Analysis of the Effects of Different Text and Page Color Combinations on Human

Reading Speed
Francois Corpel - Nathan Frazier
Macomb Mathematics Science Technology Center
Honors Physics
11B
Mr. McMillan - Mrs. Cybulski
May 29, 2017
Analysis of the Effects of Different Text and Page Color Combinations on Human

Reading Speed

The goal of this research is to determine the effect of different color combinations

on the reaction time (reading speed) of the human subjects. People have to read almost

every second of the day to be productive and this may help to find a way to increase

reading speed which could prove to be beneficial to society. This research can help

advertisement companies and presenters be more efficient.

Finding the effect of the color combination on the reading speed was tested by

having subjects read an article for all 10 color combinations for 20 seconds each. Then

the mean reading speeds were compared to each other using an ANOVA statistical test

to find if a particular color combination allowed for a faster reading speed than the other

color combinations.
Table 1

Mean Reading Speeds by Color Scheme

Color Scheme Mean Reading Speed Rank (highest to lowest)
(wpm)

1 234.47 5

2 233.36 7

3 239.87 2

4 227.99 9

5 233.77 6

6 221.84 10

7 236.94 3

8 244.79 1

9 231.81 8

10 236.51 4

Table 1, above, shows the different mean reading speeds of both male and

female test subjects by color scheme (see Appendix A) along with their rank among

each other. According to an ANOVA test result, there was no significant difference in the

reading speeds between any of the color combinations.

 Table of Contents

Introduction.............................................................................................................1

Review of Literature................................................................................................4

Problem Statement...............................................................................................10

Experimental Design.............................................................................................11

Data and Observations.........................................................................................13

Data Analysis and Interpretation...........................................................................20

Conclusion............................................................................................................28

Acknowledgements...............................................................................................31

Appendix A: Randomization of Color Schemes and Articles for Trials.................32

Appendix B: Randomization of Trial Order...........................................................35

Appendix C: Sample Calculations........................................................................39

Appendix D: Articles..............................................................................................44

Works Cited.............................................................................................................4
 Corpel - Frazier1

Introduction

The visible light spectrum makes up only 0.0035% of the whole

electromagnetic spectrum, yet it contains millions of different colors that humans

can see (Madigan). With these millions of different colors, there are trillions of

two-color combinations. That means there are over 10 times more two-colored

combinations than there are stars in the galaxy (Howell).

The human brain, as well as the brains of many other animals, can

comprehend colors because of two different types of cells: rods and cones

(“Seeing Color”). Rods are used to see black and white as well as different

shadings of colors, while cones (green, blue, and red) are used for seeing

different colors (“Seeing Color”). These cells are activated in different

combinations to produce these trillions upon trillions of combinations that humans

can see.

As is imaginable, some of these combinations can be more difficult to look

at or read than others. Is black text on white paper the easiest one for the human

brain to process? Or is it possible to have a stylish flair in an article or

presentation while still retaining (or maybe even improving) a productive reading

speed?

This experiment set out to find if there was a different combination of

colors that could be processed faster than the standard black on white. To do

this, different articles were printed with different color combinations and given to

test subjects. The subjects were then timed as they read these articles aloud.

After this, the reading speed was calculated by determining the number of words
 Corpel - Frazier2

read in the allotted time and converting this value into words per minute. Finally,

the means were determined and compared for statistical significance.

These results could revolutionize advertisements and presentations

worldwide as these results will provide insight on which color schemes produce

quick reaction times, and in turn, allow readers to read and interpret the

information more quickly.

In the following experiment, the reaction that was being looked at was

reading speed in words per minute (wpm). Trials only lasted to last 20 seconds

each.

S=3∗w

Figure 1. Calculating Words per Minute.

The equation shown above, in figure 1, was used to calculate the reading

speed (S) by multiplying the words read in the time allotted by the subject (w) by

three (because 20 seconds times three equals 60 seconds, or one minute). A

higher reading speed is a result of more words being read in the allotted time,

which implies a superior reaction time than that of a lower reading speed.

These results could prove crucial to any inventor, businessman, teacher,

or student given a short period of time to present their ideas. In each case, the

presentation needs to be fast, yet informative, allowing the audience to retain the

knowledge. These results could also help advertisers by allowing them to choose

a color scheme that gives the company its own flair, while still giving their

customers easily readable information. This experiment hopes to solve these

 Corpel - Frazier3

problems and try to find the optimal color combination for heightened reading

speed.
 Corpel - Frazier4

Review of Literature

The eyes are a pair of complex globular organs that allow humans, as well

as other creatures, to observe a certain part of the electromagnetic spectrum

called the visible light spectrum. The experiment conducted tests the process of

how fast human eyes and brains process different wavelengths of light (different

colors).

The eye is so complex because of the many different parts and all of their

functions. Two key receptors to seeing different colors are rods and cones. Rods

are activated in settings with lower light and help distinguish between lighter and

darker colors, but cannot clearly differentiate colors, while cones need more light

to be activated and can be one of three colors: red, green, and blue (“Seeing

Color”). The human eye contains nearly 6 million cones and uses different

combinations of them to help humans see color and identify different shades

(“Seeing Color”).

(Cornell)

Figure 2. Rods and Cones Connected to Optic Nerves

 Corpel - Frazier5

Rods and cones are both attached to optic nerves, as shown in Figure 2,

that transmit information to the visual cortex, which translates the differing signals

from the rods and cones into pictures that humans see (Lin and Tsai). These

nerves can be measured for conductive velocity, or the speed in which electrical

impulses travel through the nerve (“Nerve Conduction Studies”). This can be

tested by placing two electrodes on the nerve; one “stimulates the nerve with a

very mild electrical impulse and the other electrode records it” (Lin and Tsai). The

nerves attached to red and green cones have slower conduction velocities while

blue cones have average conduction velocities (Lin and Tsai). This may indicate

that blue can be seen and interpreted quicker than red and green. This research

focuses on the ability of one’s cones to isolate one color from another quickly. In

order to understand this, it is necessary to know what electromagnetic waves are

and how they are able to stimulate the cones.

Figure 3. Definition of Wavelength

(“Properties of Waves”)

The electromagnetic spectrum consists of all of the wavelength sizes of

radiation from small gamma rays at 10^-12 meters in wavelength to radio waves
 Corpel - Frazier6

that can be as large as 10^2 meters (Madigan). As shown in Figure 3, a

wavelength is measured as the distance between two consecutive crests of a

wave (wavelength can also be measured using the troughs).

Figure 4. The Electromagnetic Spectrum

(Madigan)

The electromagnetic spectrum, shown in Figure 4, consists of 7 different

categories that include (from largest wavelength to smallest): radio waves,

microwaves, infrared, visible light, ultraviolet, X-rays, and gamma rays

(Madigan). The smaller the wavelength, the more powerful it is because it in turn

has a higher frequency. The human eye is only able to see the aptly named

section of the spectrum, visible light. This region is super small compared to the

rest of the spectrum and ranges in wavelength from 400nm (violet) to 700nm

(red) (Madigan). The visible light section contains the seven main colors of the

rainbow (red, orange, yellow, green, blue, indigo, and violet) as well as millions of
 Corpel - Frazier7

varying shades in between. While this region only makes up 0.0035% of the

whole electromagnetic field, the human eyes can still detect various shadings

with the activation of different colored cones simultaneously (“Seeing Color”).

(“Seeing Color”)

Figure 5. Percentage of Activated Receptors and Resulting Color of Light

As shown in Figure 5, all the colors in the visible light spectrum can be

created when the differing wavelengths activate a combination of any or all of the

different colored cones and rods. When all of the cones are stimulated in equal

proportions, the color white is interpreted by the brain (“Seeing Color”). In Figure

5, there is little overlap between the blue cones and the red cones, which might

suggest that a combination of the two would produce the smallest amount of

disorientation while reading a passage.

A study conducted by Dr. Grrishma Balakrishnan and colleagues from

Yenepoya University in India sought to determine whether a difference in color

(red, yellow, or green, the colors of a traffic light) produced a difference in

 Corpel - Frazier8

reaction time (Balakrishnan et al.). This test was performed with different colored

lights flashing in an irregular pattern with corresponding buttons to be pressed

when the light activated. All other factors were held constant. When the results

were calculated, it was determined statistically that the yellow light produced a

significantly slower reaction time than green and red. This result was consistent

with the previous research that the authors had found.

Another study, performed by Neena Misra, K. K. Mahajan, and B. K. Maini

of Rohtak Medical College in India sought to test the differences in male and

female reaction times with differing visual and auditory stimuli (Misra et al.). The

test intended to measure the reaction times it takes a subject to move a certain

body part (in this experiment they tested more than just genders but also

handedness, visual and auditory responses, and different limbs). To test this, the

researchers used an electric circuit and recording points to record actions on a

kymograph (time measured by movement of a certain body part that is being

tested). Once the data was collected, a two-sample t-test was done to compare

the reaction times of males and females. The results showed that males had

faster reflexes than females in all twelve different tests and in five of those tests,

the results were statistically significant. This research is significant to the one

conducted and reported on by this paper, as it highlights a potentially unseen

variable: gender.

This experiment shares some aspects with the two previously mentioned

studies. However, this experiment seeks to focus on reading speed and how it is

affected by different color schemes. In pursuit of this, the research relies on these
 Corpel - Frazier9

two studies and their results before performing any trials or calculating any

results.

This experiment is an effort to try and explain the complexity of the human

eye with its interaction with different color combinations. This part of the paper

broke up the different components of the eye and analyzed previous research

that may have an effect on the reading speed of humans. The two key

components to this experiment are the functions of rods and cones and the

visible light spectrum. The rods and cones in the human eye are what allow

humans to see and the cones specifically allow humans to see colors. Colors are

electromagnetic waves that are between 400 nm and 700 nm and the different

wavelength and energy appears to humans as color.

 Corpel - Frazier10

Problem Statement

Problem Statement:

To determine which combination of text color and background (page) color

allows for the fastest mean reading speed.

Hypothesis:

The different color schemes will produce significantly different reading

speeds, and the pink paper with the blue text will produce the fastest reading

speed.

Data Measured:

The explanatory (independent) variable to be tested is the text and page

color combination the pages the article is printed on. The response (dependent)

variable to be measured is the speed (words per minute / wpm) that the article is

read at. To find this, each test subject will read aloud for twenty seconds. Then, a

researcher will count the number of words read and multiply by three to calculate

the number of words read in one minute (wpm).

 Corpel - Frazier11

Experimental Design
Materials:

(10) Articles at Lexile Score of 1000 to 1150

(See Appendix A for article titles)
(30) Turquoise (Blue) Paper Sheets printed with 3 of each article,
one article per ink color
(30) Canary (Yellow) Paper Sheets printed with 3 of each article,
one article per ink color
(30) Pink Paper Sheets printed with 3 of each article,
one article per ink color
(10) White Paper Sheets printed with 1 of each article,
black ink for all
(60) Test Subjects (48 MMSTC Freshmen, 12 MMSTC
Juniors / 30 males, 30 females, all randomly selected)
Colored Ink (cornflower blue, custom green (RGB: 0, 176, 80),
red, black)
Color Printer
Timer
Ti-Nspire Calculator

Procedure:

1. Randomize the paper/ink color combination for each article and print (see
Appendix A)
2. Randomize the order of the articles the test subject reads (See Appendix
A)
3. Randomize the order of the subjects using the Ti-Nspire calculator (See
Appendix B)

4. Have the subject read the first article out loud (skip the title) to the
observers while being timed for 20 seconds
5. Record the word stopped on (if word is not finished, still count the word)
6. Record the number of words read and calculate reading speed in words
per minute. Note: If any words are skipped, subtract this from the
total
number of words before calculating

7. Repeat steps 3 through 6 for the remaining 9 articles on the same test
subject
 Corpel - Frazier12

8. Repeat steps 3 through 7 for the remaining test subjects

Diagram:

Figure 6. Experimental Setup.

Figure 6, above, shows the setup of the experiment with researcher 1

timing the subject and monitoring the subject to count errors. Researcher 2 is

preparing the next set of articles for the next subject during this time.
 Corpel - Frazier13

Data and Observations

Table 2
Male Reading Speed
Color Scheme and Reading Speed (in wpm)
Subject / trial
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10

1 180 237 192 234 192 213 219 243 192 138

2 198 222 219 186 243 243 180 261 249 198

3 216 231 237 273 225 204 213 180 243 204

4 198 204 177 228 234 222 201 249 213 192

5 312 345 279 309 270 327 297 312 282 258

6 198 183 216 204 243 207 204 240 228 231

7 177 243 249 294 216 234 246 216 249 255

8 123 123 111 162 138 135 147 84 141 132

9 264 192 255 279 243 204 324 267 252 303

10 243 270 195 195 255 237 234 240 231 213

11 276 204 249 228 219 216 237 246 198 270

12 192 189 204 174 213 180 240 204 231 165

13 300 303 273 261 258 219 213 309 279 309

14 228 237 219 237 189 207 198 267 213 249

15 210 168 249 186 204 138 222 156 198 228

16 189 204 219 195 195 183 234 168 231 198

17 237 222 207 240 261 186 213 216 267 237

18 240 192 264 213 219 246 273 261 207 261

19 180 165 216 198 153 204 225 195 177 222

20 180 141 165 183 147 141 111 198 180 210

21 234 249 189 246 228 222 267 237 216 255

22 273 294 258 216 258 228 312 309 240 330

23 363 351 339 327 372 270 330 261 294 285

24 126 156 168 159 156 177 207 162 165 171
 Corpel - Frazier14

25 240 276 303 219 246 261 303 315 249 258

Subject / trial Color Scheme and Reading Speed (in wpm)

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10

26 168 180 156 117 171 174 171 156 201 219

27 240 246 234 246 246 213 231 279 276 225

28 198 225 234 213 240 249 225 240 171 192

29 243 183 228 210 207 225 264 219 285 255

30 300 282 300 210 279 240 150 303 336 231

Table 2, above, shows the reading speed of the thirty male test subjects in words per

minute. The speed was calculated by counting the words from the start of the article up to and

including the final word spoken and then multiplying by three (as the initial testing lasted for only

20 seconds and reading speed was measured in words per minute).

Table 3
Female Reading Speed
Color Scheme and Reading Speed (in wpm)
Subject / trial
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10

1 249 216 180 213 234 186 231 252 243 228

2 213 273 249 249 228 279 264 288 258 252

3 255 246 222 276 234 219 234 303 204 249

4 261 291 336 240 297 246 276 312 246 297

5 237 219 264 255 270 219 213 228 213 234

6 237 222 276 249 234 240 234 288 270 246

7 273 252 210 216 243 228 216 180 228 234

8 237 201 279 222 219 225 237 240 252 198

9 168 207 135 153 198 201 192 225 159 216

10 180 168 168 153 93 156 180 189 180 168

11 294 249 288 264 291 246 309 270 231 282

12 204 159 204 183 180 222 192 183 126 207
 Corpel - Frazier15

13 309 324 375 339 324 279 369 294 351 300

Color Scheme and Reading Speed (in wpm)

Subject / trial
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10

14 234 249 240 240 282 261 261 321 234 291

15 186 186 234 261 195 243 195 189 255 240

16 231 222 246 216 195 201 204 246 183 177

17 204 237 204 174 159 207 216 156 186 210

18 210 231 237 243 249 174 198 231 207 237

19 255 231 204 237 291 180 252 231 246 207

20 252 255 204 195 219 201 204 189 195 204

21 327 321 291 261 306 324 264 329 300 354

22 267 159 258 234 255 216 267 204 213 246

23 252 288 288 240 225 231 216 201 234 264

24 246 231 225 222 129 267 264 231 204 267

25 234 192 204 210 171 195 195 150 198 201

26 228 213 153 216 240 192 249 204 255 210

27 228 228 261 291 216 204 246 258 237 249

28 207 231 216 216 255 252 246 153 210 222

29 231 264 246 216 231 210 183 294 249 219

30 276 192 288 192 207 276 231 246 246 234

Table 3, above, shows the reading speed of the thirty female test subjects in words per

minute. The speed was once again calculated by counting the words from the start of the article

up to and including the final word spoken and then multiplying by three (as the initial testing

lasted for only 20 seconds).

 Corpel - Frazier16

Table 4
Average Reading Speeds for Male, Female, and Combined
Color Scheme and Reading Speed (in wpm)
Gender
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10

Male 224.2 223.9 226.8 221.4 224 213.5 229.7 233.1 229.8 229.8

Female 239.5 231.9 239.5 229.2 229 226 234.6 236.2 227.1 238.1

Combined 231.9 227.9 233.2 225.3 226.5 219.8 232.2 234.6 228.5 234.0

Table 4, above, shows the average reading speeds in words per minute of each color

scheme based on gender. The highest in males was color scheme 8 (pink paper/blue text) at

233.1 wpm. The highest in females was color scheme 3 (yellow paper/green text) at 239.5 wpm.

The highest in the combined group was again color scheme 8 at 234.6 wpm.

Table 5
Observations
Color Scheme (stutters/missed words) Additional
Observations
& Subject
Subject Gender

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10

1 5 0 1 0 3 0 0 0 2 0 1 1 2 0 1 0 1 0 3 2 Male

2 1 2 0 0 3 0 2 0 3 0 2 0 1 0 0 0 1 0 2 0 Female

3 3 0 2 0 4 0 4 0 3 0 4 0 2 0 4 0 3 0 3 0 Male

4 1 0 2 0 2 0 2 0 3 0 1 0 1 0 2 1 2 0 1 1 Male

5 2 1 4 0 4 0 2 0 1 1 1 0 1 1 2 1 1 1 2 0 Male

6 0 0 2 0 0 1 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 Female

7 2 0 1 0 3 0 1 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 2 0 Female

8 2 0 2 0 2 2 3 1 2 0 1 1 2 0 2 0 2 1 2 0 Male

9 1 0 4 0 1 0 2 0 1 0 1 0 2 0 1 0 2 0 2 0 Male

10 3 0 0 1 0 0 2 0 2 0 2 0 2 0 2 0 0 0 2 0 Male
 Corpel - Frazier17

11 1 0 3 0 4 0 6 0 0 0 1 0 5 0 2 0 2 1 2 0 Male

12 3 0 1 3 0 1 4 0 2 1 2 0 2 0 3 0 3 1 2 1 Female

13 2 0 3 0 2 0 2 0 1 0 2 0 0 0 3 0 2 0 2 0 Female

Color Scheme (stutters/missed words) Additional

Observations
& Subject
Subject Gender

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10

14 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 1 0 1 0 0 0 1 1 1 0 2 0 Female

15 0 0 1 0 1 0 1 0 1 0 1 0 2 0 2 0 1 0 3 0 Female

16 1 0 3 1 3 1 3 0 2 0 3 0 2 1 4 1 1 0 1 0 Male

17 2 0 3 0 4 0 3 0 1 0 2 0 4 0 1 0 1 0 1 0 Male

18 2 0 5 0 4 0 4 0 1 0 5 0 3 1 2 0 4 1 0 0 Male

19 3 0 5 1 5 1 2 1 2 0 5 0 1 0 2 0 0 0 3 1 Male

20 3 0 2 1 4 0 1 1 2 0 3 0 3 0 3 1 2 1 1 1 Male; phone
interrupted trial

21 3 0 1 0 0 0 2 1 1 0 1 0 1 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 Female

22 4 0 2 0 2 0 4 0 5 0 4 0 2 1 1 0 3 0 3 1 Male

23 3 1 3 0 3 0 3 0 1 0 1 1 1 0 2 1 2 0 3 0 Female

24 2 0 4 2 1 1 0 0 2 0 4 0 3 2 2 1 1 0 1 0 Male

25 5 1 3 0 1 0 4 0 4 0 6 0 2 1 5 1 3 1 2 0 Male

26 2 1 0 0 1 1 2 2 0 0 2 0 2 0 1 0 0 1 0 0 Male

27 4 0 3 0 2 0 4 0 4 1 3 0 4 0 3 0 3 0 2 1 Female

28 3 0 3 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 3 0 3 0 4 0 1 0 2 0 Female

29 0 0 2 0 2 0 2 0 2 0 1 0 1 0 1 0 4 0 0 0 Female

30 2 0 4 1 2 1 3 0 4 0 1 0 2 3 2 0 3 0 2 0 Male

31 2 0 3 0 1 0 1 0 3 0 2 1 1 0 2 0 4 3 3 0 Male

32 1 1 1 1 2 0 1 0 4 0 3 0 4 0 1 2 1 1 0 0 Male

33 1 0 2 0 2 0 2 0 4 1 3 0 2 0 2 0 2 1 2 0 Female

34 5 0 2 0 2 0 4 0 5 0 2 0 3 0 2 0 0 0 3 1 Female
 Corpel - Frazier18

35 3 0 4 2 4 0 3 1 2 2 2 0 3 1 3 0 2 0 4 0 Male

36 1 2 2 0 2 1 2 1 2 0 0 1 2 0 2 0 2 2 1 0 Female

37 1 0 2 0 0 0 2 0 2 0 2 0 3 0 1 0 2 0 1 0 Female

38 2 2 4 0 4 0 7 1 2 0 4 0 3 0 4 0 4 0 1 0 Male

39 3 0 4 0 4 0 4 1 3 0 3 0 4 0 3 0 2 0 4 1 Male

Color Scheme (stutters/missed words) Additional

Observations
& Subject
Subject Gender

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10

40 3 0 1 0 1 0 2 1 2 0 3 0 1 0 3 0 1 0 3 0 Female

41 3 0 3 0 2 0 2 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 2 0 1 1 Male

42 2 0 4 1 0 0 2 0 5 0 3 0 3 0 2 0 3 0 2 0 Male

43 1 1 4 1 2 0 6 0 2 1 2 0 2 0 6 0 2 0 1 0 Male

44 3 0 2 0 2 0 2 0 2 0 3 0 4 0 3 0 2 0 1 0 Female

45 4 0 3 0 3 0 2 1 2 0 6 3 6 1 1 1 3 0 2 2 Female

46 5 0 2 2 6 0 2 0 1 0 0 0 2 0 2 0 2 1 3 0 Female

47 5 2 4 0 3 0 3 0 1 0 4 0 4 0 4 0 1 0 5 0 Female

48 4 0 4 0 6 0 0 0 3 0 5 0 4 0 3 1 2 0 4 0 Male

49 1 0 2 0 1 0 1 0 0 0 1 0 2 0 2 1 3 0 0 0 Male; issues
operating timer

50 1 0 3 0 1 0 2 0 1 0 1 0 1 0 1 0 0 0 1 0 Female

51 1 1 4 0 1 0 2 0 1 0 1 0 1 0 1 0 1 1 1 2 Male

52 2 1 2 0 4 0 2 0 4 0 3 0 4 0 1 0 1 1 6 1 Male

53 6 0 3 0 3 0 4 0 3 0 4 0 3 0 4 0 4 0 2 0 Female

54 2 0 0 0 0 0 2 0 4 0 2 0 1 0 2 0 3 1 0 2 Female

55 1 0 1 2 4 0 2 1 2 1 1 0 3 0 4 0 2 1 3 3 Female

56 2 0 2 0 3 0 3 0 2 1 4 0 3 0 4 1 0 0 1 0 Female

57 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 2 0 1 0 1 0 1 0 0 0 2 0 Female

58 3 0 2 0 2 0 3 0 1 0 1 0 2 0 3 1 2 0 0 0 Female
 Corpel - Frazier19

59 2 0 2 0 2 0 1 0 2 0 1 0 3 0 3 0 0 0 1 0 Female

60 2 2 3 1 2 1 1 2 2 2 1 0 1 0 2 0 1 0 0 0 Female

Table 5, above, shows the observations made during each trial. Each color scheme has

two columns underneath it. The left column represents the number of stutters that each subject

made while reading. The right column represents the number of missed words by each subject

which were taken away when making the word per minute reading speed calculations.

When making these calculations, it was determined that one of the articles (not the color

scheme) consistently had significantly slower reading speeds. This article, article 4, contained

Spanish words that may have slowed readers as they tried to pronounce and comprehend these

words. When the data was analyzed, this article was removed in some of the tests to see if

there was any significant difference.

 Corpel - Frazier20

Data Analysis and Interpretation

Multiple layers of randomization were used to ensure unbiased, reliable

results. The first layer was randomizing the order in which the color schemes

were read. Next, each particular article was randomized to go with a color

scheme. The randomization for each of these was done using Microsoft Excel

(Appendix A). The last layer of randomization was randomizing the order of the

subjects. This was done by using the random integer function on the Ti-Nspire

(Appendix B).

The black ink on white paper was used as a control for comparison with

the other color variations, as this is the most commonly used color combination.

By replicating these trials, there was reduced variability in the data,

because, as stated by the Central Limit Theorem, the more trials conducted, the

closer to the normal probability distribution the data will be.

 Corpel - Frazier21

Figure 7. Box Plot of Means

Figure 7, above, shows a box plot of the different groups of means found.

The black lines and numbers indicate the median values, and the red lines and

numbers indicate the mean values. These boxes included the male means with

and without article 4, female means with and without that article, and the

combined means with and without the article (the blue, orange, yellow, pink,

green, and red plots, respectively). Visually, the omission of article 4 seemed to

have a positive impact on the reading speed, as in each of the three groups,

about 50% of the means without the article were higher than 75% of the means

with the article. The combined box plots also seem to be quite variable, with data

points ranging from about 215 to about 250 wpm. This could be an indication of
 Corpel - Frazier22

the means being significantly different from each other, but in order to determine

this, descriptive statistics were used.

Color
Median Mean
Scheme

1 238.28 239.56

2 234.00 237.22

3 249.40 249.81

4 225.21 228.43

5 241.04 242.08

6 226.50 228.89

7 235.11 236.22

8 246.58 246.58

9 232.50 230.59

10 234.00 237.62
Figure 8. Female Data Boxplots

Figure 8, above, shows a boxplot of the female reading speeds as well as

a table with the corresponding medians and means. All of the means and

medians were within about 20 wpm of each other.

 Corpel - Frazier23

Color
Scheme Median Mean
1 229.39 229.39

2 229.50 229.50

3 229.93 229.93

4 227.56 227.56

5 225.46 225.46

6 214.80 214.80

7 234.00 237.67

8 243.00 243.00

9 232.02 233.04

10 233.20 235.39
Figure 9. Male Data Boxplots

Figure 9, above, shows a boxplot of the male reading speeds as well as a

table with the corresponding medians and means. All of the means and medians

were within about 20 wpm of each other.

Color
Median Mean
Scheme
1 235.50 234.47
 Corpel - Frazier24

2 231.00 233.36
3 238.50 239.87
4 227.56 227.99
5 234.00 233.77
6 219.00 221.84
7 234.00 236.94
8 246.00 244.79
9 232.02 231.81
10 234.00 236.51
Figure 10. Combined Data Boxplots

Figure 10, above, shows a boxplot of the male reading speeds as well as

a table with the corresponding medians and means. All of the means and

medians were within about 25 wpm of each other.

These boxplots do not necessarily show promising results in favor of the

hypothesis. Nevertheless, the statistical tests were conducted to make a solid

conclusion.

Six different Analysis of Variance (ANOVA) tests were conducted to

analyze the data results. This particular test is appropriate because there were

10 means being compared to each other from 10 independent populations.

There are 3 assumptions that must be covered for the results for the

ANOVA tests to be reliable. The first one is that there are 10 independent simple

random samples, one for each population. This is true because each color

scheme is independent from the other and the order of them was randomized

(Appendix A). The second assumption is that each population has a normal

distribution. This is met because each population had a sample size of 60 trials

(30 male and 30 female) which, because it is greater than 30, meets the

requirements of the Central Limit Theorem. The last assumption is that the

standard deviation of all the populations is close enough to being equal (the
 Corpel - Frazier25

largest standard deviation is no larger than twice the smallest standard

deviation). This assumption was met after checking the data. With all of the

assumptions met, the test was then conducted.

H 0 : μ 1=μ2=μ3 =μ 4=μ 5=μ6=μ 7=μ8 =μ 9=μ10

H a :not all μ1 , μ 2 , μ3 , μ 4 , μ 5 , μ6 , μ 7 , μ8 , μ9 ,∧μ10 are equal

Figure 11. Null and Alternative Hypotheses for ANOVA test

In figure 11 above, the null and alternative hypotheses are stated. The null

hypothesis states that all the populations’ means are equal to each other,

meaning, that there is no effect on the reading speed based on color scheme.

The alternative hypothesis states that not all of the means are equal, and

therefore there is a difference in the reading speed based on color scheme.

When these tests were completed, the results were found as shown in

Figure 12, below.

 Corpel - Frazier26

Boys with Article 4 Girls with Article 4 Combined with Article 4

Boys without Article 4 Girls without Article 4 Combined without Article 4

Figure 12. ANOVA Test Results

Figure 12, above, shows the results of each of the ANOVA tests. All of the

p-values (0.94, 0.92, 0.78, 0.44, 0.40, and 0.19) are above the α-level of 0.05.

This means that none of the results are statistically significant in favor of the

alternative hypothesis. Because of these values, the researchers failed to reject

the null hypothesis. It can be concluded that there is no statistical difference

between the reading speeds of the different color schemes. If the null hypothesis

were true, that is to say if the reading speeds were truly the same, results as
 Corpel - Frazier27

extreme as these would occur by chance alone 19% of the time if testing

combined male and female scores without the article, 40% of the time if testing

female scores without the article, 44% of the time if testing male scores without

the article, 78% of the time if testing combined male and female scores with the

article, 92% of the time if testing female scores with the article, and 94% of the

time if testing male scores with the article.

Despite these results, it can be judged that, while not significantly, the

color schemes do seem to have a numerical effect, as well as an observable

effect during trials on reading speed. This is most noticeable with the “best” and

“worst” color schemes, the pink paper/blue text and blue paper/green text

schemes respectively. Many of the subjects read the former very well as was

shown by the highest mean reading speed, while struggling to read the latter,

indicated by the lowest mean reading speed.

 Corpel - Frazier28

Conclusion

This experiment was performed with the intent to determine if there was a

noticeable difference in reading speed when articles are printed using different

color schemes. The original hypothesis stated that there would be a significant

difference between all color schemes, and that the pink paper with the blue text

would produce a significantly faster reading speed than the others.

This hypothesis was rejected because by using a one-way ANOVA test,

the null hypothesis, which stated that all of the color schemes would produce the

same overall reading speeds, was not rejected.

After conducting the one-way ANOVA test, the overall reading speeds

were not found to be significantly different with a p-value of 0.1925. This shows

that there is about a 19.25% chance of getting sample means this similar by

chance alone if the overall reading speed was truly the same for all the color

schemes.

While these values were true for the combined group of males and

females, it was noted that there were some differences between the results for

males, females, and the combined male and female group.

 Corpel - Frazier29

Table 6
ANOVA Results for Different Groups

Group Test Type p-value Reject or Fail to

Reject

Male One-Way ANOVA 0.4357 Fail to Reject

Female One-Way ANOVA 0.3989 Fail to Reject

Combined One-Way ANOVA 0.1925 Fail to Reject

Table 6, above, shows the results of all of the statistical tests that were

used. The ANOVA tests were used to determine if there was a statistically

significant difference between all of the color schemes. None of the tests rejected

the null hypothesis. An interesting trend that occurred was the fact that the p-

values tended to be smaller when analyzing the combined data rather than an

individual group. This may be due to the increased sample size by combining the

groups, which helped reduce variability when testing.

Although there was no statistical evidence to support the hypothesis, it

was observed by looking at the data and observing during trials that specific color

schemes seemed to have either a positive or negative impact on reading speed,

most notably the pink paper/blue text combination producing higher reading

speeds and the blue paper/green text combination producing lower reading

speeds.

These results are consistent with research conducted in “Alerting or

Somnogenic Light: Pick Your Color.” In that study, it was found that blue light

made the test subjects more alert than the green light. This aligned with the fact

that the pink paper with blue text produced the fastest reading speed. The
 Corpel - Frazier30

difference between the two experimental designs is that Bourgin and Hubbard’s

work tested different colored lights, while this research analyzed colored ink.

Nevertheless, in both experiments, the blue stimulus proved best with the test

subjects.

To improve the experiment, certain factors could be changed during trials.

One such factor was that the amount of distractions within the testing location

were not held constant throughout the trials. During certain trials, the testing

environment was disturbed by loud noises outside and inside the room. Other

trials, however, were performed with no distractions for the readers. A more

secure, undisturbed testing location may have a positive impact on the test

results as it reduces any variability caused by outside distractions.

This research could be expanded upon in various ways. Firstly, a wider

variety of color schemes could be tested. This experiment only found which of

ten color schemes produced quick reading speeds, but as stated in the

Introduction, there are millions upon millions of different color combinations

possible. This would likely give a more accurately determined optimal color

scheme for reading. Secondly, the different color combinations could be analyzed

for effects on cognitive abilities. For example, after reading articles, test subjects

could be quizzed on the content of the readings. This might provide insight into

not only which color schemes are read fastest, but also the ones that are

comprehended the best.

 Corpel - Frazier31

Acknowledgements

The researchers would like to thank Mr. Greg McMillan and Mrs. Rosemarie

Cybulski for providing guidance throughout the experimental process, including the

scientific and statistical principles that were the foundation of this paper. They would also

like to thank Mrs. Cybulski for providing the testing location throughout the trial period.

Finally, the researchers would like to thank the entire afternoon class of 2020 at

the Macomb Mathematics Science Technology Center, as well as some of the afternoon

class of 2018 at MMSTC for their participation in the trials. Without their full participation,

this study could not have been conducted.

 Corpel - Frazier32

Appendix A: Randomizing Order of Color Schemes and Articles for Trials

Table 7
Randomizing Color Schemes and Articles
Rand Number Rank
0.3042095262 7
0.07372092253 10
0.3642085233 6
0.4064232802 4
0.1097180382 9
0.2621822952 8
0.891967992 2
0.8933219662 1
0.3927736955 5
0.4993695052 3

In table 7 above, there are two columns: the left column generates a

random number between 0 and 1, and the right column ranks those numbers

from highest to lowest. Then the latter column, with ten random, non-repeating

numbers from one to ten, is copied and pasted into a trial table (Table 8).
 Corpel - Frazier33

Table 8
Trial Table

Table 8 is where the list of numbers created in table 7 go. They are placed

starting all the way to the left, then continually filled until the whole table is filled.

The first number for each subject is a number that correlates to a specific color

scheme where the second number corresponds with an article. When giving the

trials for the specific subject number, start with the first combination listed, then

move down until all 10 schemes and articles have been used.

Table 9
Experiment Setup Key
Number Color Scheme Article Title
1 Yellow Page, Red Text The Wooly Mammoth

2 Yellow Page, Blue Text Naturally Selected to Survive

3 Yellow Page, Green Text The Eco Pyramid

4 Blue Page, Red Text Water: A Give and Take

5 Blue Page, Blue Text The Origins of the Internet

6 Blue Page, Green Text Water From the Air: Cloud Forests

7 Pink Page, Red Text Digitized Signals Are the Future of the Black Box

8 Pink Page, Blue Text How to Make a Better Robot

 Corpel - Frazier34

Number Color Scheme Article Title

9 Pink Page, Green Text It Would Be Hard to Smile at a Smilodon

10 White Page, Black Text Inheritance of Traits

Table 9 above, shows the key used when randomizing. It shows what

color scheme and article is correlated with each number. This is used when

looking at table 8 above.

 Corpel - Frazier35

Appendix B: Randomization of Trial Order

Figure 13. Randomizing Subjects.

Figure 13 above, shows how the numbers were generated for randomizing

the order of the subjects. The random integer function was used to produce an

integer one through twenty five. This number then correlated with a specific

subject in the given population, in this case, a freshman student in a specific

class.
 Corpel - Frazier36

Table 10
Random Order of Trials
Trial #
Order
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10

1 3 10 3 4 9 6 4 1 9 3 1 10 9 10 8 8 2 4 10 1

2 1 5 7 6 8 1 9 2 10 9 4 6 3 4 1 1 6 5 3 6

3 7 2 4 7 10 4 10 3 4 8 7 5 2 7 4 2 10 6 6 3

4 10 4 5 8 2 10 2 6 7 10 6 1 10 8 9 3 3 7 5 10

5 8 1 10 5 7 5 8 4 2 5 2 9 7 1 5 4 1 3 4 2

6 6 9 8 2 3 7 6 10 6 6 10 4 1 9 6 6 9 1 9 5

7 5 3 6 3 1 3 3 8 3 4 9 8 6 3 7 5 7 10 1 4

8 9 7 9 1 5 8 1 5 8 2 5 7 5 5 2 9 8 2 8 7

9 2 6 2 10 6 2 7 7 1 7 3 3 4 6 10 7 5 8 2 8

10 4 8 1 9 4 9 5 9 5 1 8 2 8 2 3 10 4 9 7 9

Trial #
Order
11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20

1 7 9 1 3 3 2 9 8 6 1 10 2 9 6 5 3 5 5 6 3

2 9 2 5 8 1 6 7 5 8 4 5 7 6 1 8 8 4 10 7 4

3 1 6 2 5 8 8 10 1 7 7 4 8 5 9 7 2 9 6 1 8

4 10 3 8 2 9 10 1 4 5 6 1 6 3 5 9 4 2 7 2 9

5 4 8 10 6 2 7 8 2 4 10 2 4 8 10 6 5 7 8 9 6

6 3 7 3 9 5 9 5 3 1 9 6 10 4 4 1 9 8 9 8 1

7 6 5 4 4 6 3 6 7 10 2 9 3 1 2 2 10 1 1 4 7

8 8 4 9 7 7 4 2 10 3 3 7 9 7 7 10 6 10 4 10 2

9 5 10 7 1 10 1 4 6 2 8 8 1 10 3 3 1 6 3 5 10

10 2 1 6 10 4 5 3 9 9 5 3 5 2 8 4 7 3 2 3 5

Trial #
 Corpel - Frazier37

Order 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30

1 10 10 8 2 8 9 6 4 8 4 10 6 9 8 3 9 4 6 9 3

2 2 4 9 5 1 7 1 9 3 2 7 7 1 2 5 6 5 5 10 8

3 7 6 3 7 6 6 3 2 10 10 2 5 3 10 4 3 9 4 5 7

4 4 1 4 8 7 10 8 7 9 8 1 1 5 4 1 2 2 10 6 6

5 1 9 6 10 4 8 7 8 6 3 5 2 8 9 2 7 8 3 4 10

6 3 8 2 6 3 4 2 5 7 9 4 9 10 3 6 4 7 7 1 5

7 9 2 5 4 9 5 10 1 2 6 8 10 6 5 7 1 1 9 7 9

8 6 7 7 3 5 3 5 6 1 7 3 3 4 7 10 5 6 8 3 2

9 5 3 1 1 2 1 4 10 4 5 6 4 7 6 8 8 10 2 8 1

10 8 5 10 9 10 2 9 3 5 1 9 8 2 1 9 10 3 1 2 4

Trial #
Order
31 32 33 34 35 36 37 38 39 40

1 1 5 7 4 5 9 7 6 8 6 10 8 6 7 8 1 8 3 4 3

2 6 1 10 8 9 8 3 10 9 5 8 4 7 5 9 5 6 4 9 5

3 2 7 8 2 7 1 1 7 7 8 5 5 2 9 1 3 7 6 10 8

4 4 6 2 7 4 2 2 2 2 9 3 9 3 1 5 10 1 9 2 9

5 8 10 9 1 8 4 8 8 6 10 7 7 1 6 10 9 2 2 8 10

6 3 9 4 6 2 5 4 4 1 7 1 3 8 8 4 7 10 7 7 6

7 7 2 1 9 10 3 10 1 4 1 2 10 10 10 7 2 3 5 5 4

8 5 4 6 10 6 7 5 9 5 3 6 6 9 3 2 8 5 8 1 1

9 9 3 3 5 3 6 6 3 3 4 4 2 5 4 6 4 9 10 6 2

10 10 8 5 3 1 10 9 5 10 2 9 1 4 2 3 6 4 1 3 7

Trial #
 Corpel - Frazier38

Order 41 42 43 44 45 46 47 48 49 50

1 7 2 8 9 7 1 10 9 5 2 9 5 5 8 6 4 3 3 8 3

2 8 10 7 8 4 4 3 1 7 1 2 3 9 10 7 6 9 4 2 4

3 9 9 5 4 8 8 1 10 4 5 4 9 6 2 10 5 6 1 10 6

4 10 6 1 10 5 6 7 7 2 8 1 4 7 4 2 10 4 7 1 2

5 1 4 6 6 1 7 9 3 1 9 3 8 3 7 9 9 8 8 4 7

6 4 7 3 2 2 3 8 5 9 6 10 1 8 9 5 3 1 10 9 10

7 3 5 10 5 3 10 2 6 3 10 5 6 1 1 8 2 5 2 3 8

8 2 8 9 7 6 5 4 8 6 4 8 10 10 6 3 1 2 6 5 9

9 6 1 4 3 9 9 6 4 8 7 6 7 2 5 1 7 7 5 7 1

10 5 3 2 1 10 2 5 2 10 3 7 2 4 3 4 8 10 9 6 5

Trial #
Order
51 52 53 54 55 56 57 58 59 60

1 6 6 4 3 4 7 8 6 1 2 6 10 5 5 10 10 3 8 8 1

2 1 8 6 10 10 8 5 4 5 10 2 3 6 10 9 3 8 1 7 10

3 10 1 1 2 2 2 2 10 3 9 4 6 9 6 1 7 10 7 5 5

4 3 5 8 1 8 4 1 8 6 1 10 5 1 4 3 5 9 2 10 7

5 8 7 9 9 5 5 10 9 9 6 9 9 10 1 2 6 7 4 9 6

6 9 2 10 7 7 10 6 1 4 8 5 2 2 7 4 1 2 9 4 3

7 4 3 7 4 3 3 7 2 8 4 1 8 7 9 5 9 6 3 1 9

8 5 10 2 5 6 6 9 7 2 7 7 1 8 8 7 8 1 6 2 4

9 7 9 3 8 1 9 3 3 10 3 3 4 4 3 6 2 5 5 6 2

10 2 4 5 6 9 1 4 5 7 5 8 7 3 2 8 4 4 10 3 8

In order to complete the trials, a randomized order needed to be established (see

Appendix A). Table 10, above, shows this randomized order (see Appendix A for key).
 Corpel - Frazier39

Appendix C: Sample Calculations

Table 11
Values with Article 4
Color Scheme ni x́ i si

1 60 231.85 45.84

2 60 227.9 48.91

3 60 233.15 49.78

4 60 225.3 42.42

5 60 226.5 48.97

6 60 219.75 38.73

7 60 232.15 46.16

8 60 234.63 52.82

9 60 228.45 42.76

10 60 233.95 43.07

Table 11, above, shows the number of trials, mean response variable, and

standard deviation of each color scheme using the data points with article 4

included. These values will be used in the sample calculations.

Table 12
Values without Article 4
Color Scheme ni x́ i si

1 60 234.47 43.00

2 60 233.36 46.25

3 60 239.87 45.20

4 60 227.99 39.30

5 60 233.77 40.62

6 60 221.84 35.36
 Corpel - Frazier40

Color Scheme ni x́ i si

7 60 236.94 40.94

8 60 244.79 42.35

9 60 231.81 39.60

10 60 236.51 40.08

Table 12, above, shows the number of trials, mean response variable, and

standard deviation of each color scheme using the data points without article 4

being included.

In order to find the p-value, two variables must be calculated, the F-

statistic and the degrees of freedom.

n1 x́ 1 +n2 x́2 +...+n10 x́10

x́=
N

60∗231.85+60∗227.9+…+ 60∗233.95
¿
600

= 229.363

Figure 14. Sample Mean

Figure 14, above, shows the calculations made to find the sample mean of

all of the populations in the ANOVA test. This is the number of observations in

each sample times the mean of each sample, like weighted means, and is used

in the next two calculations.

n1 ( x́ 1− x́ )2+ n2 ( x́2 − x́)2 +...+n10 ( x́ 10− x́)2 60∗( 231.85−229.363 )2 +60∗( 227.90−229.363 )2 +…+
MSG= =
I −1 9
 Corpel - Frazier41

= 1314.43

Figure 15. Mean Square Group

Figure 15, above, shows the calculations made to find MSG. MSG is the

mean square group or the variation among sample means between each

population. It is found by dividing the sum of each population size times each

sample mean’s deviation from xbar squared by one less than the number of

groups. This is used to find the F statistic along with the following calculation.

(n1−1)s 12 +(n2−1)s 22 +....+(n10−1) s102

MSE=
N −1

59∗45.84 2 +59∗48.912+...+59∗43.072
¿
599

= 2095.36

Figure 16. Mean Square Error

Figure 16, above, shows the calculations made to find MSE. MSE is the

mean square error or the variation among individuals in all samples of each

population. It is found by dividing the sum of one less than each population size

times the each population’s standard deviation squared by one less than the

number of overall trials.

MSG 1314.43
F= =
MSE 2095.36

= 0.6273
 Corpel - Frazier42

Figure 17. F-statistic

Figure 17, above, shows the calculations made to find the F-statistic. The

F - statistic is the ratio of the variation among sample means between each

population and the variation among individuals in all samples of each population.

The F statistic is rightly skewed but when the numerator and denominator values

grow, the curve become closer to normal. This value is used in finding the p-

value.

I −1 10−1 9
df = = =
N −I 600−10 590

Figure 18. Degrees of Freedom

Figure 18, above, shows the calculations made to find the degrees of

freedom in an ANOVA test. The degrees of freedom are the number of values

that are allowed to be variant. With an ANOVA test, there are two different values

for the degrees of freedom. The numerator value is found by taking the number

of populations and subtracting one (which gives the degrees of freedom between

each group). The denominator value is found by taking the total number of data

points and subtracting the number of populations (which gives the degrees of

freedom within each group). It is extremely important to note that this is not a

fraction that can be simplified. Both the numerator and denominator must remain

as calculated.

Once the F-statistic and degrees of freedom are found, the p-value can be

found by looking at a table of F-statistics and correlating p-values or by entering

these numbers into a program to compute the value. Both of these returned, in

this case, a p-value of 0.78.

Corpel - Frazier43
 Corpel - Frazier44

Appendix D: Articles

Figure 19. Different Color Schemes

Figure 19, above, shows the different color schemes used in this

experiment. Aside from the standard black text on white paper, color scheme 10,

the respective color schemes from 1-9 are as follows: yellow paper/red text,

yellow paper/blue text, yellow paper/green text, blue paper/red text, blue

paper/blue text, blue paper/green text, pink paper/red text, pink paper/blue text,

and pink paper/green text.

 Corpel - Frazier45

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