Edge of Solar System

• Heliosphere – Region of space dominated by sun’s solar wind

• Eventually particles from interstellar space in majority
• Happens at Heliopause (120 times further from the Sun than Earth is)
 Edge of Solar System
• Voyager I – First man-made object to cross Heliopause in 2012
• Entered Interstellar space/measured Heliopause
 Voyager I’s Famous Photograph (1990)
• ‘The Pale Blue Dot’ – Carl Sagan (1934 – 1996)
• https://www.youtube.com/watch?time_continue=2&v=d7aL0ZGjoeg
 Side Note Four: Europa (Galilean Moon)
• Warm water ocean hypothesized to exist beneath smooth surface
• Potential for extraterrestrial life?
 Dreadful Joke
• Would they be referred to as ‘Europeans?’
 Back to Galileo
• He had different problems in 16th century Europe (Earth) …
• One of them was modelling the solar system…
 Galileo’s Biggest Observation - 1610
• Observed the phases of Venus
• Decisive evidence in favour of heliocentric model
•
 In the Ptolemaic (Geocentric Model):
•Venus always between sun and Earth
•Apparent size/phase can’t change much
•Sunlight face would always point back to sun
 The Scientific Method
• Galileo’s observations didn’t math Ptolemaic system with epicycles.
 In the Copernican (Heliocentric) model
• Venus is sometimes between Earth and sun
• Sometimes on far side of sun from Earth
 Venus – Phases
• Between sun and Earth:
◦Dark and ‘larger’

• Far side of sun from Earth:

◦Fully illuminated and ‘smaller
 Phases of Venus
• Let’s have a look at a video:
• https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=W-6x3XRuWVg
 Galileo and Heliocentrism
• Ptolemaic model disproven! Heliocentrism wins!
• Remember: Kepler proposed elliptical orbits
 Galileo vs The Unbelievers
• Persecuted by Pope Paul V for heliocentric model, 1616
• Sentenced to formal imprisonment (house arrest), 1633

1564 – 1642 AD
 Side Note Two: The Church vs Science
• A continuing battle? Or an over-simplified argument?
• Note: Catholic Church banned heliocentric books until 1758
 Galileo - Neptune
• Allegedly observed Neptune in 1612
• Didn’t realise it was a planet
• (Not a ‘naked-eye’ planet)
 Exam Question - Checkpoint
Describe the difference between Ptolemaic, Copernican, and Tychonic systems.
What final revisions had to be made to the Copernican model? (12 marks)
Possible Points
Ptolemaic: Geocentric (1) Fixed sphere of stars (1) Naked-eye planets, sun, moon
orbit Earth (1) Epicycles (1)
Copernican: Heliocentric (1) Naked-eye planets orbit Sun (1) Epicycles (1) Stars
on fixed sphere (1)
Tychonic: Geocentric (1) Hybrid of above systems (1) Naked-eye planets orbit
Sun (1) But Sun orbits Earth (1) Stars on fixed sphere (1)

Epilieptical orbits added (1) Non-naked eye planets added (1) mention of Kepler
(1)
 Three Systems Compared
• Useful video:
◦https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Ws23KlB-JGA
 Exam Question - Checkpoint
Explain how Galileo’s observations of Jupiter’s Moons and the phases of Venus
refute the Ptolemaic model. What about the Tychonic model? (8 marks)
 Possible Points
Galileo observed moons of Jupiter orbiting that planet (1) Showed not everything in
solar system orbits Earth (1) suggested Earth not centre of universe (1)

Ptolemaic/geocentric system means Venus won’t change much in apparent size (1) can
never be fully illuminated (1) since always between Earth and sun (1) Illuminated side
isn’t able to face Earth (1)

This doesn’t match observations (1) Copernican system means Venus looks larger when
between Earth and sun (1) Most illuminated when on far side of sun (1) Doesn’t refute
Tychonic system (1)
 Interesting Point
• Tychonic system wasn’t fully abandoned by astronomers until 1729!
• In fact, modern-day Geocentrists refer to it!
 Exam Question - Checkpoint
Define/Explain Kepler’s first two laws. Also Explain how he ‘tidied up’ the
Copernican model, and quashed previous beliefs in astronomy (8 marks)
 Possible Points
• First law “Planets follow elliptical orbits, with the Sun at one focus of the ellipse” (2)
• Previously orbits were claimed as circular (1)
• Second law ““The orbital speed of a planet changes, so that a line joining the Sun and the
planet will sweep out an equal amount of area in an equal amount of time” (2)
• Previously orbital speed was claimed as constant (1) Planets move faster when nearer the sun
(1) Teased the idea of a force from the sun (1) Tidied up epicycles (1)
 Kepler Marches on…..
• Expanded on ‘mystery force’ from Sun hypothesized in 1609
• Remember: Started using telescope around 1611
 Harmonices Mundi - 1619
• Translation: “Harmony of the World”
• Included his third law
 Kepler’s Third law – Observations (1)
• The time it takes for a planet to orbit the sun once (orbital period) is
related to its average distance from the sun
 Kepler’s Third Law – Observations (2)
• P : Orbital Period
• a : Semi-major axis distance
• Played around with data, got this:
• P 2 a3
 Kepler’s Third Law - Visualisation
Video shows this clearly (9:14 – 12:10):
◦ https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=kyR6EO_RMKE
 Kepler’s Third Law – Mathsy Stuff
• P2 a3
• P = ka3 – where ‘k’ is a constant.
 Kepler’s Third Law – Mathsy Stuff
• Newton later found ‘k’.
• Kepler’s 3rd law can be derived from Newton’s law of Gravitation
 Kepler’s Third Law - Graph Plots
• Carefully selected units allow the ugly constant to be ditched
• P2 = a 3

• P – Earth years
• a – Astronomical units (A.U)

http://abitofauldmaths.org/2013/08/logs-make-an-impact-keplers-third-law/
 Side Note: Application to Jupiter’s Moons
• You can measure the time taken for a moon to return to its initial position
• Kepler’s third law will get you the distance
 Astronomical Unit
1 AU:
◦ Distance from Earth to Sun on semi-major axis
◦ = 149, 597, 871 km
 Astronomical Unit and Kepler
• 1 AU: = 149, 597, 871 km
• He didn’t have this value. Just used as proportions
 Mars
• Distance from sun (semi-major axis):
• 1.524 AU
• 227,900,000km
 Exam Question - Checkpoint
Use Kepler’s third law to calculate how long it takes Mars to complete one
orbit around the sun. Comment on the units in your answer. (4 marks)

• P2 = a3
• Earth – 1 A.U
• Mars – 1.524 A.U
 Possible Answer
• P2 = a3 (1)
• = (1.524)3 (1) = 3.54
 
• = 1.88 (1)
• = 1.88 Earth years (1)
•
 Wait! Hang On!
• How did we find these distances?!
 Objectives: Part Four – Remember?
• These will have to wait for now:

• To look at the evidence supporting a rotating Earth

• To explain day and night on Earth (and seasonal variation)

Objectives: Part Five
• Discuss how the ancients calculated astronomical distances

• Discuss lunar and solar eclipses

• Discuss the Earth’s moon

 Measuring Solar Distances - Question
• We can’t extend a ruler out
• How do we measure distances to/of planets?
• Most importantly, how did the ancients do it?
 Angular Diameter - Moon
• Draw imaginary line from viewpoint to:
• Top of moon
• Bottom of moon
• Use protractor. How big angle-wise?
 Welcome back Aristarchus
• Measured size of moon/distance to moon/sun
• Remember: Heliocentric before Copernicus
• Eratosthenes: 276 -195 BC

310 – 230 BC
 Ancient Angular Measurements
• We can only speculate on Aristarchus’s angular measurement

• Sticks?
• Old Protractor?
• Triquetrum?
 Less Ancient Angular Measurements
• Remember that stuff from earlier?

Sextant Armillary Sphere Quadrant Triquetrum

Famous Astronomers with Instruments
 Rules of thumb (fingers)
• With a fully extended arm
 Aristarchus – Measuring Moon Size (1)
•First, measured angular Moon size of 0.5o (Sticks/triquetrum/other?)
 Aristarchus – Measuring Moon Size (2)
• Used synodic month of 30 days
• Indicated by Ancient Greek/Egyptian calendars
 Side Note: Moon’s Orbit
How long does it take for the moon to orbit Earth?
 Moon Orbiting Earth
Sidereal Month: 27.3 Days – Relative to Fixed stars
◦ To complete one orbit around Earth

Synodic Month: 29.5 Days – Relative to Sun

◦ To show New moon phase relative to observer on Earth
Sidereal Month: 27.3 Days
Synodic Month: 29.5 Days
 Visualisation
These crap Youtube videos may help…
◦ https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Q31JF6jwTM0
◦ https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=5qmAo4T-_Ec
 Exam Question - Checkpoint
How long does it take for the moon to orbit the Earth? Explain why
there are ‘two conflicting values’ (5 marks)
 Possible Points for your Answer
Sidereal month 27.3 days (1) to complete one orbit around Earth
(1) measured relative to fixed stars
Synodic month 29.5 days (1) to show new moon phase (1) relative
to observer on earth (1) Diagram with labels (up to 5 marks)
 Side Question – Moon – Group Task
• Why do we always see the same face of the moon?
 Side Question – Moon – Group Task
• Earth has tidally locked the moon
• Time to rotate on axis = Time to orbit Earth: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=OZIB_leg75Q
 Interesting Side Note: Charon and Pluto
• Tidally locked each other! = Double tidal lock
• Largest moon-to-host planet size ratio (half)
•https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=HGPQdMkEhsE (2:05 -)
 Charon and Pluto
• The centre of mass (barycenter) lies outside of pluto!
 Timeline of Pluto and Charon (1)
• Pluto - discovered 1930
• Charon – discovered 1978
 Timeline of Pluto and Charon (2)
• Clearer imagery provided by Hubble Space telescope (1990/1994)
 Timeline of Pluto and Charon (3)
• New Horizons probe (2015)
 Back to Aristarchus – Moon Size (3)
• Used synodic month of ≈ 30 days
• Measured moon angular size = 0.5o (Method disputed)

• What next?
 Aristarchus – Moon Size (4)
• Realized lunar eclipses could reveal moon diameter
•As a multiple of Earth diameter
 Aristarchus – Moon Size (4)
•We must clarify first: What’s a lunar eclipse?
 Lunar Eclipse
• Earth eclipses moon with its shadow
• Why don’t we see this every month?
 Lunar Eclipse
• Moon’s orbit is tilted:
• https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=VW2xRR75lKE
 Aristarchus – Model (5)
• Assumptions:
•Sun so far away, its rays are essentially parallel to Earth surface
•Earth casts ‘cylinder shadow’ with diameter equal to Earth’s diameter
•Moon orbit = 720 hours

• What Next?
 Aristarchus – Model (6)
• Moon disappears into shadow

• For specific point on moon:

• 3 hours to travel fully through
Earth’s shadow

•Rough time measured by

Aristarchus
 Aristarchus – Model (7)
• 3 hours of its 720-hour
orbit is spent in the Earth’s
shadow

• You can find the angular

size of the Earth’s shadow
from this…
 Aristarchus – Model (8)
• x 360o = 1.5o

• What fraction of the shadow

does the moon width occupy?
 Aristarchus – Model (9)
• Moon occupies a third of
Earth’s shadow

• Moon width ≈
 Enter Eratosthenes…
• With Eratosthenes value ≈ 4200km
• Real = 3,474km
• Good or bad estimate?
 About 20% Out!
• Not bad for 2,200 years ago and basic tools!
 Aristarchus – Assumption!
• Moon width = width

• What assumption(s) is this built on?

• Why is it inaccurate?
 Earth’s Shadow on Moon
• Not a cylinder! It’s tapered!
• Can only observe the Umbra by naked-eye!
 Earth’s Shadow on Moon
• This is why Aristarchus was out by ≈ 20%
• His: 4200km, Real: 3,474km
 Exam Question - Checkpoint
Explain how Aristarchus is claimed to have calculated the diameter of the
moon. Include any assumptions used, and discuss/critique the validity of his
method and his accuracy (10 marks)
 Possible Points for Answer
Assumed sun was so far away that rays hitting earth considered parallel (1) Assumed cylinder-
shaped Earth shadow (1) In reality it’s tapered (1) he could only observe umbra (1) Used
synodic month of ≈ 30 days (1) Measured angular size of moon at 0.5o (1) disputed how he did
this: sticks in ground/triquetrum (1) Moon takes 30 days/720 hours for 360o orbit (1) 3 hours
for complete travel through Earth’s shadow (1) Proportion of time spent in Earth’s shadow is 3
hours/720 hours (1) Earth’s shadow angular size = 1.5o (1) Moon width = Earth width (1)
Considering the basic measurement tools of the day, 20% off is accurate (1)
 Exam Question - Checkpoint
How far was the moon from Earth, in terms of Earth-Diameters according to
Aristarchus’s calculations? Explain your answer and its accuracy (5 marks)
◦ What about in terms of Moon-diameters?
 Answer
𝒔
s = rθ. r =
𝜽
𝟏 𝟏
𝟑 𝑫 𝟑 𝑫
𝟏 𝟏
𝑬
𝟑 𝑫
𝑬
𝟑 𝑫
R 𝝅
𝟎.𝟓𝒐
𝟑𝟔𝟎
𝑫 (1)

Moon roughly 38 Earth diameters from Earth’s surface (1)

Varies depending where measured (from surface/centre?) (1)
= 115 Moon diameters from Earth’s surface (1)
 Speculation
• Eratosthenes’s could have substituted his Earth diameter value in
• Ancients had reasonable idea of how far away moon was!
 Eclipse - Question
• We talked about lunar eclipses. So what’s a solar eclipse?
 Solar Eclipse
• Moon eclipses the Sun with its shadow (0 – 2:30)
• https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=cxrLRbkOwKs
• https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=KvY-17Sqpzo (perigee/apogee)
 A Question
Why do the Sun and moon look roughly the same size in the sky?
 Luck!
• Earth’s moon = 1/400th sun’s diameter
• But it’s 1/400th as far from us
 Luck!
• Coincidence not seen by any other planet-moon combination in solar system!
• Allows for beautiful solar eclipses!
 Aristarchus – Distance to the Sun
• Worked out a proportion 2,200 years ago
• Observed moon phases
• We’ll look at this first…
 The Moon – Review Question
What do you know so far?
 The Moon – Factfile (1)
• Diameter: 3,500km
• Half always lit due to sunlight
• Reflectivity similar to asphalt
• Line: terminator
• Tidally locked
 The Moon – Factfile (2)
• Synodic Month: 29.5 Days
• Phase-to-phase
• Observed from Earth
• Sidereal Month: 27.3 Days
• Tilted orbit (about 5o)
 Sidenote: The Moon – Theory of Birth
• Mars-sized body called ‘Theia’ collided with the young Earth
• Ejected debris = Moon https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Jf628Bugy_I_
Sidenote: The Moon – Theory of Birth
 Cosmology
• This is a question of Cosmology
• The science of the origin, development and fate of the universe
 The Moon - Question
Explain the phases of the moon (review from lower Matthayom?)
 Times
• 6am: Sunrise
• Noon: Sun overhead
• 6pm: Sunset
• Midnight: Furthest from sun
New Moon
1. Describe its alignment
2. What do we see?
3. ‘When’ do we see it?
New Moon
• Between Earth and Sun
• Illuminated side faces away
• Matches sunrise/sunset
• ‘Stays near sun’
After New Moon
• Wait a few days:
1. Describe its alignment
2. What do we see?
3. ‘When’ do we see it?
Waxing (Growing) Crescent
• See a little illumination
• Rises (little) after sunrise
• Easy to see: just after sunset
•
After Waxing Crescent
• Wait a few days:
1. Describe its alignment
2. What do we see?
3. ‘When’ do we see it?
First Quarter Moon
• ‘Half-illuminated’
• Terminator cuts middle
• ‘Rises’ at noon
• ‘Down at midnight’
After First Quarter Moon
• Wait a few days:
1. Describe its alignment
2. What do we see?
3. ‘When’ do we see it?
Waxing (Growing) Gibbous
• More than half-full
• Rises late afternoon
• ‘Fades’ very early morning
After Waxing (Growing) Gibbous
• Wait a few days:
1. Describe its alignment
2. What do we see?
3. ‘When’ do we see it?
Full Moon
• Earth between moon/sun
• Rises sunset
• Sets sunrise
• Fully illuminated
After Full Moon
• Can you explain the rest?
Waning (Shrinking)
• Waning Gibbous
• Third Quarter
• Waning Crescent
• Back to New Moon
•29.5 days from start
 Exam Question - Checkpoint
Explain the phases of the moon, in terms of:
◦ Position relative to Earth and Sun
◦ What we see from Earth
◦ What is visible
◦ When is it visible

(12 marks)
 Possible points for your answer
• Synodic Month: 29.5 Days (1) for phases observed from Earth to restart (1)
• Half of moon always illuminated (1) But we see things relative to observation Earth (1)
•New Moon: between Earth and Sun (1) Solar eclipse if co-planar (1) Unlikely due to tilt (1) Rises and sets with sun
(1) Illuminated side faces sun (1)
• Waxing Crescent: Small slither illuminated by sun (1) Rises jut after sunrise (1) Goes just after sunset (1) Most of
illuminated side facing sun (1)
• First Quarter Moon: Terminator divides moon ‘in half’ (1) Rises mid-day/Goes midnight (1) We see half of moon’s
illuminated side (1)
• Waxing gibbous: We see most of moon’s illuminated side (1)
• Full Moon: We see 100% of moon’s illuminated side (1) due to Earth being between it and the sun (1) Rises at
6pm (1) Goes at 6am (1)
• Waning = Fading (1) These steps ‘reverse’ (1)
 Exam Question - Checkpoint
Describe lunar and solar eclipses with reference to the moons phases (6 marks)
 Possible Points for Answer
Moon’s orbit is tilted with respect to Earth (1) Full eclipses will happen when
Earth/Sun/Moon are co-planar (1) Lunar eclipse happens during full moon stage
(1) when Earth is between Sun and moon (1) Earth’s shadow blocks moon (1) Solar
eclipses happen when Moon is between Earth and Sun (1) Moon blocks sun (1)
More marks, mention:
• Umbra
• Penumbra
• Totality
• Total/partial eclipses
Aristarchus – Distance to the Sun
Focused on these phases
 Aristarchus - Distance to the Sun
• 6pm: Sun on Horizon
• Half-illuminated moon appears ‘above’
 Aristarchus - Distance to the Sun
• Form a right-angled triangle
• Using simple trig: cosE =
 Aristarchus - Distance to the Sun
• Measured angle E – (Sticks/triquetrum/guessed/other)
• His estimate ≈ 87o
 Aristarchus’s Proportion
• cos87 = ≈
• Interpret this answer
 Aristarchus - Distance to the Sun
•
• Sun: 19 times further away than the moon
• It’s actually 400 times!
 Exam Question - Checkpoint
How did Aristarchus calculate the distance to the Sun. Explain why
his value was so far off, and whether it was accurate (7 marks)
 Possible Points for Answer
Looked at first/last quarter moon (1) terminator divides moon in half (1) Right
angle is formed relative to Sun (1) Calculated angle MES (Moon-Earth-Sun) (1)
His value was roughly (1) Unknown how he calculated this but possibly sticks in
the ground or triquetrum (1) Used equivalent of trig cosE = to find that ds =
19dm (1) Calculated value extremely sensitive to measured angle (1) His method
would not be accurate enough to get close (1) Considering the times, this was
very accurate (1)
 Scale Model?
• If he had calculated his distances in terms of Earth diameters..
• He could have began a scale model of the solar system…
 Modern Measurement
• Gives angle of 89.85o
• Hence, ds ≈ 400 dm
 Modern Measurements
• Many are refinements of Ancient Greek methods!
• Godefroy Wendelin calculated ds = 220 dm in 1630
• Same method, better instruments!

1580 –1667
 Size of Sun Estimation
• How did Aristarchus estimate the size of the sun? (3 marks)
 Aristarchus – Size of Sun Estimation
• During total solar eclipse, angular diameter of sun and moon equal
• If sun is x19 distance to the moon
• Sun must be ≈ x19 bigger than the moon
 Astronomical Distances (up to ≈1600s)
• For centuries, astronomers refined the methods of Aristarchus
• Notable astronomers: Hipparchus, Posidonius, Ptolemy, Wendelin
• Gave differing answers
 Astronomical Distances - Perspective
• Often measured in terms of ‘Earth diameters’ or ‘moon diameters etc.
• Seems strange, but we do this all the time (1 day = 1 Earth day)
 Measurements Sidenote
What’s the smallest thing the human eye can see?
 The Human Eye
Objects with a diameter of 0.1mm
 Tangent - A Favourite Quote of ‘Intellectuals’
“Imperial units are useless”
Examples:
• Ounce
• Feet
• Inch
• Pint
• Pound
Tangent – Countries not using the Metric System

• USA
• Liberia
• Myanmar
 Tangent - Imperial Units - Achievements
• USA – Moon Landing
• Victorian Britain – Engineering Powerhouse!
Tangent - Imperial Units – Everyday Use
• “The weight of a grown man”
• “A day’s worth of food”
• “The length of three football pitches”
• “Width of three candy bars”
 Conclusion
• Metric - calculations
• Imperial – visuals
 Case in Point - The Human Eye
What’s the smallest thing it can see?
 Case in Point - The Human Eye
• About the width of a human hair