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Paul H. Whitfield1 , Donald H. Burn2 , Jamie Hannaford3 , Hélène Higgins4 , Glenn A. Hodgkins5 ,
3 6
Terry Marsh and Ulrich Looser
Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering, University of Waterloo, Waterloo, Ontario N2L 3G1, Canada
5
US Geological Survey, Augusta, Maine 04330, USA
6
Global Runoff Data Centre, Koblenz, Germany
Received 11 May 2011; accepted 17 April 2012; open for discussion until 1 May 2013
Citation Whitfield, P.H., et al., 2012. Reference hydrologic networks I. The status and potential future directions of national
reference hydrologic networks for detecting trends. Hydrological Sciences Journal, 57 (8), 1562–1579.
Abstract Identifying climate-driven trends in river flows on a global basis is hampered by a lack of long, quality time
series data for rivers with relatively undisturbed regimes. This is a global problem compounded by the lack of support for
essential long-term monitoring. Experience demonstrates that, with clear strategic objectives, and the support of
sponsoring organizations, reference hydrologic networks can constitute an exceptionally valuable data source to
effectively identify, quantify and interpret hydrological change—the speed and magnitude of which is expected to a be a
primary driver of water management and flood alleviation strategies through the future—and for additional applications.
Reference hydrologic networks have been developed in many countries in the past few decades. These collections of
streamflow gauging stations, that are maintained and operated with the intention of observing how the hydrology of
watersheds responds to variations in climate, are described. The status of networks under development is summarized. We
suggest a plan of actions to make more effective use of this collection of networks.
Les réseaux hydrologiques de référence I. Le statut et les orientations futures possibles des réseaux
hydrologiques nationaux de référence pour détecter les tendances
Résumé L’identification de tendances induites par le climat dans le débit des rivières est entravée par le manque de
longues séries chronologiques de qualité provenant de rivières dont le régime est peu altéré. Ce problème global est
aggravé par le manque de soutien aux initiatives de suivi à long terme. L’expérience démontre qu’avec des objec-tifs
stratégiques clairs ainsi qu’avec le soutien d’organismes de parrainage, les réseaux de référence hydrologiques peuvent
s’avérer une précieuse source de données pour l’identification, la quantification et l’interprétation des changements
hydrologiques. La vitesse et l’ampleur de ces derniers seront probablement à l’avenir des éléments importants pour la
gestion de l’eau et la lutte contre les inondations. C’est pourquoi, d’autres applications étant sans doute à prévoir, des
réseaux hydrologiques de référence ont été établis dans plusieurs pays au cours des dernières décennies. On décrit ces
ensembles de stations de suivi hydrométrique, maintenues et exploitées dans l’intention d’observer comment l’hydrologie
des bassins versants répond aux variations climatiques, ainsi que l’état actuel de développement de ces réseaux. Nous
suggérons un plan d’action visant une utilisation plus efficace de ces réseaux.
Paul H. Whitfield is an employee of Environment Canada and his work is therefore Copyright of Her Majesty the Queen in Right of Canada.
Glenn A. Hodgkins is an employee of the US Geological Survey. His work was authored as part of his official duties as an Employee of the United States
Government and is therefore a work of the United States Government. In accordance with 17 U.S.C. 105, no copyright protection is available for such works
under U.S. Law.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/02626667.2012.728706
http://www.tandfonline.com
To include stations in a
reservoirs have no effect on reference network for climate
annual fluxes; rather, their studies that might someday
effect is only on monthly flows have sufficient data may be
(Vörösmarty and Sahagian anticipatory, and users might
2000, Vörösmarty et al. 2000) misinter-pret the suitability of
and, hence, the natural such records. However, not
hydrological variation is often including them in some
overlooked. Because most fashion can be viewed by
large reservoirs are designed to sponsors as a sign that these
shift water not only between stations are not worthy of
seasons, but also between continuing their operation.
years, this should preclude Finally, while no one would
basins with such large stor- suggest that any such network
ages, but perhaps not those should include “bad” data,
with diversions where little flexibility needs to be
storage is present. exercised when assessing the
value of available historical
data, which, though not of the
Similarly, the desired record quality that characterizes
length is not just for a nominal modern hydrometric practice,
20 years; rather, record lengths may still be of very high util-
are required that span periods ity (e.g. providing important
which cover the various states insights into longer-term
of climate indices in addition runoff variability).
to the period for which
changing climate is of interest.
The sensitiv-ity of It has been reported that the
hydrological trend detection to least impressive observational
the time span of the records evidence in the most recent
under review (Wilby et al. IPCC assessment (Solomon et
2008) is such that, where al. 2007) was in the area of
possible, representative basin hydrological change. There is no
net-works should include some single global pattern of
time series of at least 50 years hydrological change in relation
in length. Shorter records can to climate change; the observed
be mislead-ing, because of trends collectively can become
multi-decadal streamflow confus-ing as streamflow
increases or decreases, because
oscillations. In rivers studied
of changes in components of the
by Hamed (2008) and Khaliq
hydrological cycle. In addition,
et al. (2009a, 2009b),
not all the hydrological changes
statistically significant both
that have been observed in the
positive and negative 40-year
past decades can be solely
trends existed for the same
attributed to climate variations. many of the world’s major rivers
Trenberth et al. (2007) reported should be interpreted with
that large changes and trends in caution, because
sea-sonal streamflow rates for
Table 1 Attributes of the existing reference hydrologic networks from 22 countries.
Country
Number of
Climate
Minimum record
Data available at
Comments
stations
specificity
length reported to
GRDC
WMO/GRDC
(years)
6
Australia L
31 >40 it
Yes Ecuador h
>38 6 u
Azerbaijan a
14 n
>23 i
Finland a
10 12 7
Belarus
10
>25 >
France (HYDRO) 2
>30 212 0
Brazil M
238 a
Yes u
>23 r
Brunei it
Georgia
None i
8
u
s
2
>30
Japan
Canada (RHBN)
229 >
Yes 3
(>30) 20 0
China M
15 o
r
Kenya o
60 c
20
c
Cyprus
o
4
>26 1
Kyrgyzstan 2
7
>22
Czech Republic
>30 >45 (
Pakistan UK H
6 20 a
r
v
>25 e
Romania y
23 USA (HCDN) e
1703 t
a
>35 l
Slovakia .
20 1
9
Uzbekistan
9
6
9
>70
)
Sweden
7 >35 D
Yes Western Samoa a
>30 2
Switzerland
8
>30
GRDC
Daily 2 stations Data for 2 stations up to 2001
No Some data are reconstructed, no stations Daily 4 stations Data for 12 stations up to 1990
reported to
Monthly 8 stations
GRDC (Sauquet et al. 2000)
No No discharge data for identified stations
Daily 1 station Data for 1 station up to 1987 submitted to
Daily 1 station Data for 1 station up to 1980 Daily 16 stations Recent data from identified stations
No No discharge data for identified stations Daily 410 stations Good quality recent data from 410 of
submitted to 1703 HCDN stations
No No discharge data for identified stations No No discharge data for identified stations
submitted to submitted to
GRDC GRDC
GRDC
us and future directions of reference hydrologic
networks
1
5
6
5
1566 Paul H. Whitfield et al.
Category
Main objectives refinement and application of
regionalization proce-dures
(e.g. Gustard et al. 1997,
Cunderlik and Ouarda 2009),
Reference where streamflow
Identify and interpret hydrological characteristics are trans-ferred
from gauged to ungauged
watersheds based on basin
trends—principally climate-driven.
Environmental characteristics such as area and
Monitor heavily impacted catchments slope. Yoshitani and Tianqi
impacts (2007) suggest that PUB (pre-
to establish the degree of distur- dictions in ungauged basins)
studies require an accu-rate set
bance (and monitor remedial of discharge data, and flow
data are almost always affected
by withdrawals and returns.
measures). Stöll and Weiler (2010)
Regionalization
examined rainfall–runoff
Underpin the development of
modelling of ungauged basins
using a new approach to guide
regionalization techniques and hydrological modelling based
on explicit simulation of the
spatial stream network; the
modelling procedures.
method was tested in four
Integrated monitoring
Provide a focus for the improved different catchments in
Germany. Reference stream
networks were then used to
understanding of hydrological assess the output of this
process-based model and the
degree of spatial agreement.
processes, from the sub-catchment
international application in
relation to trend detection in
and various large-scale UK and European studies of
atmospheric circulation and chang-ing runoff patterns
sea-surface temperature (Hannaford and Marsh 2006,
indices, such as ENSO, PDO, 2008, Stahl et al. 2010). It has
PNA, AMO and/or NAO (e.g. been exploited in the UK
Cayan et al. 1999, Rogers and Climate Change Indicator
Coleman 2003). Other uses of programme (Cannell et al.
USGS HCDN data include 2004), as well as other related
analysing the geographical research areas.
vari-ability of streamflows
(e.g. Lins 1997, Peterson et al.
2000) and statistical properties
of streamflows (e.g. Vogel and Close collaboration between the
UK National River Flow
Wilson 1996).
Archive personnel and their
counterparts in the measuring
authorities has resulted in the
devel-opment of a series of
network and data appraisal
3.3 United Kingdom mechanisms over the last
reference network decade. Their aim is to max-
imize the utility of the river flow
series in the UK Benchmark
Network and provide an
In the UK, the national
information base which
Benchmark Network (of
underpins a capability to
around 90 well-monitored
identify and interpret
catchments) provides the core
hydrological trends. Many of
capability for hydrological these mechanisms have been
trend detection and appraisal. formalized in Service Level
The Benchmark Network has Agreements; some form the
found wide national and
basis of proposed changes in different development and
British and European operational experi-ence. The
hydrometric data processing following section describes
standards. these different experiences in
Canada, the UK and the USA.
OPERATIONAL
EXPERIENCE WITH
NATIONAL REFERENCE
HYDROLOGIC 4.1 Canada
NETWORKS
to be addressed if RHNs,
individually and collectively, are
stations in many countries will to effectively meet the strategic
necessarily be small headwater needs of policy makers. At the
catchments, it is important to Quebec City workshop, a group
also con-sider the scalability of met to discuss where we
results; headwater catchments, presently are with the
while perhaps more sensitive to development of RHNs, and to
climatic variability, may not be ask the question, Where do we
representative of larger scales need to be in 10 years? The
relevant for water management, urgent need to quantify and
so there is some argument for understand hydrological change
considering results from RHNs underpins the need for the des-
in the context of results from ignation and maintenance of
large catchment studies, or using RHNs. The results of those
runoff from large regions, as discussions are reported herein;
carried out in the UK studies discussions of each category
(Hannaford and Marsh 2006, follow the list of categories. In
Hannaford and Harvey 2010), general terms:
and other studies which
compare small, unreg-ulated
catchments with larger, but more
disturbed, catchments (e.g. RHNs should clearly
Lindström and Bergström 2004). demonstrate “fitness for
purpose.”
International collaboration
to develop a subset of There is a need to use
networks representative of consistent data, analyses and
the hydrological variation of presentation of results to
the Earth, and their overcome the apparent
consistent analysis and confusion of the collected past
presentation studies from differ-ent regions
that are not consistent. The
suggestion is that we support a
Cihlar et al. (2000) suggested collaborative effort that rou-
utilizing hydrological tinely updates analyses of how
observations that are particularly the hydrology of catchments in
important for global change the proposed international
impact studies. This would network responds to the
include daily runoff series for a climate system. We are seeking
few hundred small natural to best understand how these
2
catch-ments (∼1000 km in size) rivers respond to impor-tant
distributed over the globe
regional climate signals, and to
separate effects of natural
climate variability from
climate trends related to
from a wide variety of climatic, increased greenhouse gases, to
topographic and eco-logical support correct attribution. We
regions, together with also seek to separate landscape
precipitation and other data, and land-use signals from
permitting the study of
those of climate by comparing
hydrological processes in
reference stations to non-
specific regions. Multiyear
reference ones, recogniz-ing
groundwater, surface water and
the opportunity for interactions
to exist between climate and suits its needs. While the
land-use signals. GRDC does distribute data that
are shared with it, much of
what might potentially be
available is not in its databases
(Table 1). There are several
Develop dissemination possible solu-tions to the
mechanisms to ensure current situation, but having a
outcomes of RHN standard format for
programmes are accessible to distributing the data and
all stakeholders metadata would be a first step.
Many of the existing formats
provide backward
compatibility for each country,
One of the issues with RHN and con-tinue formats that
programmes is that the data were more a product of
suitable for analysis and efficient storage than ease of
interpretation are not readily use. Development of this for-
available. Each country mat should also consider the
distributes data in a format that existing initiatives for
1576 Paul H. Whitfield et al.
US Geological Survey Circular 460-B. Marsh, T.J. and Harvey, C.L., 2012. The
Thames Flood Series—a lack of trend in
flood magnitude and a decline in
maximum levels. Hydrology Research, 43,
Lindström, G. and Bergström, S., 2004. 203–214, doi:10.2166/nh.2012.054.
Runoff trends in Sweden 1807–2002.
Hydrological Sciences Journal, 49 (1),
69–83.
McCabe, G.J. and Wolock, D.M., 2002.
A step increase in streamflow in the
conterminous United States.
Lins, H.F., 1997. Regional streamflow Geophysical Research Letters, 29 (24),
regimes and hydroclimatology of the doi:10.1029/2002GL015999.
United States. Water Resources Research,
33, 1655–1667.