”), are charged to a converter (furnace). A lance
is lowered into the converter and high-pressure oxygen is injected. The
oxygen combines with and removes the impurities in the charge. These
 21

impurities consist of carbon as gaseous carbon monoxide, and silicon,

manganese, phosphorus and some iron as liquid oxides, which combine
with lime and dolime to form the steel slag. At the end of the refining
operation, the liquid steel is tapped (poured) into a ladle while the steel slag
is retained in the vessel and subsequently tapped into a separate slag pot.

See et al (2002) stated that steel slag is a by-product of the steel

producing process, containing fused mixtures of oxides and silicates. Its
highly compressed structure resulted in a very dense and hard material. It is
the coarse portion of the residues produced during the separation of the
molten steel from impurities in steel making furnaces.

See et al (2002) also described steel slag as a by-product

generated during steel making due to addition of flux such as lime during
the melting process. The flux reacted with the oxides or any inorganic non-
metallic components present in the metallic scrap and formed complex
minerals comprising of various forms of metal oxides silicates, ferrites and
others. He also reported that steel slag amounts to approximately 10% of
liquid steel output in a typical steel producing plant and represents the
major waste item generated from the steel making industry. The cost for
committing to an environmental friendly disposal plan can add tremendous
burden to the industry. The solutions to this crisis lie in recycling and
engineering these waste materials into useful products and reuse them for
constructions and developments of the nation.

NSA (2006), The Japan Iron and Steel Federation and Nippon
Slag Association narrated that the steel-making process consists of refining
pig iron, scrap and other material to produce steel, either in a basic oxygen
furnace or an electric arc furnace. Steel slag (basic oxygen furnace slag and
 22

electric arc furnace slag) was the by-product generated from this steel-
making process, in amounts of 110 to 120 kg per ton of crude steel.

Rustu S.Kalyoncu (2001) reported that Steel slag is a byproduct

obtained either from conversion of iron to steel in a Basic Oxygen Furnace
(BOF), or by the melting of scrap to make steel in the Electric Arc Furnace
(EAF). He reported that the main constituents of iron and steel slags are
silica, alumina, calcium, and magnesia which together make about 95% of
the total composition. Minor elements included are manganese, iron, sulfur
compounds and traces of several other elements. Physical characteristics
such as porosity, density and particle gradation are affected by the cooling
rate of the slag and its chemical composition.

Chajun Shi (2004) have reported that the steel furnace slag is
produced in a Basic Oxygen Furnace (BOF) or Electric Arc Furnace (EAF)
as a byproduct of the production of steel. In the Basic Oxygen Furnace
(BOF), the hot liquid metal from the blast furnace, scrap and fluxes, which
contain lime (CaO) and dolomitic lime, are charged to a furnace. At the end
of the refining stage, the steel in the liquid form is poured into the ladle
while the slag is retained at the top in the vessel and is then subsequently
removed in separate slag pot. This slag is in molten state and is then
processed to remove all free metallic impurities with the help of magnetic
separation and then sized into construction aggregates

2.5.2 Properties of Steel Slag

NSA (2006) the National Slag Association have reported that

steel slag aggregates are fairly angular, roughly cubical pieces having flat or
elongated shapes. They have rough vesicular nature with many non inter-
connected cells which gives a greater surface area than smoother aggregates
 23

of equal volume, this feature provides an excellent bond with Portland

cement. Steel slag has a high degree of internal friction and high shear
strength. The rough texture and shape ensure little breakdown in handling
and construction.

TFHRC (2008) have reported that the rate of cooling of steel

slag is generally kept lower so that the crystalline compounds are formed.
The predominant compounds in steel slag are dicalcium silicate, tricalcium
silicate, dicalcium ferrite, merwinite, calcium aluminate, calcium-
magnesium iron oxides, some free lime and magnesia. Steel slag is mildly
alkaline, with a solution pH generally in range of 8 to 10. However, the pH
of leachate from steel slag can exceed 11, a level that can be corrosive to
aluminum or galvanized steel pipes placed in direct contact with the slag.

Zeghichi (2006) explained that when the slag is allowed to cool

slowly, it solidifies into a grey, crystalline, stony material, known as air
cooled, or dense slag. This forms the material used as a concrete aggregates,
a real silico calcareous rock similar to the basalt of angular aspect, rugous
and of micro alveolar structure.

NSA (2006) reported that iron and steel slag is generated in a

1600oC furnace, organic, semi-volatile, or volatile compounds are not
present in iron and steel slag. Chemically iron and steel slag consists
primarily of oxides of calcium, iron, silicon, aluminum, magnesium and
manganese in complexes of calcium silicates, aluminosilicates and
aluminoferrite (primarily with BOF and EAF slag). These compounds are
generally similar to those found in the natural environment. The metals in
slags are fused together and tightly bound, therefore are not readily
liberated from the slag particle or easily leached into the environment.
 24

See et al (2002) commented on each property of the steel slag

aggregates as follows:

a) The flakiness index at 4% for steel slag aggregates was considered very
low. This indicated that steel slag aggregates were largely consisted of
rounded shape aggregates. Such character together with the high surface
roughness of steel slag provided much improved inter-locking properties
when the bitumen mixture of steel slag aggregates is compacted compared
to granite aggregates.

b) The Aggregate Crushing Value (ACV) and Los Angeles Abrasion Value
(LAAV) of the steel slag aggregates were all within the specifications.
These indicated that the material possess sufficient strength for utilization
as road construction aggregates.

GeoPave (1993) have tested and reported that steel slag has
high bulk specific gravity and less than 3% water absorption. Steel slag
aggregates have high density, but apart from this feature most of the
physical properties of steel slag are better than hard traditional rock
aggregates.

2.5.3 Current Uses of Steel Slag

Huang Yi et al (2012) had investigated an overview of utilization

of steel slag. The steel slag is a solid waste from steel production industries.
Steel slag contains approximately 10% waste steel, which can be reclaimed
through crushing, sorting, magnetic separation and screening process. The
physical and chemical characteristics of steel slag were analyzed and then
the research progress of steel slag utilization at home and abroad as
recycled raw material in steel enterprise interior, aggregate of road and
hydraulic construction, cement additive and concrete admixture.
 25

NSA(2006) have listed the current uses of steel slag :

 Steel slag is used as an ideal aggregate in hot mix asphalt (HMA)
surface mixture application due to its high frictional resistance and
skid resistance characteristics. The cubical nature of steel slag and its
rough texture provides more resistance than round, smooth and
elongated aggregates.
 It is also used in making Stone Matrix Asphalt (SMA) because the
particle-to particle contact of the aggregate does not break down
during the manufacturing, laying down or compaction process.
 It is also used for the manufacture of Portland cement.
 It is used in base application, construction of unpaved parking lots,
as a shoulder material, and also in the construction of berms and
embankment.
 It is also used in agriculture because it has minerals like iron,
manganese, magnesium, zinc and molybdenum which are valuable
plant nutrients.
 It is environment friendly. During the production of cement, the CO2
emissions are reduced as slag has previously undergone the
calcination process.
 Steel slag aggregates are used for soil stabilization or soil
improvement material and for remediation of industrial waste water
run-off.

Yabuta Kazuya et al (2006) explored that the iron and steel

making slag are mainly used in fields related to civil engineering, for
example, in cement, roadbed material, and concrete aggregate. Their
recycling ratio is close to 100%, making an important contribution to the
creation of a recycling oriented society.
 26

TFHRC (2002) mentioned that the processing of steel slag from

metals recovery was not only important to remove excess steel at the source
for reuse at the steel plant, but was also important to facilitate the use of the
non-metallic steel slag as construction aggregate. This non-metallic slag
could either be crushed, then screened for aggregate use (steel slag
aggregates), or sintered and recycled as flux material in the iron and steel
furnaces.

Deborah M. Proctor et al (2002) discusses about the successful

incorporation of steel slag as aggregates in construction products requires
the consideration of certain issues. The utilization of a by-product in
suitable applications mainly where it is advantageous compared to
traditional materials, but also where it is most economical can give a higher
added value to the product. Finally, there are a number of economy related
parameters that allow for a new product to enter the construction market
like the situation of the local aggregate market or the need to communicate
the efficiency of a new product through demonstration projects.

Liz Hunt et al (2000) reported that the steel slag could normally
be obtained from slag processors who collected the slag from steel-making
facilities. Slag processors handled a variety of materials such as steel slag,
ladle slag, pit slag, and used refractory material to recover steel metallic.
These materials were source separated, and well-defined handling practices
were in place to avoid contamination of the steel slag aggregate. The slag
processors were also aware of the general aggregate requirements of the end
user.

Cheryl Solomon (2000) have discussed about the consumption of

iron and steel slags. Total slag consumption increased by 6%, partly due to
increased demand for slag in the construction industry and increased
 27

quantities of slags available. Domestic consumption of reported iron slag

stayed the same when compared with that of 1993, while the consumption
of reported steel slag increased by 17%.

John L. Wintenborn (1998) reported that the steelmaking slag,

specifically slag generated from EAFs, BOFs, and BFs during the iron/steel
making process, has many important and environmentally safe uses. In
many applications, due to its unique physical structure, slag outperforms the
natural aggregate for which it is used as a replacement. Hence, not only
does slag offer a superior material for many construction, industrial,
agricultural, and residential applications, but the use of slag promotes the
conservation of natural resources.

Kevin A. Holliday (1996) reported in his book about the

applications of steel slag. In general terms, steel slag aggregates can
replace natural aggregates in almost every situation. The exception to this is
where the density of the aggregate is a crucial design consideration as in
cement. For example, where the dead load of a structure needs to be kept to
a minimum, or in structural concrete applications where the strength to
density ratio of natural stone is normally better than steel slag. For bulk
concrete uses, like large foundations, high density concrete (nuclear
applications) and marine structures, steel slag has some merit. When
considering steel slag for structural concrete applications, special care must
be taken to confirm that the aggregate is totally stable, and that the Alkali
Silica Reaction potential is within specified limits.

2.5.4 Effect on the Environment and Health

Juan M Manso et al (2006) conducted the leaching test for

determining the possible attack of concrete in the environment. Analysis of
 28

leached water from crushed slag aggregates were used to detect the
sulphates, fluorides and total chromium present in it. The results showed
that smaller size of crushed slag produces higher concentration of
dangerous substances in leached water. The cloistering effect was found to
be greater in larger sizes of crushed slag. He concluded that the use of slag
aggregate in concrete will help to reduce its potential toxicity and the
results confirmed an important cloistering effect of cementitious matrix on
the contaminant elements.

Wagaman et al (2008) investigated that steel slag has also been

effectively used to treat acid mine drainage discharge and is also useful in
the removal of excess phosphorous from waste water discharges, thus
rendering the waste water more ecologically beneficial.

Proctor et al (2000) stated that although the concentrations of

some toxic metals in steel slag are higher than those in normal soil, metals
are strongly bound with the slag matrix and therefore are not readily
leached. Therefore, steel slag cannot be considered as ‘‘characteristically
hazardous’’ material

NSA (2006) reported the results of the risk assessments which

demonstrate that BF, BOF, and EAF slags are safe for use in a broad variety
of applications and pose no significant risks to human health or the
environment. The key findings of the risk assessments are summarized
below:
 Carcinogenic and non-carcinogenic risks associated with steel-
making slag are insignificant for potentially exposed residential
populations, farmers, or maintenance, industrial, and construction
workers.
 29

 Metals in steel-making slag will not leach readily in substantial

amounts to groundwater or, surface water and, therefore, pose little
or no concern for drinking water quality.
 Steelmaking slag will not significantly impact animals and other
terrestrial life in or near areas of application. Metals in steelmaking
slag do not bio-accumulate in the food web and are not expected to
bio-concentrate in plant tissue.

2.5.5 Problems associated with Steel Slag aggregates

GeoPave (1993) described that the steel slag aggregates have

two main features which are of concern to their use in construction, namely,
volume expansion and high particle density. During the making of steel
there is a small percentage of calcium and magnesium oxides which is left
undissolved in the slag. These non hydrated calcium and magnesium oxides
then later come in contact with moisture which leads to hydration process.
The volume expansion is primarily caused by the reaction between the free
lime in slag and water during the hydration process to produce calcium
hydroxide. As a result there is a great increase in volume due to the
difference of specific density of the hydration product. These changes in
volume can occur either in a few weeks after production of slag or may
occur many years later if the slag is initially protected from contact with
water.

George Wang et al (2010) conducted laboratory volume

expansion testing to compare the results with the theoretical volume
expansion. It is proved that they correlated well. It is furthermore
experimentally proved that certain volume expansion of steel slag can be
absorbed internally by the void volume in bulk steel slag under external
surcharge weight making the apparent volume expansion equal zero. The
 30

minimum (lowest) absorbable void volume is approximately 7.5%, which is

unrelated to the free lime content. A usability criterion is then developed
based on the volume expansion of steel slag (%) and the minimum
percentage of the volume that can take the volume expansion of steel slag
(%). Eventually the criterion (relationship) is established based on the free
lime content, the specific gravity and bulk relative gravity of a specific steel
slag sample.

According to the U.S Department of Transportation and Federal

Highway Administration (1997) the amount of free calcium and magnesium
oxides is not completely consumed in steel slag. The hydration of un-slaked
lime and magnesia in contact with moisture is largely responsible for the
expansive nature of most steel slag. The free lime hydrates very rapidly and
can cause large changes in volume over a relatively short period of time, i.e.
weeks, while magnesia hydrates much more slowly and contributes to long
term expansion which may continue for many years. Free lime (Calcium
oxide) (CaO) + water (H2O) = Calcium carbonates (CaCO3). Magnesium
oxide (MgO) + water (H2O) = Magnesium carbonates (MgCO3)

2.5.6 Aging of Steel Slag aggregates

Pajgade et al (2013) reported that the steel slag must be allowed

to undergo the weathering process before using as an aggregate in
construction because of its expansive nature. This is done in order to reduce
the quantity of free lime to acceptable limits. The steel slag is allowed to
stand in stockpiles for a period of at least 4 months and exposed to weather.
During this weathering process, the steel slag is required to be in contact
with water so that the hydration process between lime and water takes
place. Hydration of free lime (CaO) or free magnesia (MgO) is responsible
for expansive nature of steel slag.
 31

Brad Fronek et al (2013) explores that several methods are

currently being used and/or have been developed for alleviating the
expansive nature of raw steel slag. Most of these methods utilize some form
of hydration of the free lime and free periclase. In the U.S., the process
typically consists of stockpiling and aging in a wet environment for long
periods of time. In Asia, the time period is shortened by using steam and/or
pressure, etc., Although shown to be effective in reducing the expansion
capacity, none guarantees that all of the free lime and periclase in the steel
slag has been hydrated. Other methods which involve adding other
ingredients to the molten slag have been tested in Europe and Asia, but are
not performed routinely in the U.S. Some, while potentially effective,
would likely be cost prohibitive.

Paul Bosela et al (2007) described about the results of the

expansion test conducted on steel slag aggregates after aging. The steel slag
used in his research was obtained from a company located in Cleveland
Ohio. The steel slag was processed in compliance with Ohio Department of
Transportation Construction and Material Specifications, 2005. Section
703.14 D gives the specifications regarding the stockpile requirements,
which states that water is added to the stockpile material to provide a
uniform moisture content not less than absorbed moisture and maintained in
moist condition during the stockpiling period. The minimum aging time
was six months, but has been decreased to three months. The steel slag is
allowed to stand in stockpiles for a period of at least 4 months and exposed
to weather. During this weathering process, the steel slag is required to be
in contact with water so that the hydration process between lime and water
takes place. Hydration of free lime (CaO) or free magnesia (MgO) is
responsible for expansive nature of steel slag.
 32

Juan M Manso et al (2004) investigated and reported about the

process of aging of steel slag aggregates. An accelerated aging test is
carried out in which the specimens of 150 x 300 mm are aged for 28 days in
a moist room. These specimens are then submerged in water at 70°C and
are kept for 32 days. After that the specimens are dried and kept for 90 days
exposed to weather but direct impact of rain is avoided. These specimens
when tested showed a considerable improvement in the compressive
strength as compared to normal conventional concrete cured continuously
in moist room from 28 to 90 days.

Han Young Moon et al (2002) explains about expansion of steel

slag aggregates. Generally aggregate is relatively stable and does not enter
into complex chemical reactions with water. Unfortunately, however, steel
slag contains residual iron, free lime (free CaO) or free magnesia (free
MgO). If present, the hydration of lime and magnesia makes steel slag
unstable and liable to expand like this.
FreeCaO + H2O =Ca(OH)2
freeMgO + H2O = Mg(OH)2

The hydration of free lime is rapid but it may be locked up

within the slag particles and the rate of reaction is much reduced, while the
hydration of free magnesia is slow even under favorable conditions. The
hydration of free lime in steel slag can be accelerated by several aging
methods. Any aging methods decrease the expansion of steel slag
aggregate.

GeoPave (1993) explained about a general method usually used

to overcome the expansion problem is to store the slag for aging in
stockpiles for some four to six months before using it. Density of steel slag
is also an important issue to be considered. Steel slag is a heavier material
 33

than natural rock types such as basalt, granite or limestone. Thus, any given
volume would require about 15 to 25% greater tonnage of steel slag than
traditional natural aggregates which may create an economic disadvantage
for steel slag in some applications where transportation costs are significant.

2.5.7 Strength Properties of Steel Slag in Concrete

Sultan A. Tarawneh et al (2014) conducted experiments on steel

slag aggregates. Results have shown that slag aggregate has better abrasion
factor and impact value than natural aggregate which are used in this study.
Thorough investigation of results have indicated that the amount of increase
in compressive strength at age of 7 days are much more than that of age 28
days for all types of aggregate replacement. This indicates that the added
slag could work as an accelerator at early age while at 28 days age, the
effect is reduced. Furthermore, the fine slag replacement scores the highest
effect.

Harish M. Sinha (2014) reported from his experiments, that the

maximum compressive strength value occurs at 75% slag replacement and
declines beyond the 75% slag replacement. This indicated the improvement
of compressive strength for replacement slag of 25-75%.In all replacement
ratios the flexural strength increases up to 50%, it is linearly decreased after
50% by the increase in slag replacement. From the result, it is obtained that
in the case of slag utilization, the compressive and split tensile strength
correspond to each other but flexural strength do not correspond to each
other. The cost of slag is nearly 50% of that of natural aggregates hence it is
economical to use the waste product of steel industry. Hence he
recommended that the slag aggregate could be effectively utilized as coarse
aggregate.
 34

Mohamed Ahmed Khafaga (2014) experimented the locally

produced steel slag in Egypt as a replacement of the natural aggregate for
producing high strength concrete. The results indicated that the highest
concrete strength was obtained for the mixture possessed a percentage of
66.67% steel slag aggregates as a replacement of the coarse aggregate.

Khalid Raza et al (2014) made a study by replacing coarse

aggregates by steel slag from 10% to 50%.The study concluded that
compressive strength of concrete improved by 5% to 8% at all the
replacement of crushed coarse aggregate with slag. It could be said that
100% replacement of crushed coarse aggregate with slag enhanced concrete
density by 6 to 8% in all the concrete mixes.

Chinnaraju et al (2013) discussed the effect of steel slag, a

by-product from steel industry as replacement for coarse aggregate in
concrete and eco sand, which is a commercial by-product of cement
manufacturing process. Tests on compressive strength, flexural strength,
split tensile strength at 7 days and 28 days, and water absorption at 28 days
were conducted on specimens. It was concluded that replacing some
percentage of coarse aggregate with steel slag enhances the strength. The
results showed that replacing about 60 % of steel slag aggregates for coarse
aggregate and 40% of eco sand for fine aggregate will not have any adverse
effect on the strength of the concrete.

Wang Qiang et al (2013) had investigated the influence of steel

slag on mechanical properties and durability of concrete. The steel slag
used was basic oxygen furnace steel slag with the specific surface area of
453 m2/kg. The condition of constant W/B, increasing the steel slag content
tends to decrease the compressive strength especially the early strength of
the concrete at high W/B (0.50), the late compressive strength of the
 35

concrete with more than 30% steel slag is significantly lower than that of
the pure cement concrete. Under the condition of constant 28 days
compressive strength, the concrete with steel slag exhibits lower early
strength but higher late strength than the pure cement concrete. The
ultimate drying shrinkage at 90 days of the concrete with steel slag is close
to that of the pure cement concrete.

Wang Qiang et al (2013) had also studied about the cementitious

properties of super-fine steel slag. The super-fine steel slag replacement
tends to weaken the cementitious properties of the composite binder. As
compared to the ordinary steel slag, the super-fine steel slag exhibits a
much higher activity at early and middle ages, but it exhibits a relative
lower activity at late ages. The concrete containing super-fine steel slag
shows lower compressive strength, higher porosity, and higher permeability
than the concrete with fly ash. It is un-economical to produce super-fine
steel slag by mechanical grinding especially when it comes to the long-term
properties of concrete.

Riyaz Khan et al (2013) conducted tests on the determination of

different properties of locally available steel slag and utilization of steel
slag in concrete by replacing it partially and fully by fine aggregate keeping
the other parameters constant. Shear strength is considered for investigation
on M20 grade of concrete with constant 0.5 w/c ratio. Steel slag
replacement of 0, 20, 40, 60, 80 & 100% are used. The best results are
obtained for replacement ratio of 60%. Therefore, the use of steel slag in
concrete would enhance the strength of concrete. Results show that the
replacement of steel slag with 60% by fine aggregate gives highest shear
strength. Shear strength was increased up to 25.33% compared to nominal
mix.
 36

Mohammed Nadeem et al (2012) conducted experimental study

on replacement of normal crushed coarse aggregate with crystallized
slag and replacement of natural fine aggregate with granular slag. The
investigation revealed improvement in compressive strength, split tensile
and flexure strength over control mixes by 4 to 8%. The replacement
of 100% slag aggregate (coarse) increased concrete density by about 5
to 7% compared to control mix. Based on the overall observations, it
could be recommended that slag could be effectively utilized as coarse
and fine aggregates in all the concrete applications.

Mohammed Nadeem et al (2012) examined the utilization of

granular slag as replacement of natural fine aggregate in construction
applications (Masonry & Plastering). The study showed that partial
substitution of ordinary sand by slag yielded better results in both the
applications i.e. masonry and plastering. The sand replacement from 50% to
75% improved mortar flow properties by 7%, the compressive strength
improved by 11 to 15% for the replacement level from 25 to 75%. The
study concluded that granular slag could be utilized as alternative
construction material for natural sand in masonry and plastering
applications either partially or fully.

Arabani et al (2012) had investigated the effect of recycled

concrete aggregate and steel slag on the dynamic properties of asphalt
mixtures. In the indirect tensile resilient modulus test, the use of RCA fine
aggregates and steel slag coarse aggregates significantly increased the
resilient modulus. Moreover, the highest modulus was obtained with the
FA: RCA + CA: SS mixture, which presented a modulus that was 2.35
times greater than that of the control mix.
 37

Mohammed Nadeem et al (2012) reported that 100%

replacements of crushed coarse aggregate with crystallized slag enhanced
concrete density by 5 to 7% in all the concrete mixes and reduces
concrete density by 3 % in case of replacing fine aggregate with granular
slag. The improvement in density was due to the higher unit weight
of crystallized slag aggregate which is 9% heavier than natural aggregate.
Hence, it could be recommended that slag aggregate could be effectively
utilized as coarse and fine aggregate in all concrete applications either as
partial or full replacements of normal crushed coarse and natural fine
aggregates.

Malathy et al (2012) reported that their experimental study

proves that the partial replacement of natural aggregates by steel slag
aggregates permits a gain of compressive, tensile and flexural strength of
concrete up to an optimum value of 40% replacement and the substitution
of steel slag beyond an optimum value of replacement affects positively the
compressive, tensile and flexural strength. The use of steel slag a waste
cheap material from industrial by-product in various grade of concrete
mixtures as a partial replacement material for fine aggregates in concrete
shows that cost reduction, social benefits and mass utilization of waste
material.

Behera et al (2011) designed a concrete with certain target mean

strength and compared the strength of concrete by replacing the natural
coarse aggregate with different percentage of slag. The experimental results
revealed that substitution of natural coarse aggregate with slag increased
compressive strength as well as workability of concrete.

Netinger et al (2011) had investigated the utilization of steel slag

as an aggregate in concrete. The concrete mixtures were prepared with
 38

coarse slag fractions whose hardened state properties (compressive and

flexural strength, static modulus of elasticity, volume changes and corrosion
susceptibility) were then compared with the properties of reference concrete
made of commonly used natural aggregate materials, namely dolomite. The
expansive nature of slag has not been noticed during the course of 90days
but the volume stability will be continued. Additionally, using slag as
aggregates can reduce the exploitation of natural aggregates, and thus
contribute to the environmental preservation.

Liu Chunlin et al (2011) had investigated the possibility of

concrete prepared with steel slag as fine and coarse aggregates. Concretes
prepared with steel slag as fine and coarse aggregates obtained the highest
compressive strength of 59.6MPa and the nearest flexural strength of
9.3 MPa to ordinary concrete. As to the volume deformation properties of
concrete using steel slag as aggregates, the deformation is obviously less
than that of conventional concrete (OC,OC-P) before submerging in water
(shrinkage) and expansion occurred after submerging in water at the age of
90days. The strength performance of Electric Arc Furnace (EAF) slag
concretes is similar to that of a more traditional concrete, with a higher
compressive strength and a slightly less flexural strength.

Khidhair J.Mohammed et al (2009) reported about the density of

steel slag aggregate concrete. The density of concrete increased from
2.35 gm/cm3 for samples without slag to 2.60 gm/cm3 for samples with
60% slag, i.e. by 10% increment for cubic samples, while for cylindrical
samples with up to 50% slag, the density increased by about 8%, so that
relatively high density concrete could be obtained. The increment in density
was due to more interference of small slag particles, so the final density
would be higher and increased by increasing slag content.
 39

Hisham Quasrawi et al (2009) had studied about the use of low

Cao unprocessed steel slag in concrete as fine aggregate. The slag is used as
fine aggregate replacing the sand in the mixes, partly or totally. Ratios of
0%, 15%, 30%, 50% and 100% are used. Depending on the grade of
concrete, the compressive strength is improved when steel slag is used for
low sand replacement ratios (up to 30%). The replacement ratios up to 50%
have only marginal effect on the workability and the concrete can still be
classified as concrete of medium workability. The value are occurs when
the sand is replaced by 15% to 30% slag. The compressive strength in all
mixes containing 100% sand slag replacement is always lower than those
mixes with no slag. Moreover, the mixes containing 50% slag produced
lower strength than the control mix. Also, both mixes containing 15% and
30% slag produced strength values at later ages higher than the control mix.
The results are obtained for replacement ratios of 30% to 50% for tensile
strength and 15% to 30% for compressive strength. The compressive and
tensile strengths of concrete, steel slag is more advantageous for concretes
of lower strengths, when the replacement percentage is about 50%. The use
of steel slag increases the tensile strength of concrete by 1.4 to 2.4 times the
strength of normal concrete, depending on the ratio used. In this case, the
strength increases by the increase in the amount of slag replacing sand.

Hisham Quasrawi et al (2009) conducted a research on the

utilization of steel slag as fine aggregate. Compressive strength and 28 days
tensile strength tests were performed based on different slag ratios. The
results indicated the improvement of compressive strength for replacement
slag ratios of 15-30% and tensile strength for replacement slag ratios of
30 to 50%.

Khidhair J.Mohammed et al (2009) have reported about the

improvement in compressive strength and flexural force in concrete
 40

mixtures by increasing slag contents after 7 and 28 days. This could be

explained by positive effect of slag additions. The rough surfaces of the slag
and its glassy – cement form enable strengthening of concrete by water
addition, also slag particles size and shapes interfere in concrete mixtures
and decreased water permeability. Also higher density of concrete was due
to smaller empty interspaces resulted within the concrete structure. By
simple estimation, waste steel slag would be enough to produce about 3 MT
of concrete from each 1MT of steel slag, in addition to its environmental
benefits.

Sean Monkman et al (2009) have investigated the possibility of

using a carbonated LF slag as a fine aggregate in concrete. The slag was
treated with CO2 to reduce the free lime content while binding gaseous CO2
into solid carbonates. The carbonated LF slag was used as a fine aggregate
in zero-slump press-formed compact mortar samples and compare to similar
samples containing control river sand. The 28 days strengths of the mortars
made with the carbonated slag sand were comparable to the strengths of the
normal river sand mortars. The carbonation of LF slag was found to be
suitable for use as a fine aggregate. Significant amounts of carbon
sequestration could be realized in a potentially useful form that further
utilizes a waste slag material.

Al-Otaibi (2008) presented the preliminary findings of a study

that investigated the potential for recycling steel mill scale into concrete.
The composition of the steel mill scale was determined by XRF. Several
mortar mixes were made using the product as a replacement for the fine
aggregates. Compressive strength, flexural strength and drying shrinkage
were measured for different specimens from the mortar mixes. The results
showed that 40% of sand with steel mill scale increased the compressive
strength and flexural strength.
 41

Obratil et al (2008) carried out a research at the Cleveland State

University. He examined the effects of replacing various percentages of
natural aggregates with steel slag in a standard concrete pavement mixture
which showed satisfactory results.

Yunxia Lun et al (2008) used steel slag as fine aggregate for

enhancing the volume stability of mortar. Experimental results indicated
that powder ratio, content of free lime and rate of linear expansion can
express the improvement in volume stability of different treated methods.
Autoclave treatment process is found more effective steam treatment
process on enhancement of volume stability of steel slag.

Chen et al (2007) had studied about the optimization of blended

mortars using steel slag sand. The content of steel slag sand should be less
than 50% in order to assure the volume stability of steel slag sand mortar.
The stability of steel slag sand mortar is good only if its dosage is less than
50%. The application of steel slag sand may reduce the dosage of clinker
and increase the content of industrial waste product such as ground
granulated blast-furnace slag (GGBFS), while the mechanical performance
and micro structure are still improved. So, cement-based materials made of
steel slag sand take on not only better performance but also better
environmental and ecological effect.

Anastasiou et al (2006) conducted several tests with slag

aggregates in concrete and found out that the 28 days strength was
increased by 21% with replacement of natural aggregates, while there was
no increase in the setting time of concrete mixtures. The cement-aggregate
interface seemed to be very dense without cracks or other discontinuities.
The concrete that is produced with steel slag aggregates is of high specific
gravity compared to conventional concrete. However the specific gravity
 42

can be increased or reduced proportionally by the combination of different

types of aggregates.

Isa Yuksel et al (2006) experimented the use of non ground

granulated blast furnace slag as fine aggregate in concrete. The study
concluded that the ratio of GGBS /sand is governing criteria for the effects
on the strength and durability characteristics.

Shekarchi et al (2004) introduced a comprehensive research on

the utilization of steel slag as aggregate in concrete. In the study, Shekarchi
concluded that the use of air-cooled steel slag with low amorphous silica
content and high amount of ferric oxides it unsuitable to be employed in
blended cement. On the other hand, utilization of steel slag as aggregate is
advantages when compared to normal aggregate mixes.

Xin et al (2003) summarized the effect of steel slag on

microstructure and composition of hydration products of Ordinary Portland
Cement (OPC) investigated by mercury intrusion porosimetry, X-ray
diffraction and differential thermal analysis. The results showed that ground
steel slag is a kind of high activity mineral additives and it can raise the
longer-age strength of OPC mortar.

Beshr et al (2003) explored that the use of steel slag aggregates in

concrete by replacing natural aggregates is a most promising concept. Steel
slag aggregates are already being used as aggregates in asphalt paving road
mixes due to their mechanical strength, stiffness, porosity, wear resistance
and water absorption capacity. Studies and tests are being conducted on
ways to use this steel slag as an aggregate in concrete.

Maslehuddin et al (2003) made a comparison study of steel slag

and crushed limestone aggregate. They studied the mechanical properties
 43

and durability characteristics of steel slag aggregate concrete in comparison

with limestone aggregates. Their results showed that the durability and
physical properties of concrete with steel slag aggregates was better than
limestone aggregates. Their results showed that the compressive strength of
steel slag aggregates increased with the proportion of coarse aggregates
from 4550 psi (31.4 MPa) with 45% coarse aggregates to 6190 psi
(42.7 MPa) with 65% coarse aggregates. The flexural strength and split
tensile strength also increased while the water absorption capacity was
reduced. They stated that the shrinkage of steel slag exposed to a dry
environment was similar to limestone aggregate with no major expansion
i.e. less than 0.05% as specified by ASTM C 33. The time of initiation of
reinforcement corrosion and time of cracking of concrete specimens was
observed to be longer than with lime stone aggregates.

Ziauddin A. Khan et al (2002) reported that the pulse velocity of

SSA (Steel Slag Aggregate) concrete was more than that of crushed
limestone aggregate concrete. The water absorbed by steel slag aggregate
concrete was less than that absorbed by the crushed limestone aggregate
concrete. The time to initiation of reinforcement corrosion and time to
cracking of concrete specimens was more in steel slag aggregate concrete
compared to crushed limestone aggregate concrete. The superior
performance of steel slag aggregate concrete was noted in the concrete
specimens prepared with coarse to total aggregate ratio of 0.55 and above.
The improved properties of concrete prepared with steel slag aggregate
indicate that this material can be beneficially utilized in portland cement
concrete. The steel slag aggregate concretes may be proportioned to have
50% coarse aggregates and 50% fine aggregates to reduce its weight.

Ziauddin A. Khan (2002) also reported that the physical

properties of steel slag aggregates were superior to those of crushed
 44

limestone. However, the bulk specific gravity of the former aggregates was
more than that of the latter aggregates. The increase in unit weight of
concrete, due to the incorporation of steel slag aggregate, in lieu of crushed
limestone aggregate, was approximately 17%. Though the compressive
strength of steel slag aggregate concrete was marginally better than that of
crushed limestone aggregate concrete, no significant improvement in the
flexural and split tensile strengths was noted in the steel slag aggregate
concrete compared to crushed limestone aggregate concrete.

Abdulaziz Al-Negheismish et al (1996) conducted a research in

Saudi Arabia to utilize locally available steel slag in concrete. The steel slag
was used as coarse aggregates in concrete and comparison was made with
crushed gravel. The results showed that the compressive and flexural
strength for slag concrete was slightly higher than the natural gravel
concrete. The split tensile strength and modulus of elasticity were higher,
while drying shrinkage was lower than the natural gravel concrete. The
Young’s modulus of elasticity E of steel slag aggregates concrete at 28 days
was 5 x 106 Psi (34.3 GPa) while it was 4 x 106 Psi (27.9 GPa) for gravel
concrete. The improvement in strength properties of steel slag aggregate
concrete may be due to shape of particles and surface texture, which
provide better adhesion and bond between particles and the cement matrix.

Zeghichi (2006) concluded that the partial substitution of sand

with granulated slag gives improvement of compressive strength at different
ages. The partial substitution of natural aggregate with slag aggregates
permits a gain of strength at long term. The entire substitution of natural
aggregates with slag aggregates should be avoided, as it affects negatively
the strength (a loss in strength of 38%).
 45

Jigar P. Patel (2008) have discussed about the steel slag, an

industrial byproduct obtained from the steel manufacturing industry is used
as a replacement for both fine and coarse aggregates in a conventional
concrete mixture. His results showed that replacing about 50 to 75% of steel
slag aggregates by volume for natural aggregates will not do any harm to
concrete and also it will not have any adverse effects on the strength and
durability.

Wang Qiang et al (2013) experimented and reported that steel

slag as fine aggregate in concrete compared with concrete made from
natural sand, properties such as compressive strength, flexural strength,
elastic modulus, permeability and abrasion resistance are considerably
improved. The improvement increases with a decrease in w/c ratio, an
increase in curing time and an increase in the replacement weight of sand.
These results are due to the fact that the steel slag contains some active
minerals such as C3S, C2S, C4AF, etc., and shows favorable surface
physical characteristics that improve the bond between steel slag particles
and cement paste.

2.5.8 Durability Properties

Jing jing Feng et al (2014) investigated the mechanical

properties and permeability of the concrete with steel slag coarse aggregates
by comparing the concrete with crushed limestone coarse aggregates.
Results show that the concrete with steel slag aggregates shows similar
strength with the concrete with crushed limestone aggregates at the age of
28 days, but it shows a little higher strength especially split tensile strength
at the age of 90 days. Steel slag coarse aggregates tend to have limited
influence on the elastic modulus and permeability of concrete. The results
at different water to cement ratios are similar.
 46

Jian Ping Zhu et al (2011) investigated and reported about the

compressive and durable properties of concretes with steel slag. For this
purpose, a reference sample and twenty-four concrete cube samples
containing steel slag were tested. The steel slag fraction used was “5–20
mm”, and the surface area of steel slag powder was 450m2/kg. Compressive
strength at 7 and 28 days, and chloride penetration properties were
measured. It is concluded that steel slag can be used in the production of
concrete. In addition, the steel slag concretes present satisfactory physical
properties. When proper amount of steel slag powder and steel slag fraction
were used the concrete properties can be better than the blank one.

Hadj Sadok et al (2012) had studied about the durability of

mortar and concretes containing slag with low hydraulic activity. The
results of an experimental study on the effect of slag with low hydraulicity
on the mechanical and durability properties of concrete and the
performance of mortar under sulphate attack are discussed. The durability
of slag concrete is improved at long term at low W/B ratio. Sulphate
resistance of mortar is improved by slag replacement up to 30%.

Netinger et al (2012) designed an experimental program and

carried out it to study properties of four steel slag based concrete mixtures
with different types of cement pastes prior and after heating up to 800°C.
Dolomite based concrete mixture was studied as a reference mixture.
Residual mechanical properties (namely compressive strength and modulus
of elasticity) of steel based mixtures are comparable with dolomite based
mixture up to the temperature of almost 600°C. A sharp drop in residual
mechanical properties in slag based mixtures is observed in the temperature
range between 600°C and 800°C. Due to the fact that similar residual
properties were obtained within all slag based mixtures (with different types
of cement pastes) it is obvious that after cooling from 600°C and 800°C, the
 47

type of aggregate used has a predominant influence on the residual

mechanical properties of slag based mixtures.

Ali et al (2011) conducted a study to compare the behavior of

normal concrete containing steel slag aggregate and normal aggregate under
the exposure of two types of sulphate ions namely, natriumsulphate and
magnesium sulphate with 0.3 molar 5 % concentration for a period of
twenty weeks. The durability of concrete containing steel slag i.e. changes
in physical, volume and strength after the immersion process has been
observed. The result of different water cement ratio of 0.47, 0.52, and 0.55
and steel slag aggregate replacement of 10%, 50% and 100% of total
aggregate proportion are presented and analyzed. From the result, it shows
that the durability of steel slag aggregate (SSA) and natural aggregate (NA)
concrete has the same performance.

Bali et al (2009) had investigated the durability properties of

concrete containing 50% and 65% Slag. Concretes with 65% slag took
almost twice the time to reach a given alkali-silica-reactivity (ASR)
expansion compared to concrete with 50% slag replacement. Concretes
with 65% slag performed better in resisting the effects of cracking due to
alkali-silica-reactivity (ASR) than concretes with 50% slag. The
methodology used here in securing high early strengths and low water–
binder (W/B) ratios helped to minimize the damage to those properties of
the slag concrete.

Takashi et al (2007) conducted research on freeze-thaw

resistance of steel slag aggregate concrete. Concrete specimens were
prepared with steel slag aggregates, recycled aggregates and crushed stones
and compared with each other. The size of steel slag aggregates used for the
research ranged from 15 to 20mm. The samples were cyclically exposed to
 48

-18°C to 5°C, every 5 hours in water. Results showed that resistance to

freezing and thawing of steel slag aggregates concrete was better than the
recycled aggregates and almost same as crushed stone. Results also showed
that compressive strength and resistance to freezing and thawing increased
with increase in cement content.

Kimura et al (2007) discussed the application of steel slag

hydrated matrix (SSHM) for steel reinforced structures and investigated the
resistance to the penetration of substances such as chloride ion, oxygen,
carbon dioxide and resistance to corrosion of reinforcing steel bar in
SSHM. The results showed that resistance to chloride ion penetration,
oxygen permeability, resistance for steel bar corrosion in SSHM were equal
to or even better than that of a steel reinforced concrete material under
marine environment.

Jigar P. Patel (2008) conducted experiments on the durability of

steel slag aggregates concrete under freeze-thaw environment. As there was
a belief that the steel slag aggregates have expansive characteristics and
would cause cracking in concrete. The results of his research proved that if
up to 50 to 75 % of steel slag aggregates are incorporated in the traditional
concrete, there would not be much change in the durability of concrete.

Polancol (2006) reaffirmed that by proper mix proportions both

the mechanical strength and durability of steel slag aggregate concrete can
be improved. He conducted two tests for durability: 1) Autoclave test and 2)
Accelerated aging test. Results showed that the compressive strength was
improved after testing. He conducted chemical reactivity test to observe the
possible reactions between slag aggregates and other components of
concrete. Variations in weights and compressive strength were recorded and
results showed that an electric arc furnace slag concrete showed greater
 49

strength and lower water penetration. He also stated the use of air entraining
admixtures increased the freeze-thaw resistance and durability of slag
concrete was satisfactory.

Juan M Manso et al (2004) made a study on durability of the

concrete made with electric arc furnace slag as an aggregate, and the results
showed that it was acceptable. The concrete mixes using conditioned EAF
slag showed good fresh and hardened properties and acceptable behavior
against aggressive environmental conditions. It was observed that the
compressive strength was similar to that of traditional concrete. The
durability was slightly lower than conventional concrete. The concrete had
good physical and mechanical properties, but results showed that special
attention should be paid to the gradation and crushing process. The results
showed that the high porosity of EAF slag aggregates affects concrete
resistance to freezing and thawing but improvements in the field could be
possibly obtained by adding air entraining admixtures.

Mc. Daniel (1990) reported that due to their heat retention

capacity steel slag aggregate have been observed to retain heat considerably
longer than conventional natural aggregates. The heat retention
characteristics of steel slag aggregates can be advantageous in hot mix
asphalt repair in cold weather.

2.5.9 Structural properties

Saaid I. Zaki et al (2011) reported about high performance

concrete containing steel slag coarse aggregate attained improvement in
mechanical properties (compressive strength, tensile strength and static
modulus of elasticity) compared with dolomite aggregate concrete. Both
steel slag concrete beams and dolomite concrete beams showed typical
 50

structural behavior in flexure. At both the service and ultimate states, the
flexural performance of reinforced steel slag concrete beams can be
comparable or even superior to that of concrete made entirely with natural
aggregates. Higher tensile steel strain of the steel slag concrete beams
shows the existence of stronger bond between the concrete and the steel
reinforcement. In general, it can be reported that the concrete incorporating
steel slag coarse aggregate is able to achieve its full strain capacity under
flexural loading.

Sabrina Sorlini (2012) conducted an experimental program on

concrete specimens with the Waelz slag from the Waelz plant of Pontenossa
(Bergamo),in partial substitution of natural aggregates. Specimens of a
reference concrete with natural aggregates were also made. Mechanical
tests were performed to determine the compressive and the tensile strength
as well as the elastic modulus of concrete with Waelz slag. Leaching tests
were also carried out on cubic samples after 28 days of curing. The
experimental results show that Waelz slag can be successfully reused as
aggregate for concrete mixtures. From the physical-mechanical
characterization of concrete (compression, traction, flexure and modulus of
elasticity) carried out after different curing times, it can be seen that the
Waelz slag, also with a dosage of 600 kg/m3, does not influence the
mechanical properties with respect to the reference concrete.

Arivalagan (2012) investigated the flexural behaviour of steel

slag concrete beam and gave encouraging results in favor of steel slag to be
used as coarse aggregate.
 All steel slag concrete beams showed typical structural behaviour in
flexure. The overall flexural behavior of steel slag reinforced
concrete beams used in this study closely resembles that of
 51

equivalent beam made with normal weight conventional concrete

beams.
 The experimental ultimate moment gives a conservative estimate for
steel slag concrete beams for 7% to 32% of a theoretical ultimate
moment.
 The deflection under the service loads for beams were within the
allowable limit provided by IS: 456(2000).
 Steel slag beams showed good ductility behaviour. All the beams
exhibited considerable amount of deflection, which gives enough
warning before failure.

Nadeem et al (2012) reported the results of their findings.

Concrete mixes with higher slag ratios meeting the ACI 325.10R-99
standard with different cement contents were tested for flexural strength.
The results indicated that the higher the slag ratio, the higher the flexural
strength. In all replacement ratios the flexural strength increases by the
increase in slag ratio. This can be illustrated to a higher angularity of the
utilized slag which increases a bond between the paste and the aggregate
and thus led to increase of flexural strength.

Han Ay Lie et al (1997) reported that the use of steel slag will
improve shear capacity of concrete. At a 100% substitution of natural
coarse aggregates with slag, an 11% increase in shear strength was
observed. The failure mode and propagation pattern of shear cracks were
not influenced by the slag use, the overall load carrying capacity of test
specimen increased by 16.64%. This was a contribution of compression
strength, shear capacity and probably bond strength increase. Slag
aggregates influence the ductility of elements in bending positively, both
 52

vertical displacement and strain measured at reinforcing steel levels showed

an enhancement.

2.6 NEED FOR THE PRESENT STUDY

The literature survey encompasses many studies with steel slag

used as coarse aggregate and fine aggregate in concrete. That reflects a
growing interest in academic and industrial research in this area. Even
though various studies have been conducted on steel slag as aggregates in
concrete, there is no in depth study on the fresh, hardened, durability and
structural properties of steel slag aggregates both in coarse form and fine
form to optimize their replacement level separately and combinely in
concrete. Hence there is a lot of scope to study the effect of steel slag
aggregates on fresh concrete properties and mechanical, durability and
structural properties of concrete.