Chemical Bonding

MATTER

A molecule is an
aggregate of atoms that
possesses distinctive
observable properties.
Valence electrons (VE)
Electrons occopy the outermost filled shell Æ extremely important!!

ƒ complete shell Æ stable electron configuration

ƒ un-complete shell Æ un-stable configuration (reactive)

Gaining or losing electrons to reach stable electron

configuration (nobble gas)

Atomic bonding

9 Electropositive elements Æ tends to lose its

electrons
9 Electronegative elements Æ tends to gain
electrons
 Lewis symbol and the octet rule
Electron-dot symbols (Lewis symbols):
• convenient representation of valence electrons
• allows you to keep track of valence electrons during bond
formation
• consists of the chemical symbol for the element plus
a dot for each valence electron

Sulfur
Electron configuration is [Ne]3s23p4, thus
there are six valence electrons. Its Lewis
symbol would therefore be:
Lewis symbol and the octet rule
Because all noble gasses (except He) have filled s and p
valence orbitals (8 electrons), many atoms undergoing
reactions also end up with 8 valence electrons. This
observation has led to the Octet Rule:

Atoms tend to lose, gain, or share electrons until they

are surrounded by 8 valence electrons

Note: there are many exceptions to the octet rule (He and
H, for example), but it provides a useful model for
understanding the basis of chemical bonding.
Lewis symbol and the octet rule
INTER-ATOMIC BONDING

bonding length

bonding energy

The properties of material strongly depends on

Eo and the shape of energy vs distance curve

High Eo value Æ high melting point

At room temperature; Eo > Æ solids, Eo < Æ gases, Eo intermediete Æ liquids

kkal/mole (kJ/mole)
ATOMIC BONDING TYPES

Primary bonds Æ chemical bonds

Æ stabil valence electron configuration
• Ionic bonding
• Covalent bonding
• Metallic bonding

Secondary bonds Æ physical forces

• Permanent dipoles bonding (polar molecules)
• Hydrogen bonding
• Polar molecule-induced dipole bonding
• London dispersion forces (instantaneous dispersion dipoles)
ELECTRONEGATIVITY
A measure of tendency of an atom to attract a bonding pair of
electrons in a chemical bonding Æ Pauling scale
How electronegativity can explain atomic bonds

1. Two elements having the same level of electronegativity

Pure covalent bonds (Cl2, F2, O2)

2. Two elements having a slight difference in electronegativy

Covalent polar bonds

3. Two elements having a strong difference in electronegativity

Ionic bonds

Examples : Compare CCl4 and CHCl3

Compare All3 dan AlF3
PRIMARY BONDS
IONIC BONDING
A stable configuration electron is reached by giving up or receiving electrons

A large difference in electronegativity

Na+ Cl- Na+ Cl- Na+

Na Æ 1e− + Na+ (Ne structure)
Cl + 1e− Æ Cl− (Ar structure)
Cl- Na+ Cl- Na+ Cl-

General material properties: Attractive force Æcoulomb

• Non-directional bond (3 dimensional bonding)
• High bonding energy (600-1500 kJ/mol)
• High melting point
• Hard and brittle
• Thermally and electrically insulative (solid phase)
• Thermal and electrical conductor (liquid phase)
Ionic bonding in solids

Bilangan Perbandingan jari-jari Unit cell

koordinasi (CN) atom
3 0,155 – 0,225 Segitiga sama sisi (trigonal)

4 0,225 – 0,414 Bidang 4 teratur (tetrahedral)

6 0,414 – 0,731 Bidang 8 teratur (octahedral)

8 0,731 - 1 Kubus (cubic)

Example : NaCl
ionic Na + radius
-
= 0,54
ionic Cl radius
Ionic solids (2)
• To have a stable electrical charge
• Σ ionic bonding strength + anion charge = 0
• Ionic bonding strength (IBS) = cation valence / CN

Example: Bonds bewteen Si and O in glass material

Si/O radius ratio = 0.29 Æ tetrahedral (CN = 4)

Valence electron of Si = 4 Æ IBS of Si = 4/4=1
Electrical charge of O = -2

Therefore, in a stable structure:

Si is surrounded by 4 O, O encircled by 2 Si
COVALENT BONDING
A stable electron configuration is reached by valence electron sharing
(indentical element or between element having slight ectronegativity different)

Example: HCl Cl2

H
Cl

Cl Cl
General material properties:
• Directional bonds
• Bonding energy varies (diamond to polymers)
• Melting point varies (diamond:~3600C, Hg:−39C)
• Thermal and electrical insulator
Ionic character

A B

{ }
% ionic character = 1 − exp ⎣⎡ −0.25 ⋅ ( X A − X B ) 2 ⎤⎦ × 100

XA = electronegativity of element A (the most)

XB = electronegativity of element B

The larger the difference in electronegativity, the more ”ionic” a bonding becomes
METALLIC BONDING

Valence electrons freely move throughout the entire metal to form a dynamic
”electron cloud” as a ’glue’
Æ Among elements from group 1 (IA), 2 (IIA), 3 (IIIA) in the periodic table

+ + + Movable electron cloud

- -
+ + +
- -
+ + +
Ion cores
General material properties:
• Non-directional bonding
• Bonding energy varies (68 kJ/mole for Hg – 850 kJ/mol for W)
• Melting point varies
• Thermal and electrical conductors
• Ductile
• Mechanically strong
SECONDARY BONDS
PERMANENT DIPOLES INTERACTIONS

Interaction between elements having permanent dipoles (polar molecules)

δ+ δ- δ+ δ-
Hydrochloric acid
Molecule A Molecule B
HYDROGEN BONDING

Example: Water molecules Bonds between molecules due to an

electrostatic force between hydrogen
atoms of one molecule and other atoms of
the other molecules that have high level of
elektronegativity (O, N, F)

Hydrogen bonding
The energy bonding increases with
the number of hydrogen bondings.
POLAR MOLECULE-INDUCED DIPOLES BONDING

δ+ δ- δ+ δ-

Permanent dipole Induced dipole

(polar molecules) (non-polar molecules)

H O H Cl Cl
δ+ δ- δ+ δ- δ+
LONDON DISPERSION FORCES
Attractions between temporarily induced dipoles in non polar molecules
due to repulsion of negatively charged electron clouds.

δ+ δ- δ+ δ-

Instantaneous dipole Induced dipole

(non-polar molecules) (non-polar molecules)

Cl Cl Cl Cl
δ- δ+ δ- δ+

The bonding energy is considered to be the weakest among atomic

bonding types.