Eng/ abdelghafar mohamed abdelghafar

A.M solar company

‫للتدريب الهندسى فى مجال الخاليا الشمسية والتحكم االلى‬-1
‫للتوريدات الكهربية وخاصة فى مجال الخاليا الشمسية‬-2
)chint ,schnider ,ABB( ‫تصنيع لوحات كهربية‬-3

Lecture(1)
"pv book"
E-mail:
https://www.facebook.com/AM -solar-company-162264987704067/
Abdgelghafar_mohamed@yahoo.com
www.linkedin.com/in/abdelghafar -mohamed -46915511a
Mobile: 01123423555
 History
7th century BC: The Greeks and Romans used the concave mirrors to collect the rays of the sun and
focus on the point of the generation of the temperature of a large and they set fire to this way
18th century: The Swiss scientist Horace de Saussure was credited with building the first actual solar
collector technology that was later used by John Herschel to cook during his visit to South Africa.
In1893: The French scientist Edmond Becquerel (when a19-year-old) discovered the photovoltaic
effect through his experiments on the electrolysis cell, where he observed an increase in the amount of
current when the cell was exposed to light.
In1860: French mathematician August Mouchet proposed the idea of running thermal motors through
solar energy because he realized that coal would not last long.
In1876: Adams and Day were the first to study the photovoltaic effect in solids, there were able to
build cells made of selenium that were 1%to2%efficient
In1887: Scientist Heinrich Hertz discovered phenomenon of light emission
In 1905: famous physicist Albert Einstein published his paper on photoelectric effect
In 1918: the Polish scientist Jan Czochralski developed the use of silicon crystal technology in the field
of solar energy
In1954: The United States of America saw the development of the first silicon solar cell by Darrell
Chapin, Calvin Fuller, and Gerald Pearson, while it was 4% efficient, but quickly developed to 11%.
In 1958: NASA was used as a solar cell in The Vanguard satellite had a capacity of 1 kW
In1968: The first solar power plant in Italy was conducted by Professor Giovanni Francia its
capacity1MW

Introduction
Solar energy is considered one of the most important new and renewable energies, which has been
rapidly gaining popularity both at the global and local levels because of the many advantages that
distinguish it from the sources of other energies. Solar energy has been used in many thermal and
electrical applications.
Renewable energy from sun called photovoltaic or solar energy
The term" photovoltaic "comes from the Greek φῶς (phōs) meaning" light ,"and" voltaic ,"meaning
electric, from the name of the Italian physicist Volta, after whom a unit of electro-motive force, the
Volt, is named.
The term "solar" comes from the French (soleil) meaning "sun"

Sun radiation

The irradiance intensity of the sun radiation in one day always changes and fluctuates
The sun beam falling on the unit of spaces of the atmosphere with a vertical angle
equal to 1366w/m2 is called "solar constant"
Atmospheric effects: solar radiation is absorbed, scattered and reflected by components of the
atmosphere we classify it in two categories
Diffuse radiation: radiation that is scattered by the atmosphere and clouds
Direct radiation: radiation from the sun that reached to the earth without scattering
Radiation coming from the sun when passing through the atmosphere has three cases:
1- Diffraction
2- Reflection
3- Absorption

The total radiation yield after the effect of atmosphere, reflection and radiation resistance is called
Global radiation
As we see from the figure, the amount of solar radiation absorbed or reflected from the atmosphere is
constant throughout the day
As we see that the maximum intensity of the sunbeam is at the time of the afternoon so that it increases
from 6 am to 12 pm and then begin to decrease the sunset 6pm
The basis of the work of solar cells, which is judged by their performance is the intensity of solar
radiation and thus the efficient operation of the solar cell system and consequently vary the efficient
operation of the system separation of the separation and place to place depending on solar radiation

Spectrum of solar radiation

Solar cells deal with the spectrum of visible radiation as shown in the figure and also inferred the
proportion of infrared radiation on the systems of solar cells, but it is useful in the case of solar heaters
because they work in this region
Annual sun radiation
 Principle operation of solar cell

1-Solar cells often consist of a silicon element which is a semiconductor material

and is the most abundant element in nature, so why silicon??
- At absolute zero temperature, silicon is a perfect electrical insulator. There are no free
electrons as in the case of insulators.
- At high temperatures (or if energy is gained by photons), some bonds are broken and
conduction can occur by two processes:
1.Electrons from broken bonds are free to move (movement of electrons).
2.Electrons from neighboring bonds can also move into the ‘hole’ created in the
broken bond (movement of holes)
- As the temperature
increases, more electrons
become free, and thus,
conductivity increases.
However, the conductivity
of pure silicon at normal
temperatures is still very
low.

2- In order to increase the conductivity of intrinsic semiconductors, controlled quantities of specific

impurity ions are added to the intrinsic semiconductor to produce doped (extrinsic) semiconductors

-The p-n junction: The rejoin in the solar cell where the n-type and p-type Si layers' meet is called
the p-n junction.
- Phosphorus has five valence electrons when is doped with a Si, produces a (negative) n-type,
with extra electron which can be dislodged easily.
-Aluminum, boron, indium and gallium have only three valence electrons, and so a semiconductor
doped with them is (positive)p-type The p-type Si layer contains more positive charges, called
holes, and the n-type Si layer contains more negative charges, or electrons. When p-type and n-
type materials are placed contact with each other, current will flow readily in one direction
 (forward biased). Depletion zone is forming and does not contain any mobile positive or negative
charges and keeps other charges from the p and n – type layers from moving across it.

3- Energy from photon:

A photon can be characterized by:
its wavelength, λ (m)--frequency υ (Hz)- its energy, Eph (J)
where (c is the speed of light = 3×108 m/s, h is Plank’s constant = 6.626 × 10−34 J.s)

𝐸𝑝ℎ = ℎ𝜐 = ℎ𝑐 𝜆

𝑐 = 𝜐𝜆

4- Electrons are released from n-type (valence band) to p-type (conduction band) through band
gap (forbidden band) by energy from photons but it will occur according three conditions:
- If Eph < Eg, the photon interacts only weakly with the semiconductor, passing through it as if
it were transparent and no free carriers will be generated.
- If Eph = Eg, the photon just enough energy to create an electron hole pair and is efficiently
absorbed.
- If Eph > Eg, the photon with energy greater than the band gap is strongly absorbed.
However, for photovoltaic applications, the photon energy greater than the band gap is wasted as
electrons quickly thermalize back down to the conduction band edges.

Silicon = 1.12 ev
Cdte=1.5 ev
GaAs=1.424 ev
e.v=1.6*10-19 J
 How to make solar cells

First stage: Silicon extraction from Quartz Sand

Silicon is extracted from (sio2) sand in high temperature furnaces up to 2000 degrees Celsius in the
presence of carbon

Sio2+c si + co2

The silicon becomes a flammable liquid and then it is cooled through cold water to become solid
blocks. The silicon crystals are assembled and added to the chemical materials and placed in the
ovens to improve the properties of the silicon and purify the impurities to get a solid mass of pure
silicon

Second stage: Development of silicon crystallization and cutting into silicone chips
The solid silicon block is cut into 0.2 mm-0.4 mm steel fillets. The cutting process is done in two
stages.
The first step: is to cut the large steel block into solid pieces with less size then
the second step: is to insert the solid pieces only with hundreds of sharp knives to reduce the cut
thickness Solid Silicon

Third stage: Transform silicon chips into silicone cells

The silicon chips are cleaned from impurities and then inserted into Diffusion oven to form a n-type
layer. The composition process passes Carrier gas in the form of bubbles through POCL3, mixed with a
small amount of oxygen and passed from a furnace tube to circulate at about 900 ° C Where the cell
chips are sprayed and a layer of oxide is applied to the cell surfaces where the phosphorus penetrates
inside the silicon with a thickness of 0.02 μm and the propagation process continues within the oven for
20 minutes.

Diffusing oven using quartz tube

A layer of P + on the back of the cell is then formed by placing an aluminum layer as an electron
acquirer and producing a high P-type deformation zone that is used simultaneously to reduce grid
adhesion This process helps to remove the n-type layer. The aluminum layer is usually placed in a
Screen Printing mode at a temperature of about 800 ° C
This is known as Vacuum Evaporation where the metal (silver) is heated inside the furnace to the point
of fusion and vaporized through the metal mask to stick to any cool surface corresponding to the cell.
From The process of gluing the metal mesh to the silicon is done by placing a layer of titanium which
has great adhesion to silicon and then a layer of Palladium which prevents the interaction between
silver and titanium layer and all this stage at a temperature of 500 to 600 degrees Celsius, and then put
a thin layer of Antireflection Coating in the same vacuum evaporation stage
Fourth stage: Connect the solar cells and assemble them into a model
 General form of solar cell

Glass: It manufactures solar panels of high quality glass Alsekorit (Toning heat) just like auto glass.?
And force carries up to six times the normal strength glass.? And the advantage of using her hardened
glass in solar panels is to help withstand the impact of the cold and wind loads and snow? when broken
glass Toning broken into small pieces harmless, rather than big with sharp blades cut like ordinary
glass.? cheap types of solar panels produced by small companies using ordinary glass which is not
borne by weather factors that as well as causing the decline in the productivity of panels energy with
needful passage.

Eva: It is a transparent plastic sheet made of ethylene vinyl acetate which is to protect the cell from
ultraviolet radiation and other weather factors to increase the life of the cell

Back sheet: It is a panel of TPT material, a material to protect the solar cells from breakage
and at the same time material with strong electrical and thermal insulation

Frame: An aluminum frame is an aluminum angle made in the form of a frame to protect solar cells
Junction box: it consists of blocking diode and by pass diode for protection
Ideal equivalent circuit of solar cell:(1000w/m2 - 25c)

The I-V relation of a solar cell is:

𝐼 = 𝐼𝐿 − 𝐼𝑑

𝐼 = 𝐼𝐿 − 𝐼𝑜 exp (𝑞𝑉 𝑛𝑘𝑇)

where IL is the light generated current

Io is the reverse saturation current of the p-n junction
q is the electron charge (1.602 × 10−19 C)
k is Boltzmann’s constant (1.381 × 10−23 J/ K)
T is the junction temperature (K).
n is the ideality factor of the cell which is a measure of the junction quality and the type of
recombination (n = 1 or 2)
dc output of cell =0.52-0.6volt

to obtain pv curve doing following test:

1-make output short circuit:
The short-circuit current is the maximum current flowing from the solar cell

𝐼𝑠𝑐 = 𝐼𝐿
2-make output open circuit:
The open-circuit voltage, VOC, is the maximum voltage available from a solar cell
The open circuit voltage increases as the bandgap energy increases.

0 = 𝐼𝐿 − 𝐼𝑜 exp(𝑞𝑉𝑜𝑐 𝑛𝑘𝑇−1 )

∴ 𝑉𝑜𝑐=𝑛𝑘𝑇/𝑞 ln (𝐼𝐿/ 𝐼𝑜+1)

3-vary load and measure current and voltage in each step

i-V curve for the Solar Cell

The output power of the solar cell is obtained by:

𝑃 = 𝑉𝐼

The maximum power that can be obtained from the cell is called the maximum power
point (MPP) and is given at a specific voltage VM and current IM.

𝑃𝑀 = 𝑉𝑀𝐼𝑀

is maximum
power point is of great
importance for the
operation of PV systems
because the control
system is designed to
track this point under
different operating
conditions to maximize
the output from the PV
system
The Fill Factor: Graphically, the
FF is a measure of the "squareness"
of the solar cell, which is an
indication of the quality of the cell
(the higher the FF the better is the
cell quality).
Good PV cells have a FF more than
0.8

The Cell Efficiency: The cell

efficiency is the most commonly
used parameter to compare the
performance of one solar cell to
another.
- Efficiency is defined as the ratio of the maximum output power from the solar cell to
the input power from the sun.

𝜂 =𝑃𝑀/ 𝑃𝑖𝑛=𝑉𝑀 ×𝐼𝑀 /𝐺𝑔 ×𝐴

where Gg is the global irradiance on the cell and A is the area of the cell
- The efficiency depends on the spectrum and intensity of the incident sunlight and the
temperature of the solar cell.
Actual Model Resistances

`𝐼 = 𝐼𝐿 – 𝐼𝑜 [ exp((𝑞( 𝑉 +𝐼𝑅𝑠)/ 𝑛𝑘𝑇)−1] –(𝑉 +𝐼𝑅)

Impact of Changing Irradiance:
The irradiance incident
on a solar cell is also called
the number of suns, where
1 sun corresponds to 1
kW/m2.
The output power of the
cell decreases as the
irradiance decreases due
to the decrease in the light
generated current.
The short circuit current
is directly proportional to
the irradiance due to the
direct relation between the
light generated current and
the irradiance. Thus, when
irradiance decrease the short circuit current decreases. 𝐼𝑠𝑐 = 𝐼𝐿
The open circuit voltage is slightly affected as the irradiance changes. This is due to
the logarithmic relation between Voc and IL

∴ 𝑉𝑜𝑐=𝑛𝑘𝑇/𝑞 ln (𝐼𝐿/ 𝐼𝑜+1)

 The open circuit voltage decreases as the irradiance decreases because the photo
voltage is less when less carriers are generated.

Impact of Changing Temperature:

The increase in temperature of
the cell reduces the band gap of
a semiconductor.

The open-circuit voltage is

highly affected by the change in
temperature due to the
temperature dependence on the
saturation current, Io, but the
short circuit current is slightly
affected.

The output power decreases as

the temperature increases.

For crystalline silicon cells, Voc

changes by about -0.37% per oC for while Isc changes by approximately +0.05% per oC and
the PM of the cell changes by about -0.5% per ◦C.

4- Estimating the Cell Temperature:

The cell temperature is an important parameter required to assess the performance of the
PV cell, but it is difficult to be measured.
Cells vary in temperature not only because the variation in ambient temperatures, but also
because the variation in irradiance on the cell
PV cell manufacturers provide the nominal operating cell temperature, NOCT, which is the
cell temperature at an ambient temperature of 20◦C, irradiance of 0.8 kW/m2. Thus, the cell
temperature in oC at any ambient temperature (Ta) and irradiance (G) conditions can be
estimated by:

𝑇c = 𝑇𝑎 +( 𝑁𝑂𝐶𝑇 −20𝐶) × 𝐺/ 800

Noct=42-47c Windspeed>1m/s T atm=20c

5-standard test condition:

Due to the dependence of the cell parameters on the irradiance and temperature, the
rated power of a solar cell is measured under internationally specified test conditions, called
Standard Test Conditions (STC).

Standard Test Conditions refers to global irradiance of 1000 W/m2 (1 sun) incident
perpendicularly on the cell, cell temperature 25 oC and AM 1.5
Data sheet of solar cell used in our project:
Type of solar cell:
Non Organic CELL specific silicon:

Organic solar cell:

If you are in a job interview and ask how you know the positive side and the
negative side of the cell in case, there is no sign indicating that and there is no
avometer with you
1-junction box is opened
2-A negative side of the diode is the positive end of the solar cells but why and what is
function of junction box????
In order to know why we should know the performance of solar cells from non – junction box

1-first shape solar cell work without junction box and shading in any cell
2-second shape mid cell is happened shading in it so incident radiation is decrease simplify it
is waste energy, cell current is decreased, cell power decreased and efficiency of cell is
decreased
–reasons of shading: Dirt - animal droppings of trees or anything on the site- and finally an
important type is the shadow of the cells on each other

Effect of shading in solar cell performance

3-third shape cell is connected in series so current is constant but due to shading current of
first and third cell is higher than mid cell so mid cell will be load of first and third which is
dangerous why ?? mid cell became load so its temperature increase With continuous
discharge the heat increases from curve of impact of changing temperature the voltage is
decreased unit voltage became zero which is short circuit case which cause damage for cell
his effect is called HOTSPOT

We know hotspot by thermal camera

Finally, hot spot damage cell :

4-forth shape, the solution of hot spot is make parallel path for current until not discharge in
mid cell
The destructive effects of hot-spot heating may be avoided by using a bypass
diode connected in parallel with the solar cell.

Under normal operation, the bypass diode will be reverse biased (open
circuit).

If a solar cell is reverse biased due to mismatch in Isc between series

connected cells, then the bypass diode conducts.

The maximum reverse bias across the mismatched cell is reduced to

about a single diode drop, thus limiting the current and preventing hot-spot
heating

The most important causes of damage diodes (bypass diodes):

It is much exposure to shadow and then remove the shadow for repeated times. When the solar panel is
exposed to the shadow, the bypass diode works and turns its state from a reverse bias to a forward bias.
When the shadow disappears, the bypass diode becomes a reverse bias
With a lot of repetition of this situation at the same moment (because of the clouds a lot or falling
leaves of trees ...)
rise the temperature of the bypass diode because of the following:
If the power dissipation in the Reverse Bias is more than the energy wasted in the forward bias, the
temperature of the diode exceeds its normal temperatures, causing damage to the bypass diode, which
then damages some cells. This phenomenon is called thermal runaway, and this condition is not yet
included in the current global diode test, The laboratories will soon test this (thermal runaway test)
 PV Array Junction/Combiner Box
The Array Box is a junction box which allows several photovoltaic strings to be connected
in parallel
They are mostly adapted for PV power plants and photovoltaic systems in large buildings
The PV array junction box can contain the following: Array terminals and isolation
points:
1- String fuses (for protection
against over-currents)
2- Blocking diodes (they are
not widely used)
3- Surge arresters (to divert
excess transient voltage
produced from lightning or
switching to the ground)
4-The DC main
disconnect/isolator switch (to
disconnect the PV array)
5- String monitoring elements
(measurement and failure
detection

-In shading there is important case is shading cell to other cell but to understand it we need to know
1-movement of sun

2-relation between solar angle and sun angle

3-How to guide solar cells?

1-movement of sun
Sun angle:

Sun Path Diagrams:

Sun path diagrams is a relation
between the solar azimuth and
altitude at each hour of each month
of the year at a location with a
specific latitude.

Thus, sun path diagrams can

provide information about the
location of the sun at a certain site
at any time of the year.

These diagrams are also used to

predict shading patterns of objects
that can affect the PV panels
installed at the site.

To achieve this task, the altitude

and the azimuth angle of the object
2-relation between solar angle and sun angle:

3-How to guide solar cells?

If you are in the northern hemisphere, the
cells are directed towards the south
If you are in the southern hemisphere, the
cells are directed towards the north
If the cells are directed in the direction of
the East or West, production is reduced by
20%
If the cells are directed in the direction of
the south-east or south-west, the
productivity is reduced by 10%

Can make cell in direction of south by

1-compass
2-GPS
3-solar noon method
shading cell to other cell:
If we want the work of a solar
cell station and then it must
work on a specific area and
therefore we want the highest
power of this area and here the
problem arises if the cells are
stacked behind some and in
winter the angle increases the
tendency of the sun and the
shadow happens from the cells
of the first row on the next row
and follow the problem In the
rest of the rows and without
losing much of the ability to
shed the shadow that happened
to the cells and therefore the
appropriate distance is
calculated between
1-manual calculation:
-take in calculation winter sun angle for design in worst case

𝛿=90-latitude-23.5

F1.F2=L sin (180- 𝛿- 𝛽)/sin(𝛿)

d=F1.F2-F1.B1= F1.F2-L cos(𝛽)

𝛽: solar angle
𝛿: sun angle
F1.F2:front of first row to front of second row
F1.B1:front of first cell to back of cell

For example:
latitude=31.2512, solar angle =45 for worst case, length of cell =1m
1-sun angle 𝛿=90-latitude-23.5 =90-31.2512-23.5=35.2488
2- F1.F2=L sin (180- 𝛿- 𝛽)/sin(𝛿)=1*sin(180-45-35.2448)/sin(35.2448)=1.70785m
3-distance between to cell =F1.F2-Lcos(𝛽)=1.70785-1cos (45) =1m
2-online calculation (http://www.rbisolar.com/solar-shading-calc/(

c
Structure of photovoltaic:
1- Stand-alone PV systems can have different configurations depending upon
several factors, such as:
Load requirements (type of load and period of operation)
Resource availability
Reliability of the system
Cost of the system
- The configurations of stand-alone PV systems can be divided into 4 main types
Type A: Unregulated Stand-alone System
with DC Load

Type B: Regulated Stand -alone

System with DC Load

Type C: Regulated Stand -alone System

with Battery and DC Load

Type D: Regulated Stand -

alone System with Battery
and AC/DC Loads
2-Grid connection:
PV Systems can be connected to the grid in order to sell power to the electric
network.
These systems can be installed on the rooftops of houses and the facades of
buildings in the form of PV farms.
The components of grid-connected PV systems are similar to the standalone
systems (except that batteries are not necessary).
The inverter is a very important component as it interfaces the PV system with the
grid.

The ac output of a grid-connected PV system is fed into the main electrical

distribution panel of the facility.
It can provide power to the facility and put the excess power back onto the grid .
The most important device in grid connection is inverter:
To converter dc voltage from cell to ac sine wave as, most of loads are ac so it's necessary to
use inverter

Types of inv (configuration as output):

Square wave: very
sharp in increase
and decrease
voltage so it doesn’t
use as it destroys
devices

Modified square
wave: is cheap,
used in small
application

Pure sine wave:

used in most
application and choose according to frequency

How do they work?

Inverter takes low voltage high current power from a PV panel or battery and sends it
through a ‘chopping’ circuit which changes it to low voltage high current AC power at 50Hz.
The power then goes through a series of large transformers which output 220V AC power at
50Hz
Type of inverter (according to system):
1-Off grid inverter
2-Hybrid inverter

3-pumping inverter

4-On grid inverter

The grid-tied inverter has to perform
the following tasks:
Ensure the operation at the grid
frequency
Condition the output voltage and
current (sinusoidal waveform)
Control the power injected into the
grid
Islanding detection and protection
 Perform maximum power point tracking (if no DC chopper is used)
Its volume is larger than other type as has high capacity

How choose inverter?

1-efficiency
2-m.p.p.t
3-low harmonic, high pf
4-protection unit in it (over load, short circuit, over heat)
5-long life
6-power we need
7-pure sine wave
8- surge power (starting of machine)

Connection of inverter:

Centralized topology:

Configuration: a single inverter is connected to the PV array

Advantages:
1) low cost
2) ease of maintenance
3)easy for design
Disadvantages:
1) low reliability (the failure of the inverter will stop the PV system from operating)
2) power loss in the cases of modules mismatch and/or partial shading (due to the use of one
inverter for tracking the maximum power point)
 Master-slave topology:

Configuration: a number of parallel inverters are connected to the array

Advantages:
1) higher reliability as compared to centralized topology
2) higher operating efficiency (if the inverters are designed to operate according to the
irradiance level to ensure high loading of the inverter)
Disadvantages:
1) higher cost than centralized topology
2) power loss due to module mismatch and partial shading

String topology:

Configuration: each string is connected to one inverter

Advantages:
1) high reliability
2) the losses due to partial shading are reduced (each string can operate at its own maximum
power point)
3) increased flexibility in the design of the PV system (new strings can be easily added to the
system to increase its power rating)
Disadvantages:
1) increased cost (due to the increase in the number of inverters)

Multi-String topology:

Configuration: every string is connected to a DC chopper for tracking the maximum power
point and voltage amplification. All the DC Choppers are then connected to a single inverter
via a DC bus.
Advantages:
1) increases the energy output due to separate tracking of the MPP while using a central
inverter for reduced cost
2) might not need a transformer at the AC side.
Disadvantages:
1) lower reliability as compared to string topology
2) additional losses due to the DC chopper

Modular topology:

Also called "AC modules", because an inverter is embedded in each module.

Advantages:
1) reduction of losses due to partial shading
2) better monitoring for module failure
3) flexibility of array design.
Disadvantages:
1) suitable for low power ratings (up to 500W)
2) high cost
3) the lifetime of the inverter is reduced (installed in the open air with the PV module)
Design of on grid with pv syst