CHAPTER 1

INTRODUCTION

1.1GENERAL

The continuing expansion of highway network throughout the world is largely

theresult of great increase in traffic, population and extensive growth of
metropolitan urban areas. This expansion has lead to many changes in the use and
development of various kinds of bridges. The bridge type is related to providing
maximum efficiency of use of material and construction technique, for particular
span, and applications. As Span increases, dead load is an important increasing
factor. To reduce the dead load, unnecessary material, which is not utilized to its
full capacity, is removed out of section, this Results in the shape of box girder or
cellular structures, depending upon whether the shear deformations can be
neglected or not.
Span range is more for box bridge girder as compare to T-beam Girder Bridge
resulting in comparatively lesser number of piers for the same valley width and
hence results in economy.
A box girder is formed when two web plates are joined by a common flange at both
the top and the bottom. The closed cell which is formed has a much greater
torsional stiffness and strength than an open section and it is this feature which is
the usual reason for choosing a box girder configuration.
Box girders can be universally applied from the point of view of load carrying, to
their indifference as to whether the bending moments can be of either in form of
positive or negative and to their torsional stiffness; from the point of view
of economy.

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1.2 BOX GIRDER BRIDGE.

A general loading on a box girder, such as shown in fig 1.2(b) for single cell box,
has components which bend, twist, and deform the cross section. Thin walled
closed section girders are so stiff and strong in torsion that the designer might
assume, after computations based on the elemental torsional theory, that the
torsional component of loading has negligible influence on box girder response.

Figure 1.2(a) Box girder bridge

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 Figure 1.2(b) Loading on box girder

If the torsional component of the loading is applied as shears on the plate elements
thatare in proportion to St. Venant torsion shear flows, fig 1.2(b) , the sectionis
twisted without deformation of the cross section. The resulting longitudinal
warping stresses are small, and no transverse flexural distortion stresses are
induced. However, if the torsional loading is applied as shown in fig 1.2(b) . As
indicated in fig 1.2(b) the movements of the plate elements of the cross section
cause distortion stresses in the transverse direction and warping stresses in the
longitudinal direction.

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1.2.1 FLEXURE:

A vehicle load, placed on the upper flange of box girder can occupy any position,
transverse as well as longitudinal. This load is transferred transversely by flexure of
deck to the webs of box girder. For understanding the various stresses generated,
initially consider that the webs of box girder are not allowed to deflect. The
structure resembles a portal frame.

Fig:1.2.1 Flexure

The flexure of deck would induce transverse bending stresses in the webs, and
consequently in the bottom flanges of the girder.

Any vehicle load can thus be replaced by the forces at the intersections of deck and
web as shown in fig 2-3. Now the supports under the web are allowed to yield. This
results in deflection of web and consequently redistribution of forces among web
and flanges.

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Distortion of cross section occurs as a result of the fact that m1 and m2 are not
equal resulting in sway of frame, due to eccentrically placed load. The section of
box tries to resist this distortion, resulting in the transverse stresses. These stresses
are called distortional transverse stresses. The distortion of cross section is not
uniform along the span, either due to non uniform loading or due to presence of
diaphragms or due to both. However the compatibility of displacements must be
satisfied along the longitudinal edges of plate forming the box, which implies that
these plates must bend individually in their own plane, thus inducing longitudinal
warping displacements. Any restraint to these displacements causes stresses. These
stresses are called longitudinal warping stresses and are in addition to longitudinal
bending stresses.

1.2.2 TORSION:

The main reason for box section being more efficient is that for eccentrically placed
live loads on the deck slabs, the distribution of longitudinal flexural stresses across
the section remains more or less identical to that produced by symmetrical
transverse loading. In other words, the high torsional strength of the box section
makes it very suitable for long span bridges.
Investigations have shown that the box girders subjected to torsion undergo
deformation or distortion of the section, giving rise to transverse as well as
longitudinal stresses. These stresses cannot be predicted by the conventional
theories of bending and torsion. One line of approach to the analysis of box girders
subjected to torsion is based on the study of Thin walled beam theory.

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 Figure 1.2.2 (a) Action of torsional forces

The major assumptions are:

a) Plate action by bending in the longitudinal direction for all platesforming the
cross section, namely webs, slabs is negligible.
b) Longitudinal stresses vary linearly between the longitudinal joints, or the
meeting points of the plates forming the cross section.

The kerb, footpath, parapet, and wearing coat generally form the superimposed
dead loads acting on the effective section which is responsible for carrying all loads
safely and transmitting them to the substructure. Because of symmetry, the
selfweight of the effective section and the superimposed dead loads do not create
any torsional effects. However the non-symmetrical live loads which consist of
concentrated wheel loads from vehicles on any part of carriage way and the
equivalent uniformly distributed load on one of the footpaths can subject the box
girder to torsion.

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 Fig: 1.2.2(b) Action of torsion force on deck slab

If the deck slab is considered to be resting on nondeflecting supports at A and B in

fig 1.2.2(b), the vertical reactions and the moments created by the live loads at
these points can be computed. The effects of moments at this stage are treated as
separately since they cause only local transverse flexure and can be evaluated by
considering a slice of unit length from the box girder. The effect of superimposed
and dead loads should also be taken into account in such evaluations.

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 Figure 1.2.2(c) pure torsional forces

In „rigid body rotation‟ or „pure torsion‟ effects, thesection merely twists or rotates
causing St.Venant shear stresses and associated warping stresses which can be
evaluated by the elemental theory of torsion as applied to closed sections of thin
walled members. It may be emphasized that due to very high stiffness in „pure
torsion‟, the box girder will twist very little, and that the webs will remain almost
vertical in their original unloaded position. Also the associated
longitudinal stresses due to warping restraint when present are negligible as
compared to those induced by the longitudinal flexure due to forces Q.
This shear flow (force/unit length) is constant around the box and is given
by q = T/2A, where T is the torque and A is the area enclosed by the box. The shear
flow produces shear stresses and strains in the walls .However, pure torsion of a
thin walled section will also produce a warping of the cross-section, Of course, for
a simple uniform box section subject to pure torsion, warping is unrestrained and
does not give rise to any secondary stresses.
This restraint of warping gives rise to longitudinal warping stresses and associated
shear stresses in the same manner as bending effects in each wall of the box. The
shear stresses effectively modify slightly the uniformity of the shear stress
calculated by pure torsion theory, usually reducing the stress near corners and
increasing it in midpanel. Because maximum combined effects usually occur at the
corners, it is conservative to ignore the warping shear stresses and use the simple
uniform distribution. The longitudinal effects are, on the other hand
greatest at the corners.

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But since the longitudinal stresses do not actually participate in the carrying of the
torsion, the occurrence of yield at the corners and the consequent relief of some or
all of these warping stresses would not reduce the torsional resistance

1.2.3 DISTORTION:

When torsion is applied directly around the perimeter of a box section, by forces
exactly equal to the shear flow in each of the sides of the box, there is no tendency
for the cross section to change its shape. Torsion can be applied in this manner if, at
the position where the force couple is applied, a diaphragm or stiff frame is
provided to ensure that the section remains square and that torque is in fact fed into
the box walls as a shear flow around the perimeter.

Fig 1.2.3(a): Distortional effects

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when the load is distributed along the beam, or when point loads can occur
anywhere along the beam such as concentrated axle loads from vehicles, the
distortional effects must be carried by other means.
The distortional forces shown in figure1.2.3(a) are tending to increase the
length of one diagonal and shorten the other. This tendency is resisted in two ways,
by in-plane bending of each of the wall of the box and by out-of-plane bending, is
illustrated in Figure1.2.3(b).

Fig 1.2.3(b) Distortional displacements in box girder.

In general the distortional behavior depends on interaction between the two sorts of
bending. The behavior has been demonstrated to be analogous to that of a beam on
an elastic foundation (BEF), and this analogy is frequently used to evaluate the
distortional effects.
If the only resistance to transverse distortional bending is provided by out-of-plane
bending of the flange plates there were no intermediate restraints to distortion and
the distortional deflections . For this reason it is usual to provide intermediate
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cross-frames or diaphragms; consideration of distortional displacements and
stresses can then be limited to the lengths between cross-frames.
The distortion of section is not same throughout the span the warping
stresses produced by distortion are different from those induced by the restraint to
warping in pure torsion which is encountered in elementary theory of torsion ,
these plates must bend individually in their own plane, thus inducing longitudinal
warping displacements. Any restraint to this displacement causes stresses. These
stresses are called longitudinal warping stresses and are in addition to longitudinal
bending stresses.
A general loading on a box girder such as for a single cell box, has
components, which bend twice and deform the cross section Distortional stresses
also occur under flexural component, due to poisson effect and the beam reductance
of the flange in multi cellular box, the symmetrical component also gives rise to
distortion stresses and it is significant percentage of total stresses. With increase in
number of cells, the proportion of transverse distortional stresses also increase.
How ever for a single cell box the procedure of considering only the distortional
component of loading for evaluation of distortional stresses in adequate for
practical purposes.
The concrete boxes in general have sufficient distortional
stiffness to limit the warping stresses to small fraction of the bending stresses,
without internal diaphragms. But for steel boxes either internal diaphragms or
stiffer transverse frames are necessary to prevent buckling of flanges as well as of
webs and in most cases these will be sufficient to limit the deformation of the cross
section.
Therefore distortion of box girder depends on arrangement of
load transversely, shape of the box girder, number of cells and their arrangement,
type of bridge such as concrete or steel, distortional stiffness provided by internal
diaphragms and transverse bracings provided to check buckling of webs and
flanges.

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1.2.4 WARPING OF CROSS SECTION:

Warping is an out of plane on the points of cross section, arising due to torsional
loading. Initially considering a box beam whose cross section cannot distort
because of the existence of rigid transverse diaphragms all along the span. These
diaphragms are assumed to restrict longitudinal displacements of cross sections
except at midspan where, by symmetry the cross section remains plane. The
longitudinal displacements are called torsional warping displacements and are
associated with shear deformations in the planes of flanges and webs.
In further stage assume that transverse diaphragms other than
those at supports are removed so that the cross section can distort. It results in
additional twisting of cross section under torsional loading. The additional vertical
deflection of each web also increases the out of plane displacements of the cross
sections.

FIGURE 1.2.4(a) WARPING STRESS PATTERN(2 DIMENSIONAL)

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 Fig 1.2.4(a) ACTION OF WARPING FORCES(3 DIMENSIONAL)

Warping of rectangular box subjected to pure torsion.

If torsional loading is applied, there are forces acting on the plate of elements,
which tend to deform the cross section. The movements of the plate elements of the
cross section cause distortion stresses in transverse direction and warping stresses
in longitudinal direction.These additional warping displacements are called
distortional warping displacements .
Thus concrete box beams with no intermediate diaphragms when subjected to
torsional loading, undergo warping displacements composing of two components
viz, torsional and distortional warping displacements. Both these give rise to
longitudinal normal stresses i.e. warping stresses whenever warping is constrained.
Distortion of cross section is the main source of warping stresses in concrete box
girders, when distortion is mainly resisted by transverse bending strength of the
walls and not by diaphragms.

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1.2.5 SHEAR LAG:

In a box girder a large shear flow is normally transmitted from vertical webs to
horizontal flanges, causes in plane shear deformation of flange plates, the
consequence of which is that the longitudinal displacements in central portion of
flange plate lag behind those behind those near the web, where as the bending
theory predicts equal displacements which thus produces out of plane warping of an
initially planar cross section resulting in the “SHEAR LAG". Another form of
warping which arises when a box beam is subjected to bending without torsion, as
with symmetrical loading is known as “SHEAR LAG IN BENDING”.
Shear lag can also arise in torsion when one end of box beam is
restrained against warping and a torsional load is applied from the other end fig 2-
11. The restraint against warping induces longitudinal stresses in the region of
built-in-end and shear stresses in this area are redistributed as a result which is an
effect of shear deformation sometimes called as shear lag. Shear distribution is not
uniform across the flange being more at edges and less at the centre fig 2-13.

Fig:1.2.5(a) Shear lag

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 In a box beam with wide, thin flanges shear strains may be sufficient to
cause the central longitudinal displacements to lag behind at the edges of the flange
causing a redistribution of bending stresses shown in fig 2-12. This phenomenon is
termed as “STRESS DIFFUSION”.
The shear lag that causes increase of bending stresses near
the web in a wide flange of girder is known as positive shear lag. Whereas
the shear lag, that results in reduction of bending stresses near the web
and increases away from flange is called negative shear lag fig 2-12.
When a cantilever box girder is subjected to uniform load, positive as well
as negative shear lag is produced. However it should be pointed out that
positive shear lag is differed from negative shear lag in shear deformations
at various points across the girder.
At a distance away from the fixed end in a cantilever box
girder say half of the span; the fixity of slab is gradually diminished, as is
the intensity of shear. From the compatibility of deformation, the negative
shear lag yields. Although positive shear lag may occur under both point
as well as uniform loading, negative shear lag occur only under uniform
load.

Fig:1.2.5(b) Distribution of shear lag force

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It may be concluded that the appearance of the negative shear lag in cantilever box
girder is due to the boundary conditions and the type of loading applied. These are
respectively external and internal causes producing negative shear lag effect.
Negative shear lag is also dependent upon ratio of span to width of slab. The
smaller the ratio, the more severe are the effects of positive and negative shear lag.

Fig1.2.5(c) Shear lag on flange

The more important consideration regarding shear lag is that it increases the
deflections of box girder. The shear lag effect increases with the width of the box
and so it is particularly important for modern bridge designs which often feature
wide single cell box cross sections. The shear lag effect becomes more pronounced
with an increase in the ratio of box width to the span length, which typically occurs
in the side spans of bridge girders.
The no uniformity of the longitudinal stress distribution is particularly
pronounced in the vicinity of large concentrated loads. Aside from its adverse
effects on transverse stress distribution it also alters the longitudinal bending
moment and shear force distributions in redundant structural systems. Finally, the
effect of shear lag on shear stress distribution in the flange of the box, as compared
to the prediction of bending theory is also appreciable.

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 A typical situation in which large stress redistributions are caused by
creep is the development of a negative bending moment over the support when two
adjacent spans are initially erected as separate simply supported beams and are
subsequently made continuous over the support. In the absence of creep, the
bending moment over the support due to own weight remains zero, and thus the
negative bending moment which develops is entirely caused by creep.

FIGURE 1.2.5(d) Effect of shear lag on distribution of stresses on box girder.

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1.2.6 DIAPHRAGMS:

Advantage of closed section is realized only when distortion of cross

section is restricted. Distortion could be checked by two ways: First by improving
the bending stiffness of web and flanges by appropriate reinforcement, so as
additional stresses generated due to restraint to distortion are within safe limits. The
Second alternative to check distortion may be to provide diaphragms as shear walls
at the section where it is to be checked. These diaphragms distribute the differential
shears of web to flanges also by bending in plate ad by shear forces in diaphragm.

FIG 1.2.6(a) DIAPHRAGM

The introduction of diaphragms into box girders will have

two effects on transverse moments in slabs:

1) If the diaphragm spacing is approximately equal to transverse

spacing of webs, transverse bending moments may be reduced as a result
of two way slab action of diaphragm support.
2) The moments caused by differential deflection will be eliminated
over the region influenced by diaphragms.

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 By the provision of diaphragms, transverse bending stresses caused by the
moments, resulting from differential deflection of top and bottom slabs are
eliminated. Proper spacing of diaphragms can be determined by the use of beam on
elastic foundation concept to effectively control differential deflection. The use of
diaphragms at supports which are definite locations of concentrated loading
significantly diminishes the differential deflections near the supports and should
always be provided. As far as possible interior diaphragms are avoided as they not
only result in additional load but also disrupt and delay the casting cycle resulting
in overall delay in construction.

In general interior diaphragms would be needed for the box section, which
has light webs and supported by relatively stiff slabs. Such a form of cross section
is not appropriate for concrete box girders, although prestressing is doneexternally
this type of cross section is not justified. Diaphragms which are stiff out of their
planes, when provided at the supports, restrain warping in continuous spans,
resulting in stresses. These stresses add to longitudinal bending stresses.

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1.3 Corrugated web box girders

Although steel girders have been used for a long time, a new generation
of corrugated web girders is developed by the advances in structural and fabrication
technologies by the end of the 1980s. Almost three decades after its discovery,
girders utilising corrugated webs have been widely used in bridges and long span
beams around the world . Typically, these girders are built-up flexural members,
with each girder consisting of a corrugated web that is welded to two flat flange
plates.
Generally, corrugations are used in bridges and buildings, respectively.
Opposite to I plate girders with conventional flat webs, corrugated webs do not
contribute in transferring the longitudinal stresses from flexure. Hence, in case of
laterally restrained girders with corrugated webs, the moment capacity is merely
controlled by the flange yielding or local buckling depending on its class (i.e. fully
effective or slender flange).

FIGURE 1.3(a) CORRUGATED WEB BOX GIRDER.

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 This is a direct result of their profiling or what is so called the
accordion effect. Therefore, the general behaviour of the corrugated web girder is
close to the lattice girder , wherein the bending moments and normal forces are
carried only by the flanges, whereas the transverse forces are only carried by the
diagonals and verticals of the lattice girder (in this case the corrugated web).
Indeed, the corrugated web increases the girder's stability against web shear
buckling, resulting in a very economical design by the elimination of web
stiffeners, which are essential for flat webs.
The significant out-of-plane stiffness of the corrugated webs reduces
the web thickness as well relative to conventional flat webs . In a recent study,
Zevallos suggested to use two corrugated web plates with small thicknesses (similar
to that suggested by Kim instead of a single web plate of a large thickness to
increase the strength-to-weight ratio of the girder.
Accordingly, this may facilitate and accelerate the production of these
girders by benefiting from the recent improvements in the automatic welding in the
fabrication process of the corrugated webs which became possible up to 6 mm
thickness .

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1.4 Corrugated Web Beams

\ Corrugated web beams are built-up girders with a thin walled ,

corrugated web and wide plate flanges. Corrugated beam is a developed beam with
thin wall corrugated web. The flanges can be either concrete or steel. The precast
corrugated web girders are used for the bridge construction. In the case of plate
girder bridges with flat webs, they have the maximum moment carrying capacity
than any rolled sections.

To carry the moments, the section has to be slender and the

slender sections are susceptible to web buckling. So the web loses its buckling
strength. Hence to avoid this buckling and to gain maximum strength the focus was
on the provision of corrugations on the web. The purpose of using the corrugated
web is that it allows the use of thin plates without the need of stiffeners reducing
the cost of fabrication and improves fatigue life. It has been estimated that the
girders with corrugated webs may be 9 to 13% lighter than the conventional
stiffened girders with flat webs.

Types of corrugated web:

 Trapezoidal corrugated web.

 Sinusoidal corrugation web.
 Square corrugated web.

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1.4.1 Trapezoidal Corrugated Web

Trapezoidal Corrugated Web Today the corrugation process is carried

out using the process of roll forming. This modern process is highly automated to
achieve high productivity and low costs associated with labour.

Figure 1.4.1(a) Trapezoidal corrugated web

The corrugations are described in terms of pitch (the distance between two crests)
and depth (the height from the top of a crest to the bottom of a trough). It is
important for the pitch and depth to be quite uniform, in order for the web to be
easily stackable for transport, and to overlap neatly when joining two sheets
Trapezoidal Corrugated Web The corrugations increase the bending strength of the
sheet in the direction perpendicular to the corrugations, but not parallel to them.

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1.4.2SINUSOIDAL CORRUGATED WEB.

The I-section beams or H-piles are commonly used in structural steel

works. Ordinary shapes of these beams are constructed from two parallel flanges
and a web where about 30–40% of the entire weight of a medium flange width or
narrow flange type of beam is contributed by the web part.

FIGURE 1.4.2 (a)Sinusoidal corrugated web

In construction application, the web usually bears most of the

compressive stress and transmits shear in the beam while the flanges support the
major external loads. Thus, by using greater part of the material for the flanges and
thinner web, materials saving could be achieved without weakening the load
carrying capability of the beam .

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 Nevertheless, as the compressive stress in the web has exceeded the
critical point prior to the occurrence of yielding, the flat web loses its stability and
deforms transversely. This could be improved by using corrugated web, an
alternative to the plane web.

The main benefits of this type of beams are that the corrugated webs
increase the beam‟s stability against buckling, which may result in an economical
design via the reduction of web stiffeners. Furthermore, the use of thinner webs
results in lower material cost, with an estimated cost savings of 10-30% in
comparison with conventional fabricated sections and more than 30% compared
with standard hot rolled universal beams.

Corrugated web beams Since the corrugation in the web provides

the members with a higher bending resistance over the weak axis and rotation,
further cost savings are realised by eliminating the auxiliary lifting equipment
normally needed when unloading the beam and lifting it into its final position.

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1.4.3 SQUARE CORRUGATED WEB

The profiling of the web generally avoids failure of the beam due to loss of stability
before the plastic limit-loading for the web is reached.

FIGURE 1.4.3(a) SQUARE CORRUGATED WEB

In addition to benefits in production technology, the trapezoidal

corrugation has the advantage over sinusoidal profiling of eliminating local
buckling of the flat plate strips.Square corrugated web beams may be used as
beams (roof or slab beams, structural beams) or as components subject to normal
forces (columns or frame columns) virtually without structural limitations

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1.5 BEAM CROSS - SECTION

1.5.1 Curved Beams

Figure 1.5.1(a) Curved beam

One of the assumptions of the development of the beam bending

relations is that all longitudinal elements of the bean have the same length, thus
restricting the theory to initially straight beams of constant cross section. Although
considerable deviations from this restriction can be tolerated in real problems, when
the initial curvature of the beams becomes significant,the linear variations of strain
over the cross section is no longer valid, even though the assumption of plane cross
sections remaining plane is valid.
27
A theory for a beam subjected to pure bending having a constant cross section and a
constant or slowly varying initial radius of curvature in the plane of bending is
developed as follows. Typical examples of curved beams include hooks and chain
links. In these cases the members are not slender but rather have a sharp curve and
their cross sectional dimensions are large compared with their radius of curvature.

1.5.2 Tapered beam

The tapered beam is an common form of rolled steel joist in which the inner
surfaces of the flanges are tapered, normally at an angle of 98 degrees to the web.
Tapered beam is the beam whose cross section is not constant along its entire
length.

FIGURE 1.5.2(a) TAPERED BEAM

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 A tapered beam subjected to a tip bending load will be analyzed in order to
predict the distributions of stress and displacement in the beam. The geometrical,
material specifications are subjected to loading specifications.

• A tapered beam subjected to a tip bending load will be analyzed in order to

predict the distributions of stress and displacement in the beam.
• The tapered beam (non uniform beams) as the benefit of better distribution of
strenght and mass then uniform beam.

1.5.3 I beam

An I-beam, also known as H-beam , is a beam with an I or H-

shaped cross-section. The horizontal elements of the "I" are known as flanges,
while the vertical element is termed the "web".

FIGURE 1.5.3(a) I BEAM

I-beams are usually made of structural steel and are used in construction and civil
engineering.The web resists shear forces, while the flanges resist most of the
bending moment experienced by the beam. Beam theory shows that the I-shaped
section is a very efficient form for carrying both bending and shear loads in the
plane of the web.

29
 On the other hand, the cross-section has a reduced
capacity in the transverse direction, and is also inefficient in carrying torsion, for
which hollow structural sections are often preferred. I beams have very high
moment of inertia for the same volume of the given material. So they have high
stability in case of bending moments. The two horizontal parts (called flanges) of
the I beam can bear high bending and shearing stress.

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1.6Details of IRC Loading
1.6.1. Dead loads:-

For the purpose of dead load calculation self weight of the girder is considered.
Cross sectional properties of the considered girder determines the dead load. It
includes Superstructure (all the parts of the bridge that are mounted on top of the
supporting substructure system, it covers elements such as decking, girders, slab,
and everything placed above the main deck such as posts, steel truss system, bridge
girder, cable-stayed system, cable suspended systems and more).

1.6.2 Vehicle loading details:-

Figures of IRC loading
The general loading for vechicle load calculation for girder bridges as per
IRC codal provision is shown below.

Fig.1.6.2(a): Class „70R‟ CLASS A loading (Clause 204)

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1.7 Specifications:

It can cover a range of spans from 25 m up to the largest non

suspended concrete decks built; of the order of 300 m. Single box girders may also
carry decks up to 30 m wide. For the longer span beams, beyond about 50 m, they
are practically the only feasible deck section. Below 30m precast beams or voided
slab decks are more suitable while above 50ma single cell box arrangement is
usually more economic.
Single cell box-girder cast-in-situ are used for spans form 40m to
270m.The box arrangement is done in order to give aesthetic appearance where the
web of box will act as a slender appearance when combined
with a slim parapet profile. Single box arrangements are efficient for both the
longitudinal and transverse designs, and they produce an economic solution for mot
medium and long span structures.
This type of deck is constructed span-by-span, using full-height
scaffolding or trusses, or as balanced cantilever using form travelers. This could be
particularly important for medium length bridges with spans between 40m and
55m. Such spans are too long for twin rib type decks, and too short for cast-insitu
balanced cantilever construction of box girders, while a total length of box section
deck of less than about 1,000 m does not justify setting up a precast segmental
facility.
The uprights have to carry the same bending moment as the
haunch, but with the benefit of a compression force due to the weight of the roof.
Haunches are always economical. They provide the twin benefits of attracting
moment away from mid-span and then providing a greater lever arm to resist this
moment economically. Even very short haunches are valuable in reducing
the hogging reinforcement.

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1.7.1 Span-to-depth ratio

The span-to-depth ratio will normally be around 20 to 25 for simple

girders and around 25 to 35 for continuousgirders. It is possible to reduce the depth,
if necessary, without violating deflection limitations, at the expense ofadditional
steel. The above ratios are valid for road bridges. For rail bridges the ratios should
be smaller, say 15and 20. It is advisable to check the most favorable span-to-depth
ratio by trial designs.Cross-sectionA box girder may have vertical or inclined webs.
It is cheaper to manufacture a girder with vertical webs. This section
shape may be the best solution for a narrow road or a single-track railroad. A single
narrow closed box girder can be positioned on the bridge centre line and completed
with cantilever brackets.
A combination of a wide deck on a short or medium span bridge favours
inclined webs. For instance, a 13 m wide concrete deck without transverse
prestressing requires a width of the box of 6 m at the top. If it were made with
vertical webs, the bottom flange would be much too wide to be efficient. Inclined
webs reduce the width in a favorable way.

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1.7.2 Cross-section

A box girder may have vertical or inclined webs. It is cheaper to

manufacture a girder with vertical webs. A cross section of the box girder is shown
in the figure 1.7.2(a) .

Figure 1.7.2(a) Cross section of box girder

This section shape may be the best solution for a narrow road or a
single-track railroad. A single narrow closed box girder can be positioned on the
bridge centre line and completed with cantilever brackets. A combination of a wide
deck on a short or medium span bridge favours inclined webs, If it were made with
vertical webs, the bottom flange would be much too wide to be efficient. Inclined
webs reduce the width in a favourable way.

34
1.8 Advantages Associated with Box Girders:
 In recent years, single or multicell reinforced concrete box Girder Bridge
have been proposed and widely used as economic aesthetic solution for the
over crossings, under crossings, grade separation structures and viaducts
found in modern highway system.
 The very large Torsional rigidity of the box girder„s closed cellular section
provides structures beneath is more aesthetically pleasing than open-web
type system.
 In case of long span bridges, large width of deck is available to
accommodate prestressing cables at bottom flange level.
 Interiors of box girder bridges can be used to accommodate service such as
gas pipes, water mains etc.
 For large spans, bottom flange could be used as another deck accommodates
traffic also.
 The maintenance of box girder is easier in interior space is directly
accessible without use of scaffolding.
 Alternatively space is hermetically sealed and enclosed air may be dried to
provide a non-corrosive atmosphere.
 It has high structural efficiency which minimizes the prestessing force
required to resist a given bending moment, and its great Torsional strength
with the capacity this gives to re-centre eccentric live loads, minimizing the
prestress required to carry them.

1.9 Disadvantages associated with box girders:

 One of the main disadvantages of box decks is that they are
difficult to cast in-situ due to the inaccessibility of the bottom slab and the
need to extract the internal shutter.
 Either the box has to be designed so that the entire cross section may be cast
in one continuous pour, or the cross section has to be cast in stages.

35
1.10 OBJECTIVE OF THE STUDY

 The main objective of this study, is to develop a new type of structure for
box girder with the use of corrugation in beams .
 The box girders are more expensive to fabricate, and they are more difficult
to maintain, because of the need for access to a confined space inside the
box. So the study invoves in reducing the dead load with the help of
corrugated web.
 As the corrugation increases the torsional stiffness in the flange of box girder
, it will increase the load carrying capacity of the girder.
 The corrugation shapes with better load carrying capacity will be helpful in
increasing the mechanical behaviour of the structure.
 The project aims in development of the box girder bridges with longer spans
using corrugated web in box girder.
 Further, development includes finding the moving vechicle load calculation
and effect of seismic forces on girder as per IRC and IS codal provisions

36
1.11 Need for study

 The design of the box girder in the bridge , plays an important role in the
load carrying capacity of the bridge structure .
 The corrugated shape in the web section of the box girder increases the
lateral stability and reduces the effect of lateral torsional forces and possess
high lateral stiffness of the box girder.
 The corrugated shape which possess the high mechanical behaviour
properties is used in the box girder design.
 The behaviour of the deck girder with the load carrying capacity of the
moving load calculation are made as per IRC6:2010.
 The seismic performance of the box girder with corrugated web box girder is
studied , which gives the characteristics of the box girder bridges with the
effect of the seismic forces on the structure.

1.11 Scope of the study

 The main scope of the study is to ensure the structural behaviour of the box
girder bridges with the action of external forces
 To implement the usage of the corrugated plate in the web of the girder with
the importance to increase the mechanical behaviour of the girder bridges .
 The moving load calculation of the vechicles on the bridges as per IRC codal
provisions will gives an impact on the growing technology in the field of
box girder bridges.
 The study of the action of the seismic forces on the box girder with moving
load calculation , definitely gives an new idea on the development of the box
girder bridges.

37
 CHAPTER 2

LITERATURE REVIEW

2.1 General

Plate girders are widely used in steel structures, especially when

there is a need to resist high loads, such as in bridges. The study conducted
with detailed investigation of the load carrying capacity of the girders with
varying cross section.The comparisons were made between the test results
and predictions computed based on several specifications.

In order to study the load distribution at the various locations of

the cross section of girder structure, the finite-element software ANSYS
was used. Computer based programmers are developed for the analysis
based on the ANSYS software.

The actual load carried by the specimen was compared with the
theoretical load carrying capacity to be predicted with the load carrying
capacity predicted by ANSYS. The analyzation a numerical investigation of
net section failure in corrugation of the structure commercially available
from FEM software. Based on the experimental results of literature study,
the finite element model result has good agreement.

The tapering of the web depth can be implemented to avoid the use
of excessive material quantities. Due to the web slenderness, the girder
panel usually suffers instability due to the presence of normal and/or shear
stresses. Normal stresses are usually induced due to flexural stresses, or due
to the inclined component of shear stresses. For relatively short panels,
flexural stresses may cause compression buckling of the web or local
buckling of compression flange. Shear stresses mainly cause shear buckling
of the web, and the shear buckling can be reduced by implementing
corrugated web in beams.

38
2.2 OVERVIEW OF LITERATURE REVIEW

2.2.1 A.M. El Hadidya , M.F. Hassaneina , M. Zhoub - The effect of using tubular
flanges in bridge girders with corrugated steel webs on their shear behaviour – A
numerical study(2018) - Bridge girders with corrugated webs and hollow tubular
flanges , which have seldom been examined in literature, are considered in this paper
under constant shear loading. The main aim of examining the influence of using
hollow tubular flanges on the strength and behaviour of these Bridge girders with
corrugated webs and hollow tubular flanges .Opposite to what was previously found
in literature , the results showed the great effect of adding tubular flanges to the
strength and stiffness of the girders compared with the case of conventional flat flange
girders with the same steel cross-sectional area. This is confirmed for girders with
relatively high depth-to-width ratios.The results showed that increasing the web
thickness increases considerably the value of ultimate shear load as well as the initial
stiffness of the BGCWTFs, from which it was found that increasing the web thickness
increases the efficiency of the plate girder

2.2.2 B. Kövesdi , L. Dunai - Determination of the patch loading resistance of

girders with corrugated webs using nonlinear finite element analysis(2011)

In the frame of the presented research work the patch loading resistance of girders
with corrugated steel web is analysed.Numerical model is built for all test girders and
the load carrying capacities are determined by geometrical and material nonlinear
analysis using imperfections.In FEM based design method the consideration of the
equivalent geometric imperfection has a major importance and recommendations for
corrugated webs.

Imperfection sensitivity is studied for all imperfection shape types and based on the
experiments imperfection scaling factors are developed.calculations showed that the
applicable scaling factor is the fold length divided by 200, if the first buckling mode
or the modified sine wave shape is used as equivalent geometric imperfection.Based
on the experiments and numerical investigations, recommendations are formulated for

39
possible equivalent geometric imperfection shape and scaling factor for girders with
corrugated webs. Four imperfection shapes are analysed. The first critical buckling
mode, the ultimate shape and the sine wave imperfection form are investigated, and a
modified sine wave imperfection is also developed to predict the first buckling mode.
Imperfection sensitivity is studied for all imperfection shape types and based on the
experiments imperfection scaling factors are developed. Calculations showed that the
applicable scaling factor is the fold length divided by 200, if the first buckling mode
or the modified sine wave shape is used as equivalent geometric imperfection.

2.2.3 Robert G. Driver, M.ASCE1 ; Hassan H. Abbas, A.M.ASCE2 ; and Richard

Sause, M.ASCE3 - Shear Behaviour of Corrugated Web Bridge Girders - The
shear strength and failure mode of the girders are reported and the effect of web initial
geometric imperfections is assessed through measurements of the out-of-plane
displacements of the web.It has been postulated that the overestimation of shear
strength by these equations is related to the influence of initial geometric
imperfections in the web plates on the shear strength of corrugated webs.Therefore,
finite element analyses were conducted and the results suggest that the presence of
web initial geometric imperfections may have a significant influence.The reduction in
shear strength was 23% when the imperfection amplitude was made equal to the web
thickness.Shear strength tests on corrugated web girders from previous research were
generally conducted on relatively small-scale specimens with dimensions and plate
thicknesses significantly smaller than would be used in bridge construction practice.It
has been concluded that the shear strength of corrugated web girders is sensitive to
web initial geometric imperfections

Due to uncertainty regarding web geometric imperfection amplitude and shape, it is

recommended that Eq. 10 be used for designing corrugated web girders for shear. This
equation limits the shear strength for stocky webs to 71% of the shear yield stress. As
the web folds become more slender, the predicted strength approaches that determined
from plate buckling theory. To achieve the maximum shear strength based on material
yielding have been presented.

40
2.2.4 Bida Peia, Lifeng Li a, Xudong Shaoa, b, Lianhua Wanga, b, c, Yan Zenga
- Field measurement and practical design of a lightweight composite bridge deck
(2018) - To characterize the contribution of the ultra high performance layer to these
decks, field measurements were conducted, and the strain responses of various detail
categories were measured for orthotropic steel decks with and without ultra high
performance layers . Furthermore, design curves with various thicknesses of the steel
deck plate were determined to design the thickness of the ultra high performance
layers, and the practical design method of the lightweight composite bridge deck was
proposed in this study.

The proposed design method to determine the thickness of the ultra

high performance layer was found to be reliable and straightforward for the use of
bridge designers.The stress response of the rib-to-deck weld is found to dominate the
stress range of the lightweight composite bridge deck with a relatively thin ultra high
performance layer . The lightweight composite bridge deck is expected to exhibit
satisfactory fatigue performance, highlighting the utility of the ultra high performance
layer.

2.2.5 Shucheng Yuan a,b , Jiangfeng Dong a,d, , Qingyuan Wang b,c, Jin Y.
Ooid - Fatigue property study and life assessment of composite girders with two
corrugated steel webs (2018)- This paper presents the results of experimental
investigations on fatigue behaviors of composite girders with corrugated steel webs
(hereafter referred to as “composite girders”) subjected to bending based on the
experimental work on the shear connector and corrugated steel beamThe test showed
that the composite girder performed desirably under cyclic load. With the assistance
of corrugated steel web, the response was obvious on the girder with corrugated steel
webs . The composite girder shows good ductility and fatigue damage accumulated
ability. Before the concrete dowel was broken, the corrugated steel web suffered
shearing force while the concrete slabs suffered flexural moment .

41
 Finally, the composite girder reached its fatigue life when a crack was initiated
from the web.Also, the cracks initiation location and fatigue life are predicted based
on the fatigue damage theory, which shows good agreements with tested results, also
the C degree of American standard AASHTO2004 is suggested to be used in the
fatigue design of corrugated steel web in composite girders.The Palmgren Miner
cumulative linear damage theory is adopted in the partial fatigue life assessment, it
works well when the composite girder is subjected to a variable amplitude cyclic load.
In addition, the fracture extension theory by Paris and amplitude theory of stress
intensity factors are summarized to assess the fatigue life, which can be good evidence
contributing to the engineering practice.

2.2.6 Man Zhou , Zhao Liu , Jiandong Zhang , Lin An , Zhiqi He -

Equivalent computational models and deflection calculation methods of box
girders with corrugated steel webs (2016)- In this paper, the authors deduced a
formula for the deflection caused by shear distortion in non-prismatic box girders with
CSWs by considering the factors of variable cross section, the shear bearing capacity
of the concrete flanges and the effects of the corrugated sheets. The conventional
assumption that shear deformation is mainly caused by shear flow of the webs is
proved to be improper for non-prismatic girders with CSWs. A practical experiment
was conducted on a bridge during construction to verify the accuracy of the theoretical
formulas for the stress and deflection of non-prismatic box girders with CSWs.By
comparing the analytical results with the measured data and the FEM numerical
calculations, the derived formulas were shown to be sufficiently accurate for
engineering applications

42
2.2.7 R. Chacón , M. Bock, E. Real - Longitudinally stiffened hybrid steel plate
girders subjected to patch loading -

Hybrid girders subjected to patch loading have been analyzed in a detailed fashion
for the case in which the plates that assemble the girders are transversally
stiffened. The stress response of the rib-to-deck weld is found to dominate the
stress range of the lightweight composite bridge deck with a relatively thin UHPC
layer.
whereas the stress range of the lightweight composite bridge deck with a thick
UHPC layer is governed by the stress response of the cope hole for longitudinally
stiffened steel plate girders with relatively stiff flanges, the patch loading
resistance does not depend upon the flange yield strength. In longitudinally
stiffened steel plate girders with relatively flexible flanges. The patch loading
resistance depends slightly upon the flange yield strength since the primary failure
mode is an intertwined mechanism involving both web folding and flange
transverse bending.

2.2.8 MA Leia , Zhou Linyun, Li Shuqin, WAN Shui, a - Eccentric Load

Coefficient of Live Load Normal Stress of Continuous Composite Box-girder
Bridge with Corrugated Steel Webs (2012) - The distribution laws of the eccentric
load coefficient of continuous composite box-girder bridge with corrugated steel webs
along the spans are discussed.For the continuous composite box-girder bridge with
corrugated steel webs, it is different along the spans.So it is not advisable to use an
uniform eccentric load coefficient for the whole bridge.For the eccentric load
coefficients chosen for the continuous composite box-girder bridge with corrugated
steel webs

43
2.2.9 Q. A. HASAN, W. H. WAN BADARUZZAMAN, AHMED W. AL-ZAND,
AZRUL A. MUTALIB – “FINITE ELEMENT ANALYSIS OF TAPERED
COMPOSITE PLATE GIRDER WITH A NON-LINEAR VARYING WEB
DEPTH”(2017) - The paper presents Finite Element Analysis to determine the
ultimate shear capacity of tapered composite plate girder.The collapse mode of
composite tapered girders seems to be the same with the composite non-tapered
girders as it was found from the current finite element collapse mode.The ultimate
capacity of tapered plate girders is improved about 56 % due to full composite action
provided by the anchorage between the reinforced concrete slab and the compression
flange.The corresponding finite element results show that the ultimate shear capacity
is influenced significantly with the degree of taper, nearly 36% drop when the degree
of taper is increased . It was also found that the drop in the ultimate shear capacities is
accompanied by almost the same values of the drop in weight of the web panels due to
the degree of taper

44
2.3 SUMMARY OF LITERATURE REVIEW.

Corrugation in beams(Trapezoidal, square, sinusoidal

corrugation)will increase the load carrying capacity of the girder.
Cross section of the girder helps in transferring transverse load
acting on the structure and also reduces the effect of action of
external forces.

The beam will possess an high load carrying capacity than the ordinary
plate girder bridges and reduces the effect of lateral torsional forces and
shear forces.

The corrugation in the web of box girder will increase the mechanical
behaviour of the structure . The corrugation type should be choosed ,
depending upon the factors which includes the high load carrying
capacity with the less cross sectional area , (i.e) in an economical
manner. The load carrying capacity of the girder according to the IRS
codal provisions can be increased by providing the corrugation in the
bridge girder.

45
 CHAPTER 3
METHODOLGY
3.1 GENERAL

The Deck slab is designed for IRC loading with live load at different positions on the
deck. The live load bending moment and shear force are calculated and the girder is
designed for concrete girder depending upon the IRC6:2010 codal provision. The
finite element 3D modeling is done in ANSYS software with dead load and live load
applied on the box girder.

3.2 Flowchart of Methodology

 Shape identification of the corrugation profile is identified with the analysis on

ANSYS software
 The behaviour is analysed with the standard I shaped girder beam.
 Finally the deck is identified with the suitable shape of corrugation profile of
the web with box girder.
 Deck modelling is done with the ANSYS software.
 Structural behaviour of the corrugated deck girder is identified and analysed
 The design of bridge deck for moving vechicle load calculation is made
depending on the IRC6:2010 codal provision.
 Calculation of IRC loading-class A,is considered.
 The seismic behaviour for the bridge deck is analysed depending on the IRC
codal provisions.

46
3.3 Introduction for ANSYS software.

ANSYS develops and markets finite element analysis software used to simulate
engineering problems The software creates simulated computer models of structures,
electronics, or machine components to simulate strength, toughness, elasticity,
temperature distribution, electromagnetism, fluid flow, and other attributes. ANSYS is
used to determine how a product will function with different specifications, without
building test products or conducting crash tests. For example, ANSYS software may
simulate how a bridge will hold up after years of traffic, how to best process salmon in
a cannery to reduce waste, or how to design a slide that uses less material without
sacrificing safety

Most ANSYS simulations are performed using the ANSYS Workbench

software, which is one of the company's main products. Typically ANSYS users break
down larger structures into small components that are each modeled and tested
individually. A user may start by defining the dimensions of an object and then adding
weight, pressure, temperature and other physical properties. Finally, the ANSYS
software simulates and analyzes movement, fatigue, fractures, fluid flow, temperature
distribution, electromagnetic efficiency and other effects over time

ANSYS is preferred in the modelling and analysing in the structural behaviour of the
bridge girders.

47
 CHAPTER 4

CONCLUSION & FUTURE WORKS

4.1 CONCLUSION

 Corrugated web girders are internally statically determinate structures. The

dimensions of the web, flanges and end stiffeners interact to affect the web
shear resistance, and thus design shear buckling resistance.

 An increase in the cross section of end stiffeners in corrugated web girders

leads to a wider range of elastic deformation of the web, which contributes to
an increase in its buckling resistance
 The failure of the web and the occurrence of the tension line leads to a
reduction in the resistance of flanges.
 The vechicle load calculation on the bridge deck will give an idea in designing
of the load calculation in the corrugated box girder design.

4.2 FUTURE WORK

 The work can be further developed by application in the field of designing the
girder with post tensioning and pre tensioning methods
 This type of designing girder with corrugated web will implement a new design
methods in bridge girder design , which can be implemented over a large span.
 Further the corrugated web girder possess an high utility in the designing of
heavy structural beams .
 The corrugated bridge girder can be further used in construction of railway
terminals, metro stations, aircraft hangars and stadiums.
 Some of the works can be carried out on the corrugated girder to find high
application in the under ground structures .

48
4.3 REFERENCES:

[1] IRC 6:2010, Standard Specifications and code of practice for Road Bridges
Section II: Loads and Stresses.

[2] IRC 18:2000, Design Criteria for Prestressed Concrete Road Bridges.

[3] IRC 21:2000, Standard Specifications and code of practice for Road Bridges.

[4] N. Krishna Raju, 1981, Prestressed Concrete,Tata McGraw-Hill Publishing

Company Limited.

[5] Strength of Materials- A Practical Approach by D.S.Prakash Rao.

[6] M.C.Tandon “Box Girders subjected to Torsion”, Indian Concrete Journal,
February 1976.
[7] Design of Bridges By N.Krishnaraju
[8] S. Ramamrutham, Theory of Structures, Dhanpat Rai Publishing Company. [9] J.
Yi, H. Gil, K. Youm, H. Lee, Interactive shear buckling behavior of trapezoidally
corrugated steel webs, Eng. Struct. 30 (2008) 1659–1666.
[10] M. Zhou, Z. Liu, J. Zhang, L. An, Deformation analysis of a non-prismatic beam
with corrugated steel webs in the elastic stage, Thin-Walled Struct. 109 (2016) 260–
270.

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