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Benefits of the induced polarization geoelectric method to hydrocarbon exploration

Article  in  Geophysics · March 2009

DOI: 10.1190/1.3076607

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GEOPHYSICS, VOL. 74, NO. 2 共MARCH-APRIL 2009兲; P. 1–XXXX, 15 FIGS.

10.1190/1.3076607

1 Benefits of the induced polarization geoelectric method to hydrocarbon

2 exploration

3 Paul C. H. Veeken1, Peter J. Legeydo2, Yuri A. Davidenko2, Elena O. Kudryavceva2,

4 Sergei A. Ivanov2, and A. Chuvaev3

6 ABSTRACT wave energy. Geoelectric surveying visualizes anomalies in elec- 23

tric potential difference measured between receiver electrodes. 24
7 Delineation of hydrocarbon prospective areas is an important The differentially normalized method 共DNME兲 inverts the regis- 25
8 issue in petroleum exploration. The geoelectric method helps to tered decay in potential differences, establishing a depth model 26
9 identify attractive areas and reduces the overall drilling risk. For constrained by seismic and petrophysical data. Diagnostic geo- 27
10 this purpose, we mapped induced polarization 共IP兲 effects caused electric attributes are proposed, giving a better grip on charge- 28
11 by the presence of epigenetic pyrite microcrystals in sedimentary ability and resistivity distribution. Acquisition and processing 29
12 rocks. These crystals occur in a shallow halo-shaped mineralogi- parameters are adjusted to the target depth. Encouraging results 30
13 cal alteration zone, assumed to overlie a deeper-seated hydrocar- are obtained in deeper 共⬍300 m兲 as well as in very shallow wa- 31
14 bon accumulation. Local enrichment in pyrite results from reduc- ter. Onshore, a grounded current transmitter is used. Geoelectric 32
15 ing geochemical conditions below an impermeable layer. The surveys cover different geologic settings with varying target 33
16 imperfect top seal of the accumulation permits minor amounts of depths. The success ratio for predicting hydrocarbon occurrences 34
17 hydrocarbons to escape and migrate through the overlying rocks is high. So far, 40 successful wells have been drilled in Russia on 35
18 to shallower levels. During migration, hydrocarbons encounter mapped geoelectric anomalies. Out of 126 wells, the method pro- 36
19 an impermeable barrier, forming an alteration zone. Induced po- duced satisfactory results in all but two cases. The technique re- 37
20 larization logging and coring in wells confirm this working mod- duces the risk attached to new hydrocarbon prospects and allows 38
21 el. Geoelectric data are acquired even in very shallow water, better ranking at a reasonable cost. 39
22 where some electromagnetic methods might be hampered by air-

40
41 INTRODUCTION and Morrison, 1973; Allaud and Martin, 1977; Oehler and Stern- 51
berg, 1984; Sternberg, 1991兲. The IP effect is captured and evaluated 52
42 Electrical methods initially encountered some problems in identi- by relatively new electromagnetic attributes. Under the right cir- 53
43 fication and delineation of hydrocarbon-containing reservoirs. In- cumstances, e.g., seal/reservoir leakage, as will be shown later, these 54
44 vestigations, based on electromagnetic diffusion, can be carried out attributes will help to solve some problems encountered in proper 55
45 to delineate hydrocarbon reservoirs only when the contrast between evaluation of the subsurface. We present two case histories from the 56
46 the regional resistivity and that of the reservoir is sufficiently high. If Russian Federation, which illustrate very encouraging results. 57
47 not high enough, unwanted ambiguities will result in the analysis. Schlumberger described the IP effect in 1920. The nature of the 58
48 Geophysicists soon realized the importance of the induced polariza- phenomenon is rather complex and still not understood completely 59
49 tion 共IP兲 effect and made serious attempts to characterize hydrocar- after nearly 90 years. Nevertheless, IP well logging has become a 60
50 bon accumulations by electrical methods 共e.g., Seigel, 1974; Dey valid option today 共e.g., Davydycheva et al., 2006兲. 61

Manuscript received by the Editor 7 August 2007; revised manuscript received 23 July 2008.
1
Wintershall Russia, Moscow, Russia. E-mail: pveeken@hotmail.com.
2
SGRDC Llc, Irkutsk, Russia. E-mail: dnme@sgp.irkutsk.ru; ydavidenko@hotmail.com; ekudryavceva@hotmail.com; sivanov@hotmail.com.
3
Lukbeloil Ltd, Saratov, Russia. E-mail: lukbeloil@overta.ru.
© 2009 Society of Exploration Geophysicists. All rights reserved.

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2 Veeken et al.

62 There are three main causes for the IP effect 共Olhoeft, 1985兲: From its deployment for mineral reconnaissance in the 1950s and 115
1960s 共Seigel et al., 2007兲, substantial progress in geoelectric sur- 116
63 • Some sort of electrochemical processes at the interface of metal- veying was made in the 1990s with direct application for hydrocar- 117
64 lic minerals, such as pyrite or magnetite, and the pore fluid. These bon exploration. Commercial acquisition started in Russia about 118
65 processes often are exploited to reveal the presence of ore depos- 10 years ago. In other countries, the electromagnetic method has 119
66 its 共Mikhailov et al., 1973兲. made great advances in solving specific exploration and production 120
67 • Exchange reactions in clay and shaley sands 共Klein and Sill, problems 共He et al., 2007兲. Different geologic settings are covered 121
68 1982; Ulrich and Slater, 2004兲. These prove very useful in hydro- by the investigations, and the results look very encouraging. 122
69 geologic applications 共Komarov, 1980; Slater and Glaser, 2003兲. Data were acquired in the Arctic region, Siberia, Caucasus, Tatar- 123
70 • Reactions involving organic materials. stan, China, the Baltic Sea, and the Caspian Sea 共⬍300-m water 124
depth兲. Out of 126 wells in Russia, when the geoelectric behavior at 125
71 Pirson 共1982兲 assumes that during the migration of hydrocarbons,
the surface was analyzed, only two wells contradicted the prediction 126
72 the mineralized pore water changes its chemical composition and ac-
made by the method. A relation between the measured anomaly and 127
73 quires alkaline properties. Thus, a reduction zone appears in the area
presence of micropyrite crystals is evident. A direct link to the pres- 128
74 above oil or gas reservoirs that are characterized by a remarkable in-
ence of commercial hydrocarbons is not proved in all cases, but this 129
75 creased intensity of electrochemical reactions. Many authors pro-
still represents a useful working hypothesis to be verified on a case- 130
76 pose empirical models for describing the IP effect, e.g., the Cole-
to-case basis. Given its high prediction value, the geoelectric meth- 131
77 Cole model, Dias model, Debye model, Warburg model, Davidson-
od warrants the keen attention of geoscientists around the world. 132
78 Cole model, and Wait model. All models imply a complex electric
Unfortunately, sophisticated investigation methods are required 133
79 conductivity depending on frequency, particularly at low frequen-
when the difficult problem of finding hydrocarbons must be ad- 134
80 cies from 0.1 through 1000 Hz.
dressed. Recently, the geochemical and geoelectric methods have 135
81 The empirical model for electric conductivity, proposed by Cole
proved very effective in this context. The geochemical “sniffing” 136
82 and Cole 共1941兲, was applied by Pelton et al. 共1978兲 to the IP effect:
method exploits subtle but measurable effects of leaking hydrocar- 137

冉 冊
bons to the surface 共cf. Veeken, 2007兲. These techniques are basical- 138
␩
␴ 共i␻ 兲 ⳱ ␴ ⬁ 1 ⳮ , 共1兲 ly complementary; both add substantial value to the hydrocarbon ex- 139
83 1 Ⳮ 共i␻ ␶ 兲c ploration chain. 140
Geoelectric investigations represent a convenient and cost-effec- 141
84 where ␴ ⬁ is conductivity 共⳱1/resistivity兲 at infinity frequency; ␩ is tive methodology. Three major issues play a role in determining the 142
85 the IP coefficient, also known as the intrinsic chargeability of sedi- efficiency of geoelectric studies: 共1兲 signal-to-noise ratio; 共2兲 effects 143
86 mentary rocks; ␶ is the time decay constant of the IP potential; and c of 3D geobodies, although modeling usually is done in 2D sections; 144
87 is the relaxation constant. Usually, c ranges from zero through one, and 共3兲 separation of IP from other electromagnetic coupling effects. 145
88 but the constant for sedimentary rocks does not exceed 0.1. The time The methodology described here ensures a good signal-to-noise 146
89 decay constant varies in the range of seconds and dozens of seconds ratio in all working environments. The proposed time-domain tech- 147
90 in the presence of electro-conductive rocks 共ore deposits, basalts兲. nology is robust with good repeatability of results. This is enhanced 148
91 However, for ionic-conductive rocks, it usually does not exceed a by conscientious data conditioning and the application of a sensitive 149
92 few tenths of a second 共Komarov, 1980兲. Omega is the circular fre- inversion scheme to interpret results. Consistency of the line inter- 150
93 quency, and i is the imaginary number 冑ⳮ 1. sections is high, and an increased integrity of the data set is ensured. 151
94 An alternating low-frequency electromagnetic field spreads into Moreover, the acquisition of control segments 共resurveying兲 will 152
95 the formation because of the electromagnetic and IP effects. This oc- augment the degree of confidence for the reliability of geoelectric 153
96 curs not only because of diffusion currents, described by the real part field measurements. 154
97 of the conductivity model, but also via currents stemming from IP.
98 Thus, because of the IP effect, polarized beds behave similarly to a
99 giant condenser. They accumulate electric potential energy when the GEOELECTRIC SURVEYING 155
100 energizing current is turned on, and then slowly release it again dur-
101 ing the turnoff time. This is why the electric field decay time after the In geoelectric surveying, the response of the subsurface is studied 156
102 current shuts down is much slower in polarizable media than in non- with the help of an electrical transmitter-receiver setup. An axial di- 157
103 polarizable media 共Dey and Morrison, 1973兲. Displacement currents pole-dipole configuration is deployed for that purpose 共Leygeydo et 158
104 appear for only very high frequencies. Most IP effects are caused by al., 1990; Mandelbaum et al., 2002兲. Figure 1 shows the basic acqui- 159
105 distortion of double-charged layers or chemical reactions 共at least sition layout of a marine geoelectric survey and illustrates the main 160
106 for decays during multisecond time lengths, according to a review- parameters that are recorded. A high-amperage current 共with a pow- 161
107 er兲. er of 140 kW as high as 400–500 A兲 is introduced into the earth via 162
108 When measuring potential differences in the field, this slowly de- two input electrodes A and B, which typically are situated 163
109 caying behavior can be observed directly. Long time constant decays 200–500 m apart. The receiver assembly 共X1-X7兲 is positioned 164
110 often are observed over highly polarizable targets. The response ap- 1–3 km behind the input electrodes A and B along the measured tra- 165
111 pears to be related to the depth and properties of the responding beds. jectory. The subhorizontal input electrodes are normally positioned 166
112 Therefore, the ability of an electric survey to image formation prop- 1–2 m below the water surface. The receiver cable is towed some- 167
113 erties using a low-frequency pulse current is far greater than tradi- what closer to the surface. The speed of the assembly in the water 168
114 tionally thought possible 共e.g., Nedra, 1989兲. helps to prevent negative effects of gas release when the strong cur- 169

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Geoelectrics and HC exploration 3

170 rent is put into the water column. Several potential differences are curve; this is not exploited in the DNME method. Proper forward 230
171 monitored in time during the subsequent switch-off stage of the elec- modeling ensures that the airwave energy is adequately taken care 231
172 tric current. A more detailed description of the physical and electro- of. 232
173 magnetic processes, when a layered medium conducts an electric The direct task solution takes into account all factors of influence, 233
174 current, is given by Davydycheva et al. 共2006兲, who also provide a including airwave energy. The basic calculation in case of a layered 234
175 concise overview of the differentially normalized electromagnetic medium is given by Vanyan 共1965兲. The Maxwell equations incor- 235
176 method 共DNME兲. porate the airwave effect. It also is taken into account when doing the 236
177 The polarity of the electric current is changed before the next mea- Cole-Cole modeling. The switch-off response and digital ADC fil- 237
178 surement cycle is started. The current is transmitted during a 4-s time tering are not ideal, however, and a 10-ms delay is implemented, 238
179 period and then turned off for 4 s. During this turnoff phase, the de- starting from the transmitter turning-off point. Reduction of the in- 239
180 cay of the potential difference in the receiver electrodes is recorded fluence of airwave energy is obtained by 共1兲 proper data condition- 240
181 with a time-sampling step of 0.25 ms. Several diagnostic parameters ing, 共2兲 adopted inversion methodology, and 共3兲 computation of spe- 241
182 or attributes are measured and computed on the decay function. The cially designed geoelectric parameters. 242
183 sudden turn-on of the current is not registered instantaneously in the An additional advantage of the geoelectric method is its rather 243
184 receiver assembly, but the initial phase of the power turn-on shows a simple acquisition setup. It makes use of electrodes of manhandling 244
185 typical upbuilding trend that is monitored carefully. size, resulting in a reduced exposure to health/safety/environment 245
186 Sensitivity of the receiver device is approximately 1 ⫻ 10ⳮ6 V 共HSE兲 hazards compared with other electromagnetic techniques. 246
187 共1 microvolt兲 with a gain factor of one. The input resistance is not For example, there is an electromagnetic surveying technique that 247
188 less than 4 ⫻ 108 ohms. Gain factors range from 1 through 128. The deploys a huge conductor setup for field operations. This device is 248
189 equipment allows detecting signals as low as 1 ⫻ 10ⳮ6 V used to prevent gas-escape problems when the electrical current is 249
190 共1 microvolt兲 for static observation and in the order of 2 ⫻ 10ⳮ5 V introduced into the water column. The cylindrical conductor is hoist- 250
191 共20 microvolts兲 for moving observations. The relative parameters ed overboard by a big crane installed on an oceangoing vessel. Han- 251
192 are measured with an accuracy of 0.001 units under real field condi- dling this type of oversized equipment introduces an additional HSE 252
193 tions. risk to the operations, along with increased costs. 253
194 Some basic processing and smoothing are done to stabilize the The timing of the emitting direct current 共DC兲 and length of the 254
195 readings 共cf. Strack et al., 1989; Buselli and Cameron, 1996兲. In the quiet recording interval is adjusted to the expected target depth. For 255
196 first place, the measured response is influenced by petrochemical al-
197 terations and/or the presence of micropyrite crystals in the subsur-
198 face. The alteration minerals get polarized easily
199 and retain their polarization when the current is a)
200 turned off, with a delayed slow return to their ini-
201 tial neutral state 共decay兲. This IP decay effect is
202 visualized by the geoelectric surveying method.
203 The effect is measurable on land as well as under
b)
204 marine conditions.
205 The geoelectric response in shallow water
206 depth of the beach transition zone is rather good.
207 This stands in contrast to some other seabed log-
208 ging or controlled-source electromagnetic
209 共CSEM兲 methods. The latter are contaminated in
210 such domain by energy traveling along the sea/air
c)
211 interface, making reliable observations for the
212 deeper subsurface difficult. The airwave is repre-
213 sented by downgoing components that have been
214 refracted and reflected by the sea surface, because
215 of extreme contrast between conductive seawater
216 and the highly resistive air 共Johansen et al., 2007兲.
217 Some upgoing multiple energy also is present
218 共Kong et al., 2008; M. Darnet, personal commu-
219 nication, 2008兲.
220 Proper airwave elimination or modeling is cru-
221 cial in electromagnetic surveying 共MacGregor et
222 al., 2006; Andreis and MacGregor, 2008兲 to pre- Figure 1. The setup is shown for a marine geoelectric survey applying the differentially
223 vent the introduction of artifacts that cause erro- normalized IP method. The positive electric current pulse between input electrodes A and
224 neous interpretation of results 共cf. Dell’Aversana, B is turned on for 4 s. The response is measured on the receiver electrodes located
225 2007; Nordskag and Amundsen, 2007兲. The air- 1 to 3 km away from the source 共X1-X7兲. Subsequently, the current is turned off during
226 wave is an atmospheric coupling effect, which 4 s, and the decay of the potential difference on the receiver assembly is monitored and
recorded with a 0.25-ms time-sampling step. Several attributes are computed on the reg-
227 leads to a decrease in sensitivity for a certain class istered decay function. The vessel moves on, and the next measuring cycle starts with a
228 of resistors in the subsurface. Airwave energy is flipped negative polarized pulse in electric current. Three configurations for the potential
229 present mainly in the frontal part of the decay difference 共U1 and U2兲 on the receiver electrodes are indicated 共MO and ON兲.

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4 Veeken et al.

256 instance, for a deeper target, a larger 8-s time interval can be used in- ically that a significant enrichment in pyrite often is related to hydro- 285
257 stead of a 2-s measurement period. In addition, the strength of the in- carbon occurrences at deeper levels 共e.g., Sternberg, 1991兲. 286
258 put current can be increased 200–300 kW. The distance between the The in-situ pyrite generation process is evaluated by a computer 287
259 source and receiver can be changed to augment the penetration modeling program based on theoretical backgrounds developed by 288
260 depth, but more cumbersome operations in the field prevent the latter O. F. Puticov from the Saint Petersburg Mining Institute 共Puticov, 289
261 from being done. Special processing of the recorded field data helps 2000兲. The seal of the hydrocarbon accumulation often is not per- 290
262 to get a better resolution at greater depth, whereby the amplitude of fect. Minor amounts of hydrocarbons along with hydrogen sulfide 291
263 the signal is optimized and/or increased. can escape and are dissolved in the surrounding pore waters. They 292
264 The source-receiver assembly, which is towed behind the record- migrate upward through the overlying rock column until they en- 293
265 ing vessel, normally has a speed of 7–8 km per hour. This setup al- counter an effective regional seal. Here, an alteration zone is formed. 294
266 lows a production in geoelectric surveying of some 100 km per day Retention and sufficient time are needed for the critical reactions to 295
267 under normal operating conditions. The marine surveying equip- take place. This alteration zone is characterized by various mineral- 296
268 ment is shown in Figure 2. Surveying can be done now at as much as izations, among which pyrite enrichment is of particular interest for 297
269 300-m water depth, but with special design it can be increased in the the geoelectric investigation method. 298
270 near future. A smaller vessel is used in the shallow transition zone. The presence of zones with pyrite enrichment is registered in ex- 299
271 The costs are comparable to those of seismic acquisition. The speed ploration wells, where IP logging was conducted 共Moiseev, 2002兲. 300
272 of surveying during the collection of onshore data is much reduced The alteration zone often forms a sort of halo above the hydrocarbon 301
273 and ranges from 2 through 15 km per day. Normally, it is done with a accumulation, and the distance to the reservoir varies from 1 through 302
274 station step between 0.2 and 1 km. 5000 m 共cf. Karus, 1986兲. Small microcrystals of pyrite 共hydrocar- 303
bon-related alteration zone兲 show a decay of the polarized charge in 304
the 10-ms range, whereas larger crystals 共basalts, dolerite dykes兲 305
275 OCCURRENCE OF MICROPYRITE show a much longer decay profile 共1–10 s兲. The pyrite, as it occurs 306
276 Micropyrite is formed in the subsurface under reducing condi- in isolated grains, has only a minor influence on the resistivity 共Ne- 307
277 tions, when free iron and sulphur are available. An inorganic reac- dra, 1989兲 because the grains are physically separated from each 308
278 tion takes place: other. This property can be used to distinguish hydrocarbon-related 309
alteration zones from igneous-rock-related anomalies. 310
279 H2S Ⳮ Fe2Ⳮ Ⳮ 2OHⳮ → FeS2 Ⳮ H2O.
280 It is stimulated by the following reaction between freely dissolved DATA PROCESSING AND VISUALIZATION 311
281 ions in the pore water to form carbonate:
Some special processing is needed to improve the quality of the 312
282 CH4 Ⳮ Ca2Ⳮ Ⳮ SO2ⳮ
4 → CaCO3 Ⳮ H2S↑ Ⳮ H2O.
field data. It helps when proper care is taken during the acquisition 313
phase to register the best possible signal 共cf. Macnae et al., 1984兲. 314
283 In addition, biodegradation and bacterial activity might give rise to Bad records are rejected, or their influence is reduced, by applying a 315
284 an organic origin of pyrite in the sedimentary pile. It is proved empir- clustering technique. Normalization of the elec- 316
trical signal is done during the power-on phase of 317
the acquisition cycle. It is performed by division 318
by the potential difference. 319
The potential difference is taken during the 320
power-on phase of the acquisition cycle. Spikes 321
caused by atmospheric disturbances are removed. 322
Distortions in data section caused by drastic 323
changes of the electric circuitry are taken into ac- 324
count during the next data inversion step. Indus- 325
trial background noise is removed by applying a 326
50-Hz notch filter. Some smoothing of the decay 327
data via the M-estimation algorithm 共Hampel et 328
al., 1986兲 gives a better-stabilized response. Ba- 329
sic quality control is performed in the time as well 330
as in the frequency domain 共Figure 3兲. Flip of the 331
measured signal phase is performed to obtain the 332
same polarity at all observation points. 333
Low-pass filtering using a 2D sliding window 334
further augments the quality of the output 共Figure 335
4兲. The M-estimation algorithm is used in the 2D 336
sliding window, which is more effective than av- 337
eraging when atmospheric spikes are present in 338
records. The 2D sliding window allows using 339
more input data for getting more robust statistics. 340
Figure 2. Marine geoelectric surveying in Russian waters and the recording vessel layout. Periodic noise also is suppressed because an aver- 341
Quality control and some basic data processing steps are conducted onboard. aging effect takes place. 342

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Geoelectrics and HC exploration 5

343 The decay value, measured at a specific XY lo-

344 cation, is visualized along the trajectory and dis-
345 played in the sampled time windows 共Figure 5兲.
346 Important aspects of the decay function are the
347 current turnoff point and the half decay value
348 as well as the delay time. Note that the decay
349 profile of the potential difference is sampled in a
350 0.25-ms time step. The curve now is resampled in
351 flexible intervals and the average value with some
352 weighting applied to obtain a stable output signal.
353 The resampled time interval or time windows
354 have a logarithmic step. Weights in the time win-
355 dows are defined using Hampel’s psi function.
356 For each point at which the measurement is taken,
357 several decay-attribute values are computed and
358 stored for later display. The attribute is computed
359 for discrete time intervals.
360 It is convenient to plot the different iso-time
361 decay values vertically along the surveyed sec-
362 tion. The values of the decay are less for larger
363 iso-times; hence it is useful to plot one under an-
364 other 共Figure 6兲. The profile representation al-
365 lows rapid ident1ification of the lateral changes in
366 electric potential response at various locations.
367 The recorded data is arranged in so-called pick-
368 ets. Data from overlapping pickets form the tra-
369 jectory along the surveyed geoelectric traverse
370 共Figure 7兲. The potential difference responses of
371 time traces are plotted vertically below each other
372 for the increasing time periods. The natural decay
373 with time of the registered signal is neatly ex-
374 ploited in this way. Later, the geoelectric data is
375 used to constrain the model construction and per-
376 form an inversion of the data set to obtain a depth
377 model of the investigated subsurface area.

378 DIFFERENTIALLY NORMALIZED

379 GEOELECTRIC PARAMETERS
380 Several potential differences are measured in Figure 3. Data recorded on the receiver axial dipole-dipole array system. Curves for vari-
381 the receiver electrodes 共Legeydo et al., 1990, ous differential potentials 共DU兲 are plotted in the graph. The mathematical definition of
382 1996; Legeydo et al., 1997; Davydycheva et al., the various geoelectric parameters is given in the main text body. The gradual decline of
383 2006; Davidenko et al., 2008兲. Three configura- the potential differential in time is evident. The delay in relaxation is a result of the total
field, which is composed of IP and electromagnetic coupling processes. Some minor
384 tions are acquired simultaneously by varying the noise is present on the registered trace, which is filtered easily. The filtered data also are
385 distances between the receiver electrodes. represented in the frequency domain.

Figure 4. The decay function for subsequent geoelectric measure-

ments along a trajectory are displayed in a 3D plot. Individual decay
curves belong to a specific field position where the transient electri-
cal measurement was performed. On the left, the raw data are shown.
On the right, the filtered and smoothed data are plotted.

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6 Veeken et al.

386 Various diagnostic parameters are computed and registered. The PS ⳱ 共⌬2U ⳮ ⌬2U0兲/共⌬U ⳮ ⌬U0兲 共8兲 398
387 physical meaning of the measured potential differentials ⌬U and
388 ⌬2U across the receiver electrodes are shown graphically in Figure
389 1. Use of the Greek symbol delta indicates a measurement data val- ItS ⳱ ⌬t共⌬2U ⳮ ⌬2U0兲/⌬t共⌬U ⳮ ⌬U0兲 399
390 ue, whereas the normal D represents a more complex computed enti-
391 ty. ⬇ 共⌬t⌬ U兲/共⌬t⌬U兲
2
共9兲 400

392 ⌬U ⳱ ⌬U1 Ⳮ ⌬U2 共2兲

D ␾ S ⳱ I tS ⳮ P S 共10兲 401
393 ⌬ U ⳱ ⌬U1 ⳮ ⌬U2
2
共3兲
The parameter U0 is the difference in potential measured when the 402
current is on; PS is a parameter mainly related to the electrodynamic 403
394 DU ⳱ ⌬U/⌬U0 共4兲 process; It is IP; S is a parameter that is a function of time. 404
Figure 8 shows the response of various geoelectric parameters. 405
395 D2U ⳱ ⌬2U/⌬U0 共5兲 The response values are investigated for every measuring station 406
along the geoelectric line. This data also is presented in map form. 407
Local variation in the relaxation response can be outlined in this way. 408
396 P0 ⳱ ⌬2U0 /⌬U0 共6兲 Subsequently, an inversion procedure is used to link the observed 409
with the calculated relaxation response, and a depth model is com- 410
397 P1 ⳱ ⌬2U/⌬U 共7兲 puted. 411

Figure 5. Receiver electric potential-time plot

showing a typical decay function at a measurement
station. The inset depicts a blowup 共blue ellipse兲.
An important parameter is the delay time for the
system to return to the base condition after the cur-
rent in the input electrodes is switched off. The
shape of the relaxation curve is diagnostic for the
presence or absence of resistors that exhibit an IP
effect.

Figure 6. Distance-time plot of data showing the

change of the decay function along the geoelectric
line. The decay curve is sampled in a 0.25-ms time
step. Here, the potential difference values, coming
from several decay functions, are plotted for dis-
crete iso-time-sample values 共blue time lines兲. The
iso-time curves are conveniently plotted below
each other because of the naturally decreasing de-
cay values. This permits rapid identification of
zones with an anomalous behavior. Anomalies,
caused by deeper-seated resistors, take more time
to arrive at the receiver assembly.

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Geoelectrics and HC exploration 7

412 GEOELECTRIC DATA INVERSION The depth model is updated iteratively until the difference be- 430
413 AND DEPTH MODELING tween observed and calculated response 共model error兲 reaches the 431
minimum threshold value. The threshold value depends also on the 432
414 An inversion scheme, developed in collaboration with I. Pesterev accuracy of the observation defined as the mean convergence be- 433
415 in Irkutsk, is used to build a model that best explains the observed tween ordinary and control measurements. The errors on the param- 434
416 geoelectric response 共Figure 9兲. Careful data preconditioning results eters P0, P1, PS, D␾ S, and DU are calculated on a routine basis for 435
417 in good repeatability 共even for lines acquired in different surveying
quality-control purposes. Standard deviations 共convergence兲 be- 436
418 campaigns兲. At the same time, it ensures that line intersections are
tween ordinary and control measurements are related, for parame- 437
419 consistent. The depth model is shown in the right-hand side of Figure
ters P0, P1, PS, D␾ S, and DU, to their threshold values of the inver- 438
420 9. Output parameters of the inversion are the resistivity, polarization
sion. The typical errors, shown in relative units, are DU%e ⳱ 0.763, 439
421 coefficient, relaxation time, relaxation spectrum width, and thick-
422 ness of the layer. A range in values is specified, and the program P1e ⳱ 0.006, D␾ e ⳱ 0.006, PSe ⳱ 0.002, and P0e ⳱ 0.002. 440
423 searches for an optimal solution. The difference between observed The inversion is done in a 1D mode using the Cole-Cole model, al- 441
424 and computed response is minimized by various methods, e.g., sim- ready presented in equation 1. Hence, 1D models of section are used, 442
425 ulated annealing, global minimum, Nelder-Mead simplex method, although in the actual terrain experiment, a 3D electromagnetic field 443
426 principle axis, and genetic algorithm. The computed inversion re- source is deployed. Chargeability and resistivity depth sections are 444
427 sults are shown as the thicker line on the left-hand side of the inver- generated, whereby anomalous zones are identified easily 共Figure 445
428 sion plot. The observed parameter values are plotted as the thinner 10兲. An important distinction can be made, especially when taking 446
429 line behind it. into account various inverted parameters at the same time. For ex- 447

Figure 7. The data in the distance-time plots are

subdivided in overlapping pickets. In the picket, a
certain averaging is done to stabilize the output.
Time lines are labeled with incremental numbers.

Figure 8. Various geoelectric attributes are comput-

ed at each measurement station. The attribute can
be displayed for each picket. The following at-
tributes are computed: DU, D2U, PS, P1, P0, and
D␾ S. See main text for the definition of the geoelec-
tric parameters.

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8 Veeken et al.

448 ample, the difference in response for a dolerite dike or basalt is de- EXAMPLES OF GEOELECTRIC EXPLORATION 466
449 tected easily by the strong resistivity of the igneous rocks, although
450 the hydrocarbon-related alteration zone has a much lower resistance The geoelectric survey on the Severo-Guljaevskaya oil and gas 467
451 contrast with the surrounding host rock 共Figure 11兲. field 共Barents Sea, northern Russian Federation兲 is shown here as a 468
452 The problem with every inversion is the nonuniqueness of its so- case study 共Figure 12兲. Resistivity logs in the 1-SG well and structur- 469
453 lution, i.e., several depth models can give similar results in the for- al maps allow construction of an input model for the geoelectric 470
454 ward modeling 共Veeken and Da Silva, 2004兲. Information from oth- evaluation. Structural maps for various geologic horizons were com- 471
455 er techniques therefore is needed to support the retained solution. piled using the seismic reflection data set. The inversion of the re- 472
456 Hence, it seems less appropriate to attempt assessing the value of the corded data set and computation of geoelectric sections are based on 473
457 geoelectric method on a stand-alone basis in each newly explored a rather simple input model. 474
458 basin. The results can be much better when an integrated approach An example of a geologic input section that forms the initial start- 475
459 for the geoelectric studies is chosen from the start. Support from oth- ing point for further parameterization in resistance is presented in 476
460 er geophysical techniques helps to fully exploit the discrimination Figure 13. During the modeling, it was decided to combine the layers 477
461 power of the method and facilitates the interpretation of recorded in the lower part of the section. This was justified because the layered 478
462 anomalies. It is reassuring to see that integrated inversion schemes sequence at the depth interval of 1000–3500 m can be replaced by 479
463 are adopted today to circumvent some of the ambiguities in electro- one equivalent layer with an averaged resistivity without a signifi- 480
464 magnetic studies 共cf. Colombo and De Stefano, 2007; Strack and cant deterioration of the convergence of the observed and modeling 481
465 Pandey, 2007兲. curves. Subdivision of this interval leads to equivalence between re- 482

Figure 9. The geoelectric data set is inverted and a

depth model established. The response for the mod-
el is computed 共thick line兲 and compared with the
measured values 共thinner line兲. The depth model is
perturbed until the error between the observed and
computed values reaches a minimum. The vertical
scale to the left belongs to P1, PS, and D␾ parame-
ters; on the right, the DU scale is shown. The black
line is the measured first differential potential in the
receiver electrodes during current-off period 共DU兲,
blue is ratio of the second to the first differential po-
tential during current-off period 共P1兲, green is ratio
of the second to the first differential potential in re-
ceiver electrodes during current-on period 共PS兲, red
is combination of space and time derivative 共D␾ 兲,
and the dotted line is ratio of the second to the first
differential potential at stationary value in pulse
共P0兲.

Figure 10. A simple depth model of the subsurface

is obtained from the geoelectric response via data
inversion. An iterative approach allows the estab-
lishment of a depth model that best explains the ob-
served geoelectric response. The depth model per-
mits the visualization of the behavior of the polar-
ization coefficient and resistivity along the trajecto-
ry of the sailed geoelectric traverse. The input mod-
el is refined with the aid of information provided by
other geophysical and petrophysical analysis tech-
niques.

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Geoelectrics and HC exploration 9

483 sistances of separate layers within it, and hence

484 can be safely ignored.
485 A sharp local increase of ␩ in the fourth layer,
486 from 2%–6% to 11%–13%, is present on the po-
487 larizability geoelectric sections in areas situated
488 directly above the oil and gas field 共Figure 14兲. It
489 should be noted that the fourth geoelectric layer is
490 located at an approximate depth of 400 m, i.e., on
491 the geochemical permeability barrier depth. In
492 addition, the polarizability for the fourth layer is
493 shown. Within the closed contour area, the values
494 of polarizability are seen to be rather high and
495 come as high as 9% or more, compared with the
496 3%–6% value for the normal background value
497 of the sedimentary deposits. The values of the
498 other mapped parameters do not change as rapid-
499 ly when the closed area border is crossed.
500 The northwest and northeast anomaly bound-
501 aries correlate relatively well with the mapped
502 limiting contour of oil and gas accumulation. The
503 discrepancy does not exceed 1–1.5 km. Howev-
504 er, the southeast and southwest limits of the
505 anomaly are displaced with respect to the closing
506 contour by 3 to 4 km in a southward direction.
507 This probably is connected to a lateral shift in hy-
508 drocarbon migration leakage, caused by the fact
Figure 11. The inverted geoelectric data set makes it possible to visualize the change in
509 that some tectonic faulting controls the migration geoelectric parameters. Here, the behavior of the chargeability, relaxation time, and resis-
510 path, as can be seen on the seismic data. In addi- tivity are shown. Notice the difference in behavior for the hydrocarbon reservoir and vol-
511 tion, the inaccuracy of the position of the mapped canic rocks. The volcanic rocks have a high resistivity, although the sedimentary cover
512 closed contour limiting the hydrocarbon accumu- has relatively low values.
513 lation might play a role. The geoelectric results
514 suggest that the structural interpretation should
515 be revised because it is based on 2D seismic data
516 interpreted more than 20 years ago.
517 Interestingly enough, the zone with increased
518 resistivity values for layer 5 are in fact confined to
519 the area where the hydrocarbon-bearing deposits
520 are present on the deeper level of layer 6. The
521 southeast limit of the region with increased resis-
522 tivity is tectonic in nature, as it coincides with a
523 postulated fault zone. The southwest limit is
524 structurally tectonic determined, whereas the
525 northwest and northeast flanks are controlled by a
526 structural dip.
527 It is postulated that the geologic cause for the
528 occurrence of an increased resistivity area over
529 the Severo-Guljaevskaya accumulation is con-
530 nected partially with epigenetic processes above
531 the hydrocarbon-bearing deposits. For instance,
532 this could be a diagenetic effect caused by calciti-
533 zation/carbonization of the rock. In any case, the
534 appearance of the area with relatively high resis-
535 tance values can be viewed here as an additional
536 hydrocarbon-prospecting indicator. Figure 12. The Severo-Guljaevskaya case study is located in the frozen Barents Sea, off-
537 Geoelectric data acquisition was performed shore Siberia. Two zones with increased IP response correspond to areas with an aug-
538 also in the mid-Volga region 共onshore Russia兲. mented concentration in micropyrite in the sedimentary rocks. Highest concentrations
539 The result of the analysis of ␩, ␶ , and c polarizing are measured in a halo just above the hydrocarbon-bearing interval. A regional seal con-
fines the reducing environment created by the migration of leaking hydrocarbons from
540 parameters shows that the polarizability coeffi- the reservoir, and determines the location of geochemical alteration zones. The IP anoma-
541 cient is a fundamental interpretation parameter, ly is a powerful diagnostic attribute for determining the presence of potential hydrocar-
542 allowing oil and gas forecast in this research area. bon accumulations.

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10 Veeken et al.

543 The c parameter is the relaxation spectrum width. Although there is by the differentially normalized IP method. The mapped closure of 562
544 no direct correlation between the resistivity and ␩ parameters, polar- the eastern structure at top reservoir level was drilled before the geo- 563
545 izability anomalies are found to be limited to a diffuse halo above the electric work was carried out. The well in the closure to the west was 564
546 hydrocarbon-containing deposits. These anomalies are confined to drilled in a later phase upon recommendations made after the geo- 565
547 the third geoelectric layer and located at a depth of 60 through electric survey was conducted and its inversion results became avail- 566
548 100 m. able. The geoelectric response is classified in a color code reflecting 567
549 The anomalies correlate well with the location of the deeper reser- the strength/reliability of the anomaly 共red ⳱ high, magenta 568
550 voirs that contain hydrocarbons. The sensitivity of ␩ definition in ⳱ intermediate兲. The new well confirmed the positive geoelectric 569
551 this particular area does exceed the depth of 1600 m in the modeled forecast and actually proved the presence of a hydrocarbon-filled 570
552 inversion results. The inversion is rather straightforward, and the ob- reservoir. 571
553 tained information speaks for itself. Figure 15 shows a part of a po- Often, the seismic information is difficult to interpret and the dis- 572
554 larizability coefficient section along a recorded geoelectric line. The tribution of carbonate reservoir is very hard to predict. Geoelectric 573
555 intensity of the anomaly is in this case sufficiently high, between
data provide an additional means for outlining prospects under such 574
circumstances and might serve also as support to update the time- 575
556 14%–16% in comparison with 12% outside the closing contour of
depth conversion model. The new velocities give a better grip on the 576
557 the known hydrocarbon accumulation.
volumetrics and actual shape of the mapped hydrocarbon accumula- 577
558 The comparison of the geoelectric data map with the structural
tions. This also allows better ranking of prospects and helps in the 578
559 contours of the seismic reflection marker horizon nC1up also is pre-
de-risking of drilling targets 共cf. MacGregor et al., 2007兲. 579
560 sented. The position of various depth closures from the seismic data
561 correlate with the location of the geoelectric anomalies determined
DISCUSSION 580
The geoelectric method quantifies the presence of IP effects in the 581
subsurface. These effects are caused by mineralogical changes in the 582
rock column. In sedimentary rocks, these changes often are related 583
to an alteration zone with typical epigenetic micropyrite crystals. 584
The relationship between the documented geoelectric anomalies and 585
occurrence of hydrocarbons is indirect. It is postulated that leaking 586
hydrocarbons are the main reason for an alkaline environment in the 587
pore fluid of overlying rocks. This gives rise to specific conditions 588
under which authigenic pyrite crystals can grow. A distinct IP anom- 589
aly corresponds often with the presence of a deeper hydrocarbon ac- 590
cumulation. 591
It is obvious that this particular relation needs to be verified in in- 592
dividual study areas before it can be used as a working hypothesis. It 593
should be realized that if the seal of the trap is perfect, no hydrocar- 594
bons will migrate into the overburden and no shallow IP effect will 595
be detected. Therefore, absence of a geoelectric anomaly does not 596
necessarily indicate that there is no commercial hydrocarbon accu- 597
mulation underlying the investigated area. When the relation be- 598
tween anomaly and hydrocarbons is proved in a basin, the method 599
becomes very effective in predicting potential hydrocarbon occur- 600
rences, and hence the ranking of drillable prospects is much facilitat- 601
ed. 602
Based on experience with the method in various parts of Russia 603
and the larger region of the Union of Soviet Socialist Republics 604
共USSR兲, the success ratio of the method for predicting the presence 605
of hydrocarbons is high, e.g., a positive prediction in 124 out of 126 606
study cases. Other areas with encouraging results for geoelectric in- 607
vestigations are Peru, China, and the Baltic Sea. Forty successful 608
Figure 13. Resistivity section of Severo-Guljaevskaya oil and gas wells have been proposed and drilled on IP DNME anomalies. Con- 609
field. The first layer is seawater with fixed ␳ ⳱ 0.26 ohm-m; thick- fidentiality reasons do not permit reproduction of any specific evi- 610
ness is defined by an echo sounding device. The resistance in the sec- dence concerning the validation of these statistics. 611
ond layer could change within wide limits, from 1 through 20 ohm
-m, because electric logging data are absent, but as a rule, it should The quality of the geoelectric parameter inversion is improved by 612
not exceed the range of 7 through 15 ohm-m. The third layer is rela- using detailed subsurface information stemming from complemen- 613
tively conductive, and its ␳ ranges between 1 and 8 ohm-m. The tary geoscience study techniques. An integrated approach enhances 614
fourth layer is relatively highly resistive, between 8 and 20 ohm-m. reliability of the output results. The mapped geoelectric anomalies 615
The fifth layer has again a lower specific resistance between 1 and provide useful support for the maturation of prospects in known hy- 616
8 ohm-m. In the sixth layer 共strata alternation with different ␳ 兲, the
increase of resistance is set in the range of 7 through 60 ohm-m 共usu- drocarbon provinces, as well as in greenfield exploration areas. The 617
ally 8 through 25 ohm-m兲. The nonconducting basement tentatively method provides an additional cost-effective means to identify 618
is placed in the base of the section. quickly areas of increased interest. It allows more reliable outlining 619

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Geoelectrics and HC exploration 11

Figure 14. Geoelectric section of polarization coef-

ficient ␩ distribution in the Severo-Guljaevskaya
area 共Barents Sea兲. The IP anomaly is marked in
red. Distribution of polarization coefficient ␩ in the
fourth geoelectric layer is based on the top of the
structure of carbonate complex C2-3-P1. Tectonic
disturbances are shown as a red line and the contour
of the water-oil contact as a blue line. The IP anom-
aly is indicated in orange colors.

of mapped prospects, especially in poor seismic 620

data zones 共e.g., chimney effect兲. The recognition 621
of potential stratigraphic traps is facilitated great- 622
ly. Geoelectric anomalies also are helpful for 623
fine-tuning the depth conversion model of 624
mapped hydrocarbon traps. The method provides 625
an independent extra constraint on the subsurface 626
velocity model, giving a better grip on the volu- 627
metrics and shape of the investigated hydrocar- 628
bon occurrence. 629

CONCLUSIONS 630
Geoelectric surveying is an innovative tool to 631
help the geoscientist in the ranking of hydrocar- 632
bon prospects. The technique measures the elec- 633
tric potential difference between receiver elec- 634
trodes and exploits changes in IP. In sedimentary 635
rocks, these changes often reflect the presence of 636
a mineralogical alteration zone overlying a hy- 637
drocarbon accumulation. 638
Figure 15. Geoelectric section illustrating the polarization coefficient ␩ distribution in Application of the method in deeper and shal- 639
the mid-Volga basin. The IP anomaly is marked in yellow and is slightly offset with re- low water, along with the efficiency of the acqui- 640
spect to the structural closure shown in the corresponding map. The productive borehole sition setup and inversion processing, make it an 641
is represented by a red triangle, and a nonproductive borehole is a blue triangle. Wells are attractive proposition in the prospect evaluation 642
projected to the geoelectric traverse. The comparison is made between the geoelectric
data and a structural map of the reflecting horizon nC1up. The IP response is classified by procedure. 643
various color representations along the profiles. The productive borehole is indicated by a Diagnostic DNME geoelectric attributes are 644
red circle; the nonproductive borehole is marked by a blue circle. The well, which was computed and monitored in time. Inversion of the 645
drilled taking into account geoelectric data, is shown as a red triangle. Outline of depth geoelectric data set allows the establishment of a 646
contours could be adjusted to get a better correspondence between the geoelectric and the relevant depth model, with basic geoelectric pa- 647
mapped structurally closed area. In addition, slanted leaking of hydrocarbons to shallow-
er levels could explain the offset of the alteration zone in respect to the mapped accumula- rameters such as the polarization coefficient and 648
tion. Green reflects a weaker anomalous response, red intermediate, and magenta is a resistivity. 649
higher anomalous geoelectric response. The red curve along the nonproductive borehole Geoelectric data sets cover different geologic 650
is impedance log response, and the yellow curve is the modeled receptivity of section. settings and have varying target depths. The 651
Electrical characteristics of section assigned in compliance with logging. Similarity of method already has proved its added value under 652
the modeled and measured well-log curves makes clear that the geoelectric results have a
high degree of confidence in this case. a wide range of working conditions. It is cost-ef- 653

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12 Veeken et al.

654 fective and basically complementary to other hydrocarbon explora- Kong, F. N., S. E. Johnstad, T. Rosten, and H. Westerdahl, 2008, A 2.5D fi- 712
655 tion techniques. nite-element-modeling difference method for marine CSEM modeling in 713
stratified anisotropic media: Geophysics, 73, no. 1, F9–F19. 714
656 For some Russian oil companies, geoelectric surveying already is Legeydo, P., M. M. Mandelbaum, and N. I. Rykhlinski, 1997, Results of dif- 715
657 a part of the standard investigation toolbox. So far, the prediction ca- ferential-normalized electrical prospecting in the Central part of the Nepa 716
arch on the Siberian platform 关In Russian兴: Russian Geology and Geo- 717
658 pabilities are very promising, and the IP geoelectric method surely physics, 38, 1707–1713. 718
659 warrants the attention of geoscientists worldwide. Legeydo, P. Y., M. M. Mandelbaum, and N. I. Rykhlinski, 1990, Application 719
of differentially adjusted electric exploration of the Nepa Dome 关In Rus- 720
sian兴: Soviet Geology and Geophysics, 31, 86–91. 721
660 ACKNOWLEDGMENTS ——–, 1996, The differentially normalized method of geoelectrical prospect- 722
ing: Methodical manual textbook 关In Russian兴: SGP. 723
661 Gratitude goes to Siberian Geophysical Research Development MacGregor, L. M., D. Andréis, J. Tomlinson, and N. Barker, 2006, Con- 724
trolled-source electromagnetic imaging on the Nuggets-1 reservoir: The 725
662 共owner of patent 2301431 and ISO9001-2000 certificate兲, the Mega- Leading Edge, 25, 984–992. 726
663 tron consortium, Wintershall Russland, Lukoil, and Schlumberger MacGregor, L., A. Overton, S. Moody, and D. Rockhopper, 2007, Derisking 727
664 for giving permission to publish this article. Ing I. Pesterev is ac- exploration prospects using integrated seismic and electromagnetic data 728
— A Falkland Islands case study: The Leading Edge, 26, 356–359. 729
665 knowledged for compiling the Cole-Cole inversion software pro- Macnae, J. C., Y. Lamontagne, and G. F. West, 1984, Noise processing tech- 730
666 gram. S. Benko and P. Thiede are thanked for help in the preparation niques for time-domain EM systems: Geophysics, 48, 934–948. 731
Mandelbaum, M. M., E. B. Ageenkov, P. Y. Legeydo, P. Y. Pesterev, and N. I. 732
667 of some figures. G. Kobzarev 共Lukoil兲, M. Minning 共Wintershall兲, Rykhlinski, 2002, Normalized-differential electrical measurements in hy- 733
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