Earliest machine independent programming languages:

 FORTRAN (FORmula TRANslator)

 COBOL

Translator(compiler)- program that translated programs

expressed in these high-level primitives into machine-
language programs.

Interpreters- alternatives to translators

Natural languages- English,German,Latin

Formal Languages- programming languages

Programming paradigms(software development paradigm) – a style,a

way of programming, some languages make it easy, but not
others.

Imperative paradigm(procedural paradigm) – the traditional

approach to the programming process, finding an algorithm
to solve the problem.

Declarative paradigm- asks the programmer to describe the

problem to be solved rather than an algorithm to be followed(
this program languages needed a problem-solving algorithm)

Functional paradigm- a program is viewed as an entity that

accepts inputs and produces outputs (functions).

Object-oriented paradigm- a software system is viewed as a

collection of units called objects, each is capable of
performing the actions that are immediately related to itself.
Chapter 6.2

A program consists of a collection of statements that fall into:

 Declarative statements – defines customized terminology

 Imperative statements – describes steps in the underlying
algorithms
 Comments – enhance the readability of the program.

Variables and Data types :

Variable- name assigned to a location in memory

Integer – numeric data consisting of whole numbers

Float – refers to numeric data that might contain values

other than whole numbers.

Character- data consisting of symbols, probably stored

using ASCII or Unicode.

Boolean- data items that can take on only the values

true or false

Data structure – conceptual shape or arrangement of

data, text is viewed as a long string of characters

Array- is a common data structure, which is a block of

elements

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 Indices- individual elements that can be identified by
means of integer values

Operator precedence- certain operations are given

precedence over others(‘*’ & ’/’ over ‘+’ & ‘-‘)

Chapter 6.3

Procedure- in its generic sense, is a set of instructions for

performing a task that can be used as an abstract tool by other
program units.

Procedure header- the unit begin statement

Local variable- a variable declared within a procedure

Scope – portion of program in which a variable can be referenced

Global variables- variables whose scope is not restricted

Function- a program unit similar to a procedure(void) except that a

value is transferred back to the calling program unit.

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Chapter 6.4

 Translation- process of converting a program from one

language to another.
 Source program- program in original form
 Object program- the translated version of the program
 Lexical analysis - is the process of recognizing which strings
of symbols from the source program represent a single entity
 Fixed-format languages- programming languages that
insisted that each statement is position in a particular manner
 Free-format languages – position of the statements is not
critical
 Reversed words- key words(if, then, else) that cannot be used
in the program for other purpose than its initial design.

Chapter 6.5

Objects- procedures describing how that object should

respond to various stimuli.
Class- A template for a collection of objects
Instance variable -A variable that resides within an object
Methods - procedures within an object

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 Inheritance - object-oriented languages allow one class to
encompass the properties of another through a technique.
Encapsulation - restricting access to an object’s internal
properties