Powder Technology, 7 (1973) 145-159 145

U Elsevier Sequoia S A , Lausanne - Punted in the Netherlands

Physical Aspects of Comminution and New Formulation of a Law of Comminution

HANS RUMPF
Institut fir Mechanische Verfahrenstechnik der Universitat Karlsruhe, Karlsruhe (Germany)

(Received August 29, 1972)

Summary mechan
energy heat
power loss for drive, additional set V
A detailed description offracture phenomena, ob-
served in comminution experiments, is followed by 1 not to the particle
2 collective load
the derivation of a similarity law of comminution -------------------
which is based on reasonable physical assumptions . 3 plastic deformation
Starting from the simplifying suppositions of both 4 internal stress f
geometrical similarity of the particles undergoing s 5 microplastic deformati o n at the crack tip W-
comminution and similarity of the states of stress new surface
an change in structure
and strain, a relationship is obtained between initial electronic energy states

particle size and energy investment for a distinct I y
7a chem reaction 7b ~
material . On additional simplifying assumptions this
leads to Rittinger's law . With the help of dimensional -- -Ba adsorption lab 1~
analysis the similarity law is extended to cover 9a discharge, radiation 9b f1111

different materials and different initial flaw distri- agglomeration

butions . The results of various comminution experi- 10
final surface, final structure
ments are discussed in the light of the new coinminu-
tion law . heat
r
Fig 1 . Flux of energy and generation of new surface in com-
minution
PART I : PHYSICAL ASPECTS OF COMMINUTION

Here it is only proposed to describe a few physical
and physico-chemical phenomena which are im-
portant for a proper understanding of comminution .
We shall consider them in the light of the energy
flow in the comminution plant shown diagram-
matically in Fig. 1. The system is supplied with
mechanical energy (top left) and, if required, heat
(top rights e.g. when grinding at an elevated
temperature . Some of the energy is consumed in the
drive of the machine and in additional equipment
We are concerned with the transformation of energy
within the comminution machine . The mechanical
energy input is mainly dissipated as heat . When
there is a continuous passage of mill charge, a small
part of the work is obtained as the free enthalpy of
the newly formed interfaces, structural changes and
other states of energy (see item 6 in Fig . 1) The
substances fed into the mill, i.e. mill charge, water,
air or other fluids, themselves carry kinetic energy,
which is contained in the mechanical energy input,
and a certain amount of other energy : the mill
charge may have structural or thermally induced
internal stresses (see item 4)_ Also, the thermo-
dynamic potentials of possible adsorption and
chemical reactions have to be added to the energy
supply (input, items 7 and 8) .
The energy input must obviously be utilized as
efficiently as possible in the particles . In crushers
and roll mills the lumps to be comminuted are
gripped directly by the mill tools so that the energy
does not flow past the mill charge . This cannot
always be accomplished in fine grinding mills . An
idling tube mill consumes about as much energy as
when it runs with a load. We cannot measure
directly whether the total energy transformation in a
loaded mill is associated with the stressing of the
mill feed, or whether some of the energy is destroyed,
e.g. by direct friction between the grinding media, at


146 H RUMPF

a cone is sheared off at the pressure faces and

I squeezed into the material During this time large
enough tensile stresses to shatter the sphere form
outside the cone_ The state of stress which causes the
MIND
Y fracture is therefore the consequence of previous
1 plastic shearing
1 When particles are stressed in compression . both
high compressive stresses and minor tensile stresses
(c o in Fig . 3) are generated The latter are only
sufficient to produce brittle fractures when large
enough flaws are present They act as notches . and
stress peaks form at their tips and are liable to split
A
I the material The splitting mechanism will be dis-
Fig 2 Sphere cracked b) compression (after Kick'-) cussed later. If the stress is concentrated within a
very small volume which does not contain suffi-
ciently large flaws . the tensile stresses cannot pro-
duce a brittle fracture In this case shear stresses are
tension added to the tension and produce shearing .
compress,onf compression This means that as the particles become smaller,
even very brittle materials will increasingly tend to
deform plastically .
Figure 4, top, shows the load-displacement
7
diagram when a 105 jim quartz particle was stressed

Fig 3 Tensile stresses caused b} compression quartz

12 10` rtv - 05 -r -
I xv=105pm 1
the lining and in the flow medium (loss item 1) A !~.
considerable proportion of the energy in high- T
a
speed impact mills is quite certainly directly v 4
destroyed in the flow medium During collective o I
stressing in the mill there is yet another loss by com-
parison with the optimum stress which might be 20 40 60 80 100
deformation /pm
achieved by directly stressin g single particles This
optimum stress can be determined by experiments
with single particles In a mill, the particles are not
stressed to the best advantage On the contrary,
there is a broad spectrum of stressing methods and
intensities during which some of the energy may be
consumed by mutual particle friction without being
utilized for any noticeable comminution (loss, item
2).
The residual energy stresses the particles at
different rates associated with fracture phenomena.
Crack phenomena vary greatly' .
Elastic tensile stresses are always required in
order to initiate a brittle fracture . These stresses are
by no means always produced by elastic deforma-
tions only . plastic deformations often play a
significant part . Even when Kick' put forward his
law of proportional resistances in 1885, he de-
scribed a much observed fracture phenomenon Fig 4 Load-displacement curve and SEM photograph of
When spheres are stressed in compression (Fig 2), a fragment of a 105 jim quartz particle
PHYSICAL ASPECTS OF COMMINUTION
in compression . The diagram was taken by Steier 3 4
in our micro-compression apparatus- The particle is
stressed between two sapphire plates . The deforma-
tion is predetermined and plotted on the x-axis The
reaction force is measured and plotted on the i-axis
The rising straight lines are elastic deformations
which may include some plastic deformation The
falling parts of the curve are fractures During its
deformation the 105 pin particle suffers many brittle
fractures which always cause small fragments to fly
off or cracks to run into the material. Ultimately
many small fragments form which can be stressed
again . Figure 4. bottom, shows a scanning electron
micrograph of such a fragment . about 6 Eim large,
quartz
3 103
I i
XV= 1 7 lam
I
2 and burst apart
i
Fig 5_ Load-displacement curve and SEM photograph after
Ioaelng of a 1 7 pm quartz particle
147
which was stressed again . It will be noticed that
another fragment has cracked off at the bottom
right, and minor fragments . about 0.1-0 2 pm large.
can also be seen The pressure face was flattened
simultaneously and strong plastic deformation
occurred Steier managed to test even smaller
particles Figure 5 shows the fracture deformation of
a 1_7 km quartz particle The loading curve is
smooth and the relieving curve steep, but there is no
fracture On the x-axis the loading and relieving
curves enclose a deformation strain of about 0 5 lim,
i e a third of the particle size . The particle was
plastically flattened in compression . The two
scanning electron micrographs show the flattened
particle from the side and from the top, and cracks
can be seen on the periphery_ They are formed
because during the plastic deformation the outer
regions are extremely severely stressed in tension
Steier's investigations provide an answ er to the
important technical question as to the limit of
grtndabihty by compression For quartz it occurs
at a particle size of 1 Eim . for limestone particles at
about 3-5 pin With crystalline organic substances
the limiting particle size may be even larger It all
depends on the tendency of the substances to deform
plastically .
Internal stresses build up in the particle during
plastic deformation (see Fig I . energy flow from 3
to 4) At this stage they frequently do not produce
fractures during stressing because the external load
causes compressive stresses to be superimposed
When the load is released . the internal stresses fre-
quently initiate brittle fractures which w ;e call
relieving fractures
It has already been mentioned that a fracture can
only propagate when there is a very high tensile
stress and a correspondingly large energy con-
centration at its tip (Fig 3) The calculation of the
stress concentration field caused by the crack itself
can be accomplished in simple model cases It is a
subject of interest to fracture mechanics which has
developed very strongly during the last twenty sears
because materials science takes an increasing
interest in brittle fracture research .
In the immediate vicinity of the tip of the crack, a
region which may be of the order of 100 A to some
microns, depending on the nature of the substance
the length of the crack and the rate of its propaga-
tion, the action of opening the crack can no longer
be accurately described in terms of continuum
mechanics It is possible to measure experimentally
148 H RUMPF

the large quantities of energy which are mainly con-

verted into heat . Their magnitude is about 10-10 5
times that of the surface free energy y. Overcoming
the cohesion of the substance is evidently assp-
ciated with severe microplastic deformations and
high atomic mobility . A mathematical estimates
can be made which shows that the energy density in
the vicinity of the tip of the crack at high fracture
propagation speeds is so large that the corre-
sponding mathematically computed temperature
-in reality there is probably no thermodynamic
equilibrium-is often ab ., the melting point material S„(cm2 ) Sr/SL material S lcm°I S /SL
v v
As a result, thermal activation at the tip of the
Calcite 647 1 4 633 25
crack also contributes to splitting the material, pucrtz 640 16
glass
785 2 9
quite apart from the tensile stress . Of course this is a St0 1 .7 1360 3 .6
L~F sugar
consequence of the mechanical stress . The total 898 39 3160 3 .2 _
850 2.3 6S0 4 6
energy which is adsorbed at the crack tip in the form CnF=
1070 1 B
NaCI
3225 6 .9
of surface free energy, plastic deformation involving
heat generation, and other forms of energy must be Fig 6 Adsorption isotherm and specific surface of crushed
calcite and sodium chloride before and after exposure to damp
taken from the stress field . We call this total energy air
per unit fracture area, which must be produced as
the fracture propagates, the specific fracture energy
II. energy conditions for differential crack propagation,
Let the stored elastic energy be U e1 There from but for the energy absorption he only took the sur-
the relief of the stress field -0Ue1 /of is supplied at face free energy y. Griffith's condition is therefore
the tip of the crack during the differential crack
G~2 y
propagation df. This is called the specific crack
extension energy G . The energy condition for the It corresponds to the ideal brittle fracture which,
propagation of the crack is however, does not occur according to the present
Duel
state of knowledge . Actually the specific fracture
G=- ~2(3 (1) energy 6 is determinant Pmn is an important
material factor for the fracture phenomenon and
G increases with the crack length 1 . The following the comminution behaviour . It involves the energy
relationships hold
activation at the tip of the crack . Its effect is not only
1<1 c : Gc > .
G-12/3<213m (2a) that the major part of the energy G supplied at this
point is converted to heat, but also that the structure
1=1 c : G=Gc= 2 Ymax (2b) near the crack surface may differ from the basic
1 :>1c : G > G c = 2# . .x (2c) structure of the substance to a depth of many atomic
layers . After the passage of the crack the margins
fma, ^ ( 10-105 ) Y (3 ) cool down extremely rapidly, within less than 10 -6
The specific fracture energy 1; therefore rises with G seconds, so that amorphous or other high energy
until, at the critical cracl- length l a and crack ex- structures become frozen in situ.
tension energy G c , the maximum energy absorption The freshly formed surface and the accompanying
Ym,x has been reached . Above Gl c continues to rise structures (Fig 1, item 6), however, never remain
with the crack length 1, while the energy absorption unaltered during practical comminution . They are
j3=P max remains more or less constant. The un- at once exposed to the surrounding liquid or
absorbed energy G - G c is transformed to kinetic gaseous medium and react physically or chemically
energy : the fracture accelerates to the maximum with it (Fig. 1, item 7b, 8b, 9b). Great mistakes may
speed of fracture propagation, which may amount be made when conclusions as to the true effect of
to one-third to one-half of the longitudinal speed of the comminution are drawn from the remaining
elastic waves, depending on the state of stress surface (Fig . 1, item 10) ; this was proved by
In 1921 Griffith was the first to formulate the Schwenk' ,'
PHYSICAL ASPECTS OT CO VIMINUTION
Particles were fir st degassed and then com-
minuted by compression in a high vacuum at 10 -5
tort. The freshly formed surface was measured by a
krypton adsorption method . The graphs in Fig . 6
are examples of such adsorption isotherms . The
upper isotherms v apply to the surface created in a
high vacuum. Then the fragments were exposed for
some hours to humid air at 76% relative humidity.
They were then again degassed at different tempe-
ratures and the specific surface measured by krypton
adsorption . The adsorption isotherms obtained
after exposure to humid air are marked 1 . They lie
below the v isotherms, i.e the surface has become
smaller through exposure to humid air. The surface
area ratio SVISL was, as the table shows, 1 .4 for
calcite, 1 .6 for quartz and 6 .9 for NaCl A con-
siderable reduction in the fresh surface was found
with all the substances under test It is brought
about by adsorbed water vapour, as proved by
Schwenk's detailed analysis . With limestone and
quartz the reduction is due to filling of micro-
cracks and levelling of roughness peaks of less than
20 A. Solution and recrystallization occur on a fair
scale with sugar and NaCl. Glass forms gel layers_
After these studies by Schwenk we can no longer
speculate about the efficiency of comminution
I e.g. capillary action. As soon as crack propagation
-/
80'C water 20'C water
fl-v
ant'
- communition the actual speeds of fracture propa-
102
~~ 13'C air
713 g/m 3 H2 O
10 3 This statement seems to contradict practical
105 Torr' A74 Torr
10i'C air
70-' Elm ` prove the comminuting effect of mills. The cement
113 glm 3 H2 O
10 -5
i f 23' C
10 -6Tnrr
10 -6
10" 7 and by von Seebach 1 O in experimental ball mills
0 510 3 70 4
cin2
G/erg
Fig 7. Crack velocity v m soda lime glass as a function of the
crack extension energy G
149
processes without including the fresh surface and the
material structure in our reasoning
A warning must, on the other hand, be given
against the fallacy, which has affected many people's
ideas since Rehbinder's time, of the influence of the
surrounding medium on fracture propagation and
primary surface formation .
We know that the formation of flaws in glass may
well be severely influenced by humidity . Given
sufficient time, hydrolytic stress corrosion reactions
occur which greatly favour cracking . The experi-
ments of Schonert, Umhauer and Klemm', re-
produced in Fig. 7, on the propagation of cracks in
glass slides stressed in tension, clearly show this
effect The specific crack extension energy G is
plotted on the x-axis. With this particular test
arrangement, G is proportional to the crack length
The crack velocity plotted on the y-axis was
measured over the very wide range of between
10 - ' and 10 cm/s
The experiments were carried out m water, humid
air and in a high vacuum at different temperatures
At very low crack propagation speeds, below 10 - '
cm/s in humid air and below 10 cm/s m water, a
much lower value of G than in a high -vacuum is
sufficient to propagate the crack . Here cracking is
assisted by hydrolytic stress corrosion (F :g. 1, item
7a and 8a) In water there may be still other effects,
speeds above 10 - i cm/s or 10 cm/s are reached, the
curves for humid surroundings join up with those
for the high vacuum . The water molecules are un-
able to enter the narrow crack sufficiently fast and
no longer affect the rate of propagation During
gation are several orders of magnitude larger . They
are generally liable to reach the maximum propaga-
tion speeds, i.e. of the order of 1000 m/s
observations which suggest that grinding aids im-
industry has added liquid grinding aids for over
40 years. In western Germany about 10% o of all the
cement is now ground with added grinding aids The
addition of less than 0.1% of liquid glycols or
amines raises the mass throughout by 20-50% .
Studies carried out by Schneider' with factory mills
following the work of Gotte and Scherreri i, have
proved that grinding aids in the form of vapours or
liquids have no measurable effect on the energy
utilization, i .e. the formation of surface per unit


150 H RUMPF

3 10
N
6 .10 2

G C
a T
.n 1 10 3 a
a
0

0 0
12 1_3 1.4 15 1 1.5 2 3 4
bulk density Ps/Cl cm -3 reduction ratio x t /s -~-
Fig 3 Adhesion force of cement clinker powder in dependence Fig 9 Load-displacement curves of a quartz particle and a
on bulk density and concentration of glycol vapour (after limestone particle of 100 frm size
Seebach)

0 1
limestone 100 Um quartz
Fig 10 Fragments of a comminuted limestone particle (left) and a quartz particle (right)

energy, which means that the fracture behave
cement clinker in a ball mill is unaffected. The
r
advantage of grinding aids derives ~m the reduc-
tion of the adhesion between the particles so that
agglomeration and mill charge depositioi on the
grinding media is reduced, while the separation
efficiency of classifiers is improved. Von Seebachi 2
measured the adhesion transmitted in a heap of
clinker powder . Figure 8 shows the results of these
measurements The adhesion rises with the bulk
density of the material This is in agreement with the
theory of the tensile strength of agglomerates and
bulk materials When ethylene glycol vapour is
introduced, the adhesion may be reduced to one-
sixth
Fresh surfaces have a particular tendency to
agglomerate and also to adsorb matter . In agree-
ment with these observations the energy flow dia-
gram, Fig 1, only indicates the small potential
influence 8a of adsorption on the formation of fresh

PHYSICAL ASPECTS OF COMMINUTION
fracture faces, which is therefore represented by a
broken line The influence of 8b on the fresh
fracture face and the influence on agglomeration is
very marked .
The agglomeration tendency depends on the
substance . It is greater with soft substances and less
with hard, brittle ones The difference can be re-
cognized from the load-displacement curves taken
when single particles were comminuted by com-
pression. Figure 9 shows load-displacement curves
for 100 pm quartz particles and limestone par-
ticles" . The size reduction ratio as a measure for
the displacement is plotted on the x-axis Initially
the limestone particle absorbs less force and conse-
quently less energy than the quartz particle because
the former is less strong The fragments have less
kinetic energy and do not fly off very far . On con-
tinued stressing they are briquetted The quartz
fragments, on the contrary_ fly further and remain
separate . They are again stressed as single particles,
when the sapphire plates are moving to smaller
distances . The briquetting of the limestone particle
can be seen in Fig 10, left picture, while the quartz
fragments remain separate, right picture During
briquetting the friction between the particles ab-
sorbs a great deal of force and consumes energy The
load-displacement curves of 8 limestone particles
and 8 quartz particles (Fig 11) show a characteristic
difference The quartz curve has a great number of
peaks, due to brittle fracture The limestone curve is
smoother, more like a briquetting curve.
Figure 12 shows a related comparison for 5-11
pm particles from Steier's experiments' (smallest
length x 1 =5 µm, x, = diameter of a sphere of equal
volume =11 µm) Here the plastic deformation of
particles, especially limestone particles, begins to
single particle comminution j
12-107 -8 particles simultaneously loaded
(Schonert)
quartz
t 3 300 pm
Mv
IL T V 'Y r ''
S1 1'1
WIROA I 1
is 2 3
reduction ratio x 1 /s
Fig 11 Load-displacement cures of 8 simultaneously com-
pressed 3 3 mm particles of limestone and quartz
151
6 10 3•
limestone
I 1 X,211 Opm
x, . 5 2pm
L 1
a
V
2-
6 8 10
deform anon urn
Fig 12 Load-displacement curves of 5-11 pm particles of
quartz (top) and limestone (bottom)
have a greater effect. Fragmentation, which need
not necessarily produce ejected fragments, pressure
agglomeration and plastic deformation unite in a
complex process associated with high energy ab-
sorption .
According to Fig 1, item 7a . chemical reactions
may be activated before the fracture forms by
multiple frictional processes and particularly also
during fracture formation in the maximum energy
concentration zone . these reactions may also take
place at fresh fracture faces (item 7b) .
The electric charge on fresh fracture faces affects
the agglomeration and the mobility of powder
particles, e .g. in air classifiers, filters and cyclones
Radiation may be generated, e q. triboluminescence
during comminution 14
PART II NEW FORMULATION OF A LAW OF COM-
MINUTI ON
We now consider the comminution of single
particles, i e not any collective stressing, and we
inquire into a law for the utilization of energy
_ S SV
SE (4)
E Ei,
4 6 10 00
where SE is the ratio of the newly created surface S
to the supplied energy E, or of the newly created .
volume-related specific surface Sv to the energy

152
density Ev, i.e. the volume-related energy that is
supplied.
Rittinger z5 considers the division of a cube into
smaller cubes and maintains that the work to be
supplied is proportional to the newly created
surface :
SE = const. (5)
This claim is entirely unfounded . Comminution can
only be brought about by a supply of elastic energy
which always goes into a volume and never into an
area only.
Kick' proposed a law of similarity with three
claims
(1) When geometrically similar and otherwise
physically identical bodies are similarly deformed,
the absorbed work is proportional to the volume :
Ev = const.
This claim is conclusive, not only for the linear,
elastic behaviour of a substance, but for any
material law in which the local energy density is
any unambiguous function of the deformation
tensor.
(2) The strength is constant, i .e. independent of
particle size : cf,., a „ rc =const.
This condition does not conform to reality ; on
the contrary, it is found that the strength of particles
generally increases as they become smaller .
(3) The fractures which occur when 6fracture =
const. progresses similarly. This claim contradicts
fracture mechanics and is therefore false, as will be
shown later . It means that claims 2 and 3 of Kick's
law do not hold for comminution.
Behrens16 and Priemer 17 were the first to show
quite clearly that a1ract, .re is not constant for impact
comminution for a fairly large particle size range.
Schonertis showed the same for compression
comminution. This observation agrees qualitatively
with the theory of fractures . The general starting
point of the argument is that smaller particles have
fewer defects, z.e. fewer effective flaws. The stress
necessary to initiate a fracture must therefore be
greater. The first to formulate this statistical
strength theory was Weibull.
A second theoretical forecast of the development
of fractures can be made irrespective of the distribu-
tion of defects. Schonert and Weichert start with the
energy which must be stored within a particle for a
crack to run right through it . Since the energy ab-
sorbed by the crack is proportional to an area while
the stored energy is proportional to the volume, the
H RUMPF
amount of energy available per unit surface of the
crack decreases in inverse proportion to the particle
size. This means that a greater energy density and
therefore a greater stress is necessary to produce a
continuous crack, irrespective of the question of
crack initiation and strength
SIMILARITY LAW FOR PHYSICALLY IDENTICAL
MATERIALS
The laws of fracture mechanics must be observed
in any law of comminution These laws can be de-
scribed in a general form for similar particles by
means of dimensional analysis . In this way we
arrive at a new formulation of a law of comminution
which may be called the law of similarity of fracture
mechanics.
We compare particl of different
assume that
(1) the particles are geometrically similar and
physically identical ;
(2) the deformations and the stress states are
similar when the particles are stressed ;
(3) the deformations are purely elastic
Microplastic deformations will occur only at the
crack tip ; they are covered by the specific fracture
energy P. Since we consider one and the same sub-
stance, # depends only on the value of G_
We now ask for the conditions necessary for the
fracture patterns to form similar , y. Then we can make
a statement on the deveiopiuent of the surface . If the
progress of the fracture in particles of different sizes
x is similar, any given fracture pattern during the
fracture can be specified by a characteristic fracture
length 1, so that the same fracture pattern is deter-
mined by the dimensic aess value 1/x . Let the
elastic energy density, Ev =energy supplied/particle
volume, be stored within the volume of the particle.
In this case a dimensional analysis gives for the
crack extension energy G :
G=E v -x-f(I/x) (6)
The value of G determines the formation of the
fracture_ The progress of the fracture will be similar
in particles of different size In this case the critical
crack extension energy G c, at which the crack starts
to propagate rapidly, is reached at a certain,
dimensionless, critical length 1,/x :
lc/x = const. (7)
Gc = Ev • x • f 2) 2 $,,,a,t =const . (8)
lx


PHYSICAL ASPECTS OF COMMINUTION 153

Since ft., is a material constant, G e is bound to be DIMENSIONAL ANALYSIS FOR SIMILAR PARTICLES
constant : Ge = const . OF DIFFERENT MATERIAL
From this and eqn . (7) there follows the condition
for a similar fracture pattern l/x : We now consider similar particles of different
Ev - x = const. (9) materials and assume that :
(1) the materials are homogeneous and isotropic ;
The same condition follows for any similar fracture
(2) the behaviour is purely elastic, apart from
pattern, i.e. for any value of 1/x. A very definite
microplastic deformations at the crack tip ;
value of G must be associated with any 1/x, and this
(3) the displacements have the same direction but
can only be met by condition (9). For example, a
may have different velocities Vd .
crack starts to bifurcate at a certain value of
The static and dynamic elastic behaviour is
GF > G. which must at least be large enough for
governed by the material properties : Young mo-
Ge to be reached again at the tip of each of the
dulus E, Poisson ratio v and density p . The maxi-
prongs of the fork. (In the plane case G F .1 2G, cf_
mum speed of elastic waves is the propagation
Clark and Irwin 19 , Kalthoff2o.)
velocity of the linear longitudinal wave v e ,=JE/p .
In the region of rapid crack propagation G > G,
The other wave velocities are functions of v e, and v.
the dynamic effects play an important part . Changes
The breakage properties surely depend on :
in stress propagate at the speed of elastic waves so
(1) the initial flaws l,/x and their distribution
that the energy available at the tip of the crack
cp (1,/x) relative to the displacement situation . The
becomes time-dependent. For a given substance and
variables 1,/x will include the whole set of relevant
a similar state of stress, the speed of crack propaga-
initial flaws ;
tion is a function of G (see Fig . 7), i e. constant at
(2) the maximum fracture energy #max = 2 Gc+
any position 1/x, which is also true for the maximum (3) he maximum fracture velocity vfract under
speed of crack propagation reached at G=G e . The
definite stress conditions, for instance in a tensile
speed of the elastic waves is also constant Corre-
strength experiment.
sponding positions 1/x are therefore reached at the
In this cast. the fracture patterns are not likely to
same time by both the fracture and the wave : the
form similarly. it is, therefore, unreasonable to try
fracture pattern and the dynamic stress pattern
to obtain the crack extension energy G for any vale .
progress similarly when condition (9) is fulfilled .
of I/x Consequently, we only ask for the final state .
Condition (9) is consequently a condition for the
i.e. for the fracture results, taking into account the
whole of the progress of the fracture to be similar .
following variables
This obviously applies only to strict geometrical
similarity and absolutely identical material be- SV (SE), E, P, V, 1„ x, Ev, Vd, r'max' vfract
haviour. It can, in fact, only be expected that the
The dimensional analysis gives
progress of the fracture will be approximately
similar, and that the conclusions drawn from this Ev Ev-x Ufract Vd 1,
apply to the statistical average . SV x = ft R v (12)
1-
E /Omax Vel Uel X
When on the other side, with particles of different
size, the fracture formation is similar, the specific and when SE instead of S v is considered
surface must obey :
SV - x = const. (10) rz
SE - f'max = f2
EV EV - x
-, /j
Ufract v h , v \/
- ( 13 )
F' f~max vel vcl xx
From eqns. (9) and (10) we obtain for the energy
utilization
SV = SV-x SIMILARITY LAW FOR PARTICLES OF THE SAME
SE = = const. (11) MATERIAL BUT VARIABLE INITIAL FLAW DISTRIBU-
Ev- EV -x
TION
The similarity law of fracture mechanics thus leads
to Rittinger's law*. The variables E, v, p, ve,=~E/p. Vfract and /3max
are constant, if the material is the same . The initial
* The author was particularly pleased to be able to report this
fact for the first time at the Rittinger symposium, 1972, in Leoben flaws 1,/x and their distribution cp (1,/x) are surely
on the occasion of the centenary of the birth of P von Rittmger, neither identical nor statistically constant for
Kt particles of the same material but of different size .


154 H. RUMPF

On dimensional grounds v a /v et or Va/Vfraat still an fracture formation, i.e. for fresh fracture faces . The
independent dimensionless variable. Equa ons (12) ultimate surfaces are measured after they have
and (13) are therefore reduced to reacted with the surrounding humid atmosphere
Under constant material conditions the reactivity
S,, • x = f, E, x va I (14) of the fresh surface depends on the local energy
( max Uei xx`) concentration during fracture formation, i.e_ on G_
~E, x , yd I, In this case the similarity conditions (8), (9) and (10)
SE - fl Max = f2 /~ (15) state that the ratio of the fresh surface to ultimate
Ymax Vet X surface should also be constant.
Since S t,, x, 1, I„ v have only two dimensions (length (2) Irregular particles are never geometrically
similar. They also are not similarly deformed, nor
and time), one energetic variable remains in eqn .
are they physically identical . Then, what is the sense
(15)_ From physical considerations we choose
of a similarity law?
E,, x/Ymax•
It is not applicable to tests with one single
The variable vi/vet may be neglected, if the
velocity vd of the displacement is small in com- particle only. It only allows statistical statements
parison with v et In that case a static stress state for tests with a great number of particles . The same
will be built up during the loading time . This is is true for our experiment's in "single particle"
comminution We always investigate a large num-
valid for elastic deformation under compression
and all other quasi-static loading conditions, i.e. ber of particles, in order to get a quantitative
also for the falling weight loading conditions, for relationship for instance berween surface creation
and energy density or betv . een energy utilization
instance in ball milling 21. The influence of v d might
and energy investment E,, x. depending on particle
become important only in the case of dynamic
loading, i .e. in the case of impact grinding But then size These results are valid within a statistical con-
fidence interval The same holds for the so-called
vd is not an independent variable since E,, is propor-
similarity law (9)-(12) and also (16)--(17) . It claims
tional to va. So eqns (14) and (15) can again be
reduced to that, in the statistical average, E„x=const- is the
condition for S x=const if the l,/x are also con-
E,, - x I, stant.
X) (3) It should be possible to check the similarity
law with individual pieces of similar shape and
(~ / E,. - x 1, initial flaw pattern, i.e. with 1,/x=const . We have
SE' /-rmax - f2 /j
/M x X not yet made these experiments .
(4) We made experiments with glass spheres of
With condition (9) we get variable size . They are similar, but condition (20)
S,,- ft V./X)
V -- will certainly not be valid The glass spheres have
SE .8max = f, (1,1x)

In order to obtain a similar fracture pattern Compressive strength

x of glass spheres
according to eqns . (10) and (11), not only
E,, • x = const. (9)
but also a second similarity condition
1, Jx = const . (20)
must be fulfilled . In real , condition (20) cannot be 'N
expected to be realized with particles of the same
material and of different size.
We now compare the actual fracture behaviour of
single particles of the same material with the
relations (9)-(10), also (14)-(15) and (16)-(20) . 100
--en diameter /mm
Some general remarks are necessary in advance Fig. 13 Influence of the diameter of glass spheres on the com-
(1) The law of similarity has been deduced for pressive strength (top) .


PHYSICAL ASPECTS OF COMMINUTION 155

initial flaws, depending on their handling, which are
not likely to be 10 times larger in spheres of 10 times
greater diameter.
Figure 13 shows compression experiments with
glass spheres In the upper diagram compressive
strength, energy density E v, and "energy invest-
ment" E v x are plotted against the sphere diameter .
Compressive strength and energy density decrease
with increasing sphere diameter x . This indicates
that the stress necessary to initiate fracture is de-
creasing, because the absolute size of the flaws 1, is
increasing with increasing x . The increase of E,, x,
on the other side, indicates that 1,/x is not constant.
With 1,/x=const ., E,,x should have been constant,
according to (8). Since E,,x increases l,/x must de-
crease. The energy investment must be larger with
increasing x because the initial flaw pattern is less
favourable for fracture propagation, according to
the similarity rule .
The quantitative relationship between S v x and
the energy investment E v x according to eqn . (16) is
not known . To evaluate this, a very complicated
detailed stress and strain analysis would be necessary.
We can expect that S v x will increase with in-
creasing Ev x, but we cannot predict the function
from similarity considerations . If Ex const., then
r
S v x const. and no similar fracture pattern can be
expected. Figure 14 shows, as a result of experi-
ments with glass spheres, that Sv x increases propor-
tionally to Evx (SE = const .) in the range 0.45 J/cm 2 c
c
E v x 0.8 J/cm2 and 40 µm < x < 270 um . For
x > 270 um, E v x > 0 .8 J/cm2, the energy utilization
drops, which is obviously due to the less favourable
starting conditions with relatively small values of
1,/x. A greater proportion of the invested energy is
converted into kinetic energy-
103
as_ SE
E
5
We have seen that with glass spheres it is not
possible to choose the value Ev x independently
The rapid destruction of the sphere occurs at a
certain load or value of E v x, depending on 1,/x . and
is preceded by small annular and conical cracks,
which do not destroy the sphere' .
(5) With irregularly shaped particles Ev can be
chosen arbitrarily • Evx//3 max in this case is an
independent variable There is not one definite
load at which the particle is destroyed . As the load-
displacement curves (Figs 4,9, 11 and 12) show, the
comminution by compression of an irregularly
shaped particle is a stepwise process When a
greater number of particles of the same size is
investigated, the mean of the created new surface
S v x is a smooth monotonous function of the in-
vested energy E,,x. The same is valid for impact or
falling weight tests The influence of the initial flaws
1,/x may be smaller in this case, since many new
flaws and fragments are produced_ This would
mean . that condition (20) is less important than
condition (9) for the realization of the similarity
law (10) and (11)_
Observations on single particle comminution
will be presented below. Above 40 pm particle size
the surface determination was based on the results
of sieving, below 40 ym on photometric measure-
ments
We look at the results in the light of the similarity
law. Characteristic phenomena can be recognized
from the deviations
Quartz
In Fig. 15 the energy utilization has been plotted
against particle size for the compression . the impact
and the falling weight comminution of quartz
703
cm2
J I
C . . . o r J m ,.,r I I
I

_x
c t
J E„ x=045 07 08 es I
1
)D 2 2

102 \ O /
1L
,7 I L J/cmz
7 ` ~\051~~
S -p 5 -- _
5 I I 2 t
Single particle comminutlon \~~~ t
by compression I 7 I
Single particle comminution
by compression
by falling weight ----
II
I by impact ---
(quartz
t01 parameter E, x 1
Iglass-spheresI
I 1
101 10 3 5 10 2 5 to , 5 too
10 -3 5 10 .2 5 t0 -1 5 10 0 - Feeo particle size xlcm
-~- Feed particle size x/cm Fig 15 Energy utilization of quartz particles in dependence on
fig 14 Energy utilization of glass spheres in dependence on the the particle size at constant energy investment E t c (comminu-
sphere diameter (comminution by compression) tion by compression, impact and falling weight)

156
particles . The parameter is the "energy investment"
Evx which must be constant for similar fracture
formation . If the fracture formation is indeed similar,
condition (11) should also apply. Horizontal lines
are obtained when the similarity law is obeyed.
(1) For the cc mpression comminution of quartz
particles the expected law is obeyed relatively well
in the wide particle size range from 50 pm to 5 mm .
The energy utilization tends to decrease slightly
with increasing particle size x . This is presumably
due to the fact that l;/x is not constant The crack-
initiating flaws are surely not 100 times larger in
5 mm quartz particles than in 50 pm particles . The
fracture formation is given, as a first approximation,
by the energy investment Ev x. As a second ap-
proximation it is probable that the less favourable
starting conditions of the larger particles will be the
governing factor. This might explain the trend
towards a drop in the energy utilization with in-
creasing x .
(2) When quartz particles are compression com-
minuted, the energy utilization decreases with
increasing energy investment E v x. The similarity
law is approximately obeyed However, with greater
energy dissipation the amount that is lost is also
greater due to increasing frictional losses as the
fragments continue to be stressed . The constancy
of the frictional losses at constant S E and Ei,x, i.e.
also constant Svx, means that they are at all times
proportional to the existing surface, which is a
physically plausible findiii j
(3) If plastic deformations ere to play a signi-
ficant part in the compression comminution of
quartz particles, they would be expected to reduce
the energy utilization . This statement is admittedly
not proven because we are not familiar enough with
the energy utilization of relieving fractures . No
reduction in the energy utilization has, in fact, been
found with particles down to 50 pm . It is also in
agreement with the load-displacement curves plot-
ted by Steier (Figs . 4 and 12), if we interpret this
finding that plastic deformations play a minimal
part
(4) During the impact comminution of quartz
(Fig. 15), the energy utilization, at the same Et, x, is
less than with compression comminution . This must
be due to the completely different dynamic stress
pattern. The losses during the primary fracture for-
mation are due to the greater proportional loss in
the form of kinetic energy .
Impact comminution also involves secondary
size reduction by mutual impact stressing of the
H . RUMPF
fragments. Reiners22 found that the fragments of
impacted glass balls which fly off laterally may
reach very high speeds, e-g. 1500 m/s at 380 m/s
impact speed . This can only be brought about as a
consequence of elastic impacts in the mass of frag-
ments travelling outwards, but this involves im-
pact and frictional losses . The reduction in the
energy utilization as EV x rises can be explained by
the increase in both the primary and the secondary
losses. The reduction at constant Ex x and larger
particle sizes suggests that the development of the
surface depends more on the initial conditions than
in the case of compression comminution.
(5) Figure 15 also shows Hildinger's experiments
with falling weights . His data are not exactly com-
parable with the compression curves . Tha energy
supplied to the particle could not be determined
accurately . In reality the energy utilization was
higher than the curves indicate . But we can re-
cognize the tendency : with small energy investment
and particles larger than 0 .5 cm the energy utiliza-
tion rises steeply . We see the same effects when the
energy utilization is plotted against energy density
with particle size as parameter (Fig . 16). The maxi-
mum of the energy utilization has more than twice
the value with 0.98 cm particles than with 0 .48 cm
particles .
To explain this effect it is very helpful to use the
diagrams SE over Ev as well as the similarity
diagrams SE over x with Et,x as the parameter . The
plot SE over Ei, (Fig. 16) demonstrates that there is
an optimum energy density, depending on particle
size. The plot SE over x (Fig . 15) with constant Ex
shows that the steep rise of energy utilization is no
more in agreement with the rule of similarity. From
ISO
cmz J
J Single particle cotnminution
1ca
by falling weight
ns • x o9Bcm parameter feed particle size x
E , SE quartz
100
so
ace $
60 I
co
02
20
S to-1 S too S 10l S lot
Energy per unit mass E,.,/J/g
Fig . 16 Energy utilization as a function of the energy per unit
mass at different sizes of quartz particles (comminution by falling
weight)


PHYSICAL ASPECTS OF COMMINUTION 157

10 3
this it can be concluded that there is a change in
as
E I
structure The larger particles must have additional
cm2
inhomogeneities and grain boundaries which pro-
J
mote fracture .

0
1
10 2
Limestone
0 Another thoroughly investigated material is
-.n 5 limestone (Figs 17-19). It shows a behaviour
v
Single particle comminution
by compression
different from that of quartz, but a typical one for
c
W
by falling weight ---- softer brittle materials .
by impact ---
parameter E„ x I limestone) (1) During the compression comminution of
to' limestone (Fig . 17) the energy utilization increases
s le s 10 5
Feed particle size x/cm with increasing particle size and decreases with
Fig. 17 Energy utilization of limestone particles in dependence increasing energy investment E v x. Both are due to
on the particle size at constant energy investment Ev x (comminu- agglomeration which has been clearly observed
tion by compression, falling weight and impact)
during limestone comminution . It is the larger, the
more fines that are produced, i e. the smaller the
particle size and the larger the energy investment
10 3 Ev x. It is also possible that some plastic deforma-
as I Single particle comminution grinded rolls tion, which increases with decreasing particle size,
E =SE
in a rolling mill I limestone,
parameter n, may play a part .
cm2
(2) The fact that agglomeration resulting from
0 the presence of very fine fragments plays a leading
part also becomes clear from impact comminution
tests in which the dependence on pi.rticle size is
O1 5 reversed. In accordance with the smal :er S E , fewer
C 10 fines are produced at the same E v x. ''he agglo-
f merated amount plays a smaller part . Th° drop in
x =107 ~10cm I x =53 .1G cm x = 19 i0c \
the curves shows, as with quartz, the influence of the
to' ( 1
initial flaw distribution l,/x on the initia Lion of
5 10 1
1 5 10
5 10
fractures. The energy utilization rises e:iy slightly
+Reduction ratio x/s
with a drop in the energy investment This perhaps
Fig . 18 Energy utilization-reduction ratio relationship of
might partly be explained by the fact that plastic
limestone at different particle sizes and rates of rotation in a
rolling mill deformations in smaller particles play a larger part .
(3) The important influence of agglomeration
during compression comminution is also evident
from von der Ohe's paper" . He stressed single
10 3
as= SE particles between two rollers whose ratio of the
Single particle commnution gtinded rolls
5
- m a roiling mill _ = t - rate of rotation he varied . In Fig. 18 the energy
n,
parameter E, x utilization S E has been plotted against the reduction
cm2
i
Fit
ratio x/s . x is the initial particle size, s the distance
of the rollers . The ratio of the rates of rotation ii i /n,
toe
O
-l
is the parameter ; n i /n2 =1 means pure compression
W comminution without friction between the rollers
S ∎~, At the largest ratio n i /n 2 =10 the friction between
the rollers, which is the ratio of the tangential com-
ponent to the normal component of displacement, is
of the order of 100 - 1, depending on the particle
limestone
10'
10 -3
size . Various test materials and roller roughnesses
5 10'2 5 10-1
~ Feed particle size x/cm
5 100
were examined . Figure 17 refers to limestone
Fig 19 Energy utilization in dependence on the particle size at particles of different initial size x and polished
constant energy investment Ev x (comminution in a rolling mill). rollers.


158 H RUMPF

For n 2 /n, =1 the energy utilization decreases
greatly with increasing reduction ratio. The cause is
the agglomeration and the large associated fric-
tional losses . On the other side the friction between
the rollers consumes more energy, as will be seen
from the difference between the curves for n,/n 2 = 1
and ii,/ii, = 10 at a low reduction ratio . For large
reduction ratios the friction between the rollers
becomes relatively more favourable because it
prevents agglomeration . This is particularly true for
fine particles of x i = 190 pm which tend to agglo-
merate most- In this case the energy utilization
above a certain reduction ratio is higher with roller
friction than without .
(4) The similarity diagram, Fig. 19, SE against x
with Et ,x as the parameter, gives curves which . for
n i/ii, = 1, coincide more or less with those of the
compressive tests of Fig 17 within the limits of
experimental accuracy . At n ,/n, = 10 an approxi-
10 3
AS =s
E E
5
C m2
J E. .
` IO
mately horizontal curve is obtained . This ad-
mittedly involves a very large energy loss through
friction, but the similarity law is obeyed because,
just as with the compression tests on quartz
particles and large EV x, the frictional losses are
roughly proportional to the given surface and
agglomeration is ruled out.
Other materials
Figures 20 and 21 show two other examples .
Figure 20 was obtained with cement clinker . The
behaviour is similar to quartz . The compression
tests show that the law of similarity is followed in a
certain range. Above a particle size of 500 pm to
1 mm the energy utilization again is increasing,
which indicates a change in structure .
The behaviour of sugar (Fig 21) resembles more
that of limestone . This is due to agglomeration,
which plays a remarkable role The energy utiliza-
tion of impact grinding follows the similarity rule .
It is not much smaller than that of limestone and
quartz . In accordance with these findings impact
gnnding of sugar is being , - ed in practice with good
economic results
2 Jlcm r

rn 05
102
- \ I: I 1 02 CONCLUSIONS
5
Single particle comminution - All these interpretations still have a very hypo-
by compression
by falling weight ---- thetical meaning . But they gimme the orientation for a
parameter E . x
cement clinker
combined interpretation of fracture physics, frac-
10
10 3 2 5 too
ture mechanics, and single particle comminution
5 13 5 10 1
- Feed particle size s/cm The curve in the similarity graph helps us to
Fig 20 Energy utilization of cement clinker particles in de- understand the material behaviour based on the
pendence on the particle size at constant energy investment reasoning of fracture physics. It provides an addi-
E, i (comminution by compression and falling weight)
tional assessment criterion which is most instructive,
103
particularly in connection with another graph, e.g.
AS-SE S E against EY as has been shown by falling weight
S n a, i tests on quartz particles
cmz
0 of
Actual comminution in mills does not take place
- oz
while Ei,x=const. The mean energy flow to the
a various particle size fractions depends rather on the
log design and manner of operation of the mill .
5
The following comparison, with simplifying
Single particle comminution assumptions, shows the different tendencies :
by compression - (1) Impact comminution at constant speed -
by Impact - -
parameter E„ x
~ sugar, E v = const E l, -x = const x (21)
10 ,
,0
3 5 ,o 2 s 10' 5 100
(2) Bali mill with constant mean grinding media
- Feed particle size x/cm energy EK per particle
Fig 21 Energy utilization of sugar particles in dependence on
the particle size at constant energy investment Ey x (commi- EK
El, = Ey -x = const- x -2 (22)
nution by compression and impact). 13
PHYSICAL ASPECTS OF COMMINUTION
(3) Roller mills with constant nip s :
(23)
E i, increases monotonically with x, E v x also
increases monotonically but more strongly so
In a ball mill, the particle size distribution and
the quantity of particles change with space and, in
non-steady state, with time. The mean energy-
density-function Ev (x) also changes and in addition
the energy density distribution for a certain fraction
x. This makes it rather difficult to evaluate the
integral figures E v, S i, and SE for the whole of the
mill from single particle comminution tests . With
impact mills and roller mills the simulation con-
ditions are less complicated
The main purpose of single particle comminution
tests is to understand and describe material be-
haviour by quantitative figures . The same is
intended by this paper, not the evaluation of rela-
tions for collective mill-grinding .
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
This work is based on many investigations, which
have been carried out in the "Institut fur Mecha-
nische Verfahrenstechnik der Universitat Karls-
ruhe", see refs 1, 3-8, 13, 14, 16-18, 21 and 23 . The
author wishes to thank all co-workers who, by
discussion, have contributed to the progress of our
knowledge
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