CVEN3302 Structural Design CVEN3302 Structural Design

CVEN3302 Structural Design
Semester 2,, 2009

School of Civil and Environmental Engineering, UNSW
Introduction
by Zora Vrcelj
Lecture Outline
Introduction – ‘Housekeeping rules’
Structural steel
p p
properties, fabrication
,
Limit states design to AS4100
g 4
Strength, serviceability
Loads
Dead, live, wind, earthquake
, , , q
SStructurall
Steel - Properties
This is what you end up with
y p
if you don’t build with steel!
Bad choice of material can
cause premature failure
Steel is by far the most useful
material for building structures with
g of approximately ten times
strength pp y
that of concrete, steel is the ideal
material for modern construction.
Steel is also a very eco‐friendly
material and steel structures can
b il di
be easily dismantled and sold as
tl d d ld
scrap.
Due to its large strength to weight
ratio, steel structures tend to be more
economical than concrete structures
for tall buildings and large span
buildings and bridges.
To get the most benefit out of steel, steel
structures should be designed and
t t h ld b d i d d
protected to resist corrosion and fire.
Steel structures are ductile and robust
and can withstand severe loadings such
as earthquakes.
The effects of temperature should be
considered in design. Special steels and
protective measures for corrosion and fire
i f i d fi
are available and the designer should be
familiar with the options available.
To prevent development of cracks under
fatigue and earthquake loads the
p
connections and in particular the welds
should be designed and detailed properly.
They should be designed and detailed for
easy fabrication and erection. Good
quality control is essential to ensure
lit t l i ti l t
proper fitting of the various structural
elements.
Thus the lifecycle cost of steel structures,
which includes the cost of construction,
maintenance, repair and dismantling, can be
less than that for concrete structures. Since
steel is produced in the factory under better
quality control, steel structures have higher
li l l h hi h
reliability and safety.
Steel structures can be constructed very fast
and this enables the structure to be used early
y g y
thereby leading to overall economy. Steel
structures can be easily repaired and
retrofitted to carry higher loads.
Structural Steel – Mild Steel
E
Economic, Ductile
i D til
Hot‐rolled into standard shapes Box sections
Easily fabricated by welding
Standard sections Cell Form Beams

Typical Steel Fabrication Shop
f bi i
fabrication workshop
k h h lli
hot rolling
Ductility
The most important material characteristic of mild steel is its
ductility.
Ductility allows very large strains to develop with little increase in
stress, prior to failure.
The advantages of ductility are:
It can give prior warning of impending failure
It allows energy absorption in dynamic loading or in resisting brittle fracture
It allows for redistribution of actions, which is usually benign
, y g
p
N.B At present, , in achieving
g a ductile stress-strain curve it requires
q y
the yield stress
fy to be less than 450 MPa. The yield stress is also called the Grade of the mild
steel, i.e. Grade 350 steel has fy = 350 MPa.
Properties of mild steel
p
St
Stress Not to scale
Upper yield stress
fu
Strain hardening Est

fy
Tensile rapture
Plastic
El ti E
Elastic
εy εst
Strain
Idealised stress‐strain relationship for structural steel
N.B.
N B The same stress‐strain curve is assumed in compression, but we shall see that
Th t t i i d i i b t h ll th t
buckling of members and elements in compression usually prevents high strains from
being realised
Idealised Stress‐Strain (σ−ε) Diagram
Mild Strength Steel σ ≤ 450 MPa

Mild Strength Steel, σ
σ
High Strength Steel σ ≥ 450 MPa

High Strength Steel, σ
σ
ε
Yielding under biaxial stresses
Mises Yield Criterion
Uniaxial Mohr Circle Construction
tension 1.0
Pure
shear
ratio f2/fy
-1.0 1.0
P i i l stress
Principal ratio
i f1/fy
Uniaxial Princcipal stress

compression
Maximum distortion‐energy
criterion:
-1.0 f12-f1f2+f2 2+ 3τ2= fy3
f1, f2 – normal stresses
τ – shear stress
Introduction to
Structural
Steel Design
Design Process
Problem! Includes: setting criteria, constraints
functional and structural requirements
Definition of problem
(Design brief)
Information search
Includes: design data
data,
information from other
consultants, loads
Preliminary designs and selection
Detailed design
Structural systems
(C
(Conceptual
t l design)
d i )
Includes: type of system,
Drawings and specifications
spacing of major members,
fixity of connections
construction techniques Solution
Advice on construction (completed job)
When the need for a new structure arises, an individual or agency
has to arrange the funds required for its construction.
The individual or agency henceforth referred to as the owner then
approaches an architect.
The architect plans the layout so as to satisfy the functional requirements and also
ensures that the structure is aesthetically pleasing and economically feasible.
In this process, the architect often decides the material and type of construction as well.
The plan is then given to a structural engineer who is expected to locate the structural elements
so as to cause least interference to the function and aesthetics of the structure.
He then makes the strength calculations to ensure This process is known as structural design.
safety and serviceability of the structure.
Finally, the structural elements are fabricated and erected by the
contractor If all the people work as a team then a safe useful
contractor. If all the people work as a team then a safe, useful,
aesthetic and economical structure is conceived.
However in practice, many structures fulfil the requirements
only partially because of inadequate coordination between the
l ti ll b f i d t di ti b t th
people involved and their lack of knowledge of the capabilities
and limitations of their own and that of others.
• Since a structural engineer is central to this team, it is necessary for him
to have adequate knowledge of the architects and contractors work
to have adequate knowledge of the architects and contractors work.
• It is his responsibility to advise both the architect and the contractor
about the possibilities of achieving good structures with economy.
Ever since steel began to be used in the construction of
structures, it has made possible some of the grandest
t t it h d ibl f th d t
structures both in the past and also in the present day.
Successful Structures
Functional requirements – set by client
SAFETY– building life including construction period
SAFETY b ildi lif i l di t ti i d
STRUCTURAL ENGINEERS
Aesthetic satisfaction – set by architects
Economy – Capital cost is not just the structural component

but also financing and construction speed
maintenance costs can effect long term life cycle costing
Steel Structures Code
Section
Section
Section
Section 5 59
to
4
6,7243& 8 8
Section
Section
Connections
Engineered
Design g
Member AS 4100
Capacity
Section p1 y
Properties
Method
Timber ofof
of subjected
Connections
Design Capacity
Introduction
Timber to- -
Structural
Products
•nails, screws
-
- -
of bending
•Bolting
Members
scope,
•eng.
eng. g
pProperties
Analysis
Australian
•bolts,
•b Standard
b lt•plywood
coach
l
•Welding
-
h screws
d
Steeldefinitions,
•tension
strength
•shear (f
Structures ’)
connectors,
•Elastic
•poles
stiffness
notation,
•Section (E)
capacity
•compression
split rings
•Plastic
b•glulam
•Modif’n
•Modif
•Member
units
itd
•combined
•bending
•Member n factors
(N,
(N
di d -
bicapacity
buckling
k•Frame
modifies
•LVL strength
buckling
mm,
actions MPa)
Standards Australia
Limits States Design to AS4100
g 4
Forrest Centre,
Perth WA
Firstt M
Fi Melbourne
lb building
b ildi
to use concrete filled
tubular steel columns
Central
C t l concrete
t core
with steel beams and
metal formwork
Steel skeleton connected

to the central core
Columns were concrete

filled composite steel
Casseldon Place, box columns
Melbourne
Design approach of AS4100
g pp 4
Based on limit state design
Principal limit states
• Strength (ultimate limit state), concerned with
‘collapse’:
– yyielding
g
– buckling
– overturning
• Serviceability limit state, concerned with
i bili li i d h
‘function’:
– deflection
d fl i
– vibration
Limit States Design
Aim ‐ Satisfactory performance under a variety of different uses
or load scenarios
Strength ‐ Rare scenarios:
want safety for occupants
no failure
Serviceability
y ‐ Common scenarios:
want satisfactory performance in service under common loadings
no cracking, no bouncing,
satisfactory appearance and function
Strength limit state design principles
Define relevant limit states
Determine appropriate actions
Analyse using appropriate methods and
g y
accounting for variability to determine:
• Design effects { S* }, and
• Design resistance { φ R }
Ensure no limit state is exceeded
*
S ≤ φR
Strength limit state design principles
Effect of Factored Loads ≤ Factored Resistance
*
S ≤ φR
For load combinations, the effect of factored loads (S*) is the
structural effect due to the specified loads multiplied by load
factors.
Variability of actions
a ab ty o act o s
Precision of modelling actions varies:
• dead loads related to material density and
thickness
• imposed loads based on type of occupancy
• wind and snow loads based on meteorological
data
Probability of load combinations varies
y
ACTIONS
DEAD LOADS
Weights of the various structural members and the weights of any
objects that are permanently attached to the structure (i e self‐weight
objects that are permanently attached to the structure (i.e. self‐weight
of the structure + superimposed dead load)
LIVE LOADS
• Building loads
• Bridge loads
B id l d
• Wind loads
• Snow loads
• Earthquake loads
• Hydrostatic and Soil Pressure
• Other Natural Loads (the effect of blast, temperature changes, different
settlement of the foundation)
DESIGN LOADS ‐ GENERAL
For the design of structural steelwork the following loads and influences shall be
considered:
G ‐ Dead loads, including the weight of steelwork and all permanent materials of
construction partitions stationary equipment and additional weight of
construction, partitions, stationary equipment, and additional weight of
concrete and finishes resulting from deflections of supporting members, and the
forces due to prestressing;
Q – Live loads, including load due to intended use and occupancy of structures;
movable equipment, snow, rain, soil, or hydrostatic pressure; impact; and any
ot e e oad st pu ated by t e egu ato y aut o ty;
other live load stipulated by the regulatory authority;
T – Influences resulting from temperature changes, shrinkage, or creep of
p ,
component materials, or from different settlements;;
W – Live load due to wind;
E – Live load due to earthquake
G – Dead Load
Loads act in vertical direction.
The specified dead load for a structural member consists of:
¾ the weight of the member itself,
¾ the eight of all materials of constr ction incorporated into

the weight of all materials of construction incorporated into
¾ the building to be supported permanently by the member,
¾ the weight of partitions,
¾ the weight of permanent equipment, and
¾ the vertical load due to earth, plants and trees.
,p
Dead Load, G
,
Services (ventilation, electricity ducts, etc.)
Superimposed dead load

Load
path?!
Variability of material and section
y
properties
Resistance {R } is related principally to material
and section geometry
Yield strength of steel is guaranteed
e d st e gt o stee s gua a teed
Other properties, notably Young’s modulus (E),
are much less variable
Strength (Ultimate) Limit State
The following conditions should be considered:
• Stability: overturning (equilibrium)
• Strength: including local and overall buckling effects where
appropriate
It may also be necessary to consider:
• Second order effects
• Rupture (due to fatigue)
Strength Limit State
i e GRAVITY LOADS: 1.2G
i.e. GRAVITY LOADS: 1 2G + 1.5Q
+ 1 5Q ≤ fR
or S ≤ φR
*
R = resistance capacity (at failure)
Left hand side is factored strength load effect, S*
φ = capacity reduction factor
Capacity Factor φ
Gives consistent reliability to whole structure
φ = 0.9
0 9 (for steel members, M
(f t l b Mu, V
Vu, N
Nu)
φ = 0.8 (connectors and connections)
g
Strength ‐ avoid failure in the lifetime of the structure
1.2G
1 2G + 1
1.5Q
5Q
i.e. live load combination
0.8G + 1.25Q
1.2G
1 2G + Wu
i.e. wind load combination
0.8G
0 8G + Wu
(1) and (3) combinations are used if the loads act in the same direction
(2) and (4) are used if the loads act in opposite directions.
g
Loads are generally: UDL’s (or pressures = Force/Area)
g y p
and Point Loads
Load effects are:
Axial force N*
Bending moment M*
Shear force V*
When these load effects are determined using factored loads (*) they are called design loads
When the load effects are determined without using factored loads they are called nominal loads
G – nominal deal load (given in loading case AS1170.1)
Q – nominal live load (given in loading code AS1170.1)
(g g 7 )
Wu – nominal ultimate wind load (given in loading code AS1170.2)
S*
φMu, φNu, φVu – the strengths are determined from

the steel code AS4100
φR
g
An example of the design equation may be establishing that:
f
M ≤ φM b
*
where
M* is the factored bending moment in a beam (determined from
structural analysis)
Mb is the bending strength of the beam (that accounts for lateral
buckling) and φ = 0.9
g
Another example might be establishing that
N ≤ φN c
*
where
N* is the factored axial compression in a column (the load effect or
design axial compression)
Nc is its strength that accounts for the effects of column buckling if
the column is slender (the nominal compressive strength) and
φ = 0.9
Serviceability Limit State
y
The following conditions may need to be considered:
• excessive deflections
• excessive vibrations
Both conditions are associated with stiffness rather
than strength
g
For most buildings, controlling deflections will also limit
vibrations
b
Serviceability of beams
y
Deflection limits for beams:
appearance (sagging)
fitness for purpose (machinery, pipe grades)
str ct ral (a oid nintended load paths)
structural (avoid unintended load paths)
Serviceability Limits
y
Code gives guidance only
g g y
(i.e. Δ/L = 1/250, 1/500, etc.)
Main message is ‐ THINK and discuss with client
Design for Serviceability
g y
how to size a member?
A d fl i li i δ lim with client

1. Agree on deflection limits i h li
2. Evaluate serviceability load combinations that have limit δ lim
• split combination into constituent loads wi
• estimate duration of each constituent load
Design for Serviceability
g y
⎛ 5 L4 ⎞⎛ w ⎞
3. I ≥ ⎜⎜ ⎟⎟ ⎜⎜ ⎟⎟ (udl, ss)
⎝ 384 E ⎠ ⎝ δ lim ⎠
Note: Design load factors used for Strength Limit State do not apply to
Serviceability Limit State
y ((i.e. we use w not w*)
4. Se
Select
ect c
cross-section
oss sect o to g
give
e I
5. Check
Ch k bending,
b di shear,
h axial
i l strength
t th
φMu φVu φNu

Reference Material
AS4100 1998 Steel Structures:
AS4100 – 1998 Steel Structures Standards Australia, Sydney.
S d d A li S d
AS1170.1 & AS1170.2 Loading Codes: Standards Association of Australia,
Sydney.
NS Trahair & MA Bradford: The Behavior and Design of Steel
g
Structures to AS4100, 3rd Australia edition, E&FN Spon, London, 1998.
MA Bradford, RQ Bridge & NS Trahair: Worked Examples for
MA Bradford RQ Bridge & NS Trahair Worked Examples for
Steel Structures, 3rd edition, AISC, Sydney, 1997.
ST Woolock, S Kitipornchai & MA Bradford: Design of Portal
Frame Buildings, 3rd edition, AISC, Sydney, 1999.
DESIGN
OF LATERALLY
RESTRAINED
BEAMS
Lecture Outline
B
Beam Design:
D i
Name governing Limit States?
g g
_______________
_______________
_______________
_______________
Lecture Outline
Steel beam
Modes of failure
Local Buckling and Section Classification
g
Compact
Non‐compact
Slender
Section capacity in bending
Section Capacity
or
Design Capacity of Fully Laterally
Restrained Beams
or
In Plane Capacity
In‐Plane Capacity
or
Design Capacity of very Short Laterally
Unrestrained Beams
Steel beam
Beams are members of structures which carry loads
transverse to their length.
These members resist flexure (bending) and shear,
and sometimes torsion, introduced by transverse
loads.
Purlins, rafters, joists, spandrels, lintels, floor beams, stringers and
other similar structural parts are all beams.
other similar structural parts are all beams
Members subjected to bending and axial compression
simultaneously are beam‐columns.
Steel beam
Beam (UDL - Beam
major axis loading) (couple)
Beam
(torsion)
( )
Beam (UDL -
minor axis loading)
Beam-column
(axial compression
+ transverse loading)
Steel Beam – where do we use it?
Strength limit state bending
moment capacity
Design equation for bending strength
(φ M ) ≥ M *
Design capacity > factored strength limit state
D i it f t d t th li it t t
moment
In plane bending
In‐plane bending
X (u)
Y (v)
Modes of failure
The usual strength modes of failure for
structural steel beams are:
• Plastification
• Flange local buckling
• Lateral buckling
• Web crippling
• Web local buckling under shear
We shall consider each of these strength limit states in turn.
Plastification
A steel beam may fail when the PLASTIC MOMENT Mp
develops, or when sufficient plastic hinges develop to form a
mechanism.
S – plastic section
Mp = S fy modulus
fy – yield stress
(
(MPa = N/mm
/ 2)
S is tabulated for most rolled sections in handbooks (mm3).
Ductile stress‐strain curve
Recall Mp is reliant on a DUCTILE STRESS
is reliant on a DUCTILE STRESS‐STRAIN CURVE
STRAIN CURVE.
σ
fy
Long plastic
E plateau means
1 ductile
εy ε
εy = yield t i = fy / E = fy / 2
i ld strain 2x10
105
MPa
Maximum moment
Maximum moment that can be attained is the PLASTIC MOMENT Mp
equal areas
C
h
T
plastic neutral axis
Nominal capacity Mmax = Ms = Mp
Ms is called the SECTION CAPACITY.
It is the moment to cause failure of the cross‐section.
Here, Mp = C x h = T x h
Example 1
Calculate Mp for the section shown below.
200 C1
20 C1
C2
h1 C2
h2
500
10
T2
20 T1
200
fyf = 350 MPa
MP
Example 2
Calculate the factored load W* to cause plastic collapse of the
beam shown below:
W* 410UB60
Sx = 1190 x 103 mm3
fyf = 300 MPa
MP
3000 mm
M = φ Sx f yf = 0.9 ×1190×10 × 300 Nmm

* 3
= 321.3 kNm
*
M 321.3
M = W L = 3W
* * *
W =
*
≤ W * ≤ 107.1 kN
3 3
Design bending capacity
g g p y
M ≤ φM S
*
However, lateral
However lateral and local
φ = 0 .9 buckling usually result in
l
lowering M
i Mmax below M
b l Mp.
MS = MP
Beams are usually unable to reach Mp because of
the occurrence of premature BUCKLING
Local Buckling
g
and
S ti Cl ifi ti
Section Classification
Basis of section classification
Rolled or welded sections may be considered as an assembly
of individual plate elements
Some are outstand
Outstand
‐ flanges of I beams
fl f b Internal
‐ legs of angles and T‐sections
Internal
Web Web
Some are internal
‐ webs of open beams
‐ flanges of boxes
Flange Flange
Rolled I-section Hollow section

Rolled or welded sections may be considered as an assembly
y y
of individual plate elements
Some are outstand
Outstand
Internal
‐ flanges of I beams
fl f b
‐ legs of angles and T‐sections
Web Internal
te a
Some are internal
‐ webs of open beams Flange
‐ flanges of boxes
Welded box section

• As the plate elements are relatively thin, when loaded in compression they
may buckle locally
• The tendency of any plate element within the cross section to buckle may
limit the axial load carrying capacity, or the bending resistance of the
section, by preventing the attainment of yield.
• Avoidance of premature failure arising from the effects of local buckling
may be achieved by limiting the width‐to‐thickness ratio for individual
may be achieved by limiting the width to thickness ratio for individual
elements within the cross section.
Outstand
O t t d
Outstand
Internal Internal
Internal
Web Web I t
Internal
l
Web
Flange Flange Fl
Flange
Rolled I-section Hollow section Welded box section

Flange local buckling
g g
Buckled flange
Compression flange
Buckled web
Web
Flange and top compressive region of
the web DISTORT, but the line
junction between the flanges and web
remains straight.
Occurs in slender COMPRESSION FLANGES
Flange local buckling
g g
If the compression flange of a beam is slender, it may buckle LOCALLY and prevent the
beam from reaching its maximum bending strength Mp (PLASTIC MOMENT).
The stress to cause ELASTIC LOCAL BUCKLING σol is given

(see Trahair & Bradford Chapter 4):
2 Called
π E ⎛⎜ t f
2 ⎞
⎟ FLANGE OUTSTANDS
σ ol =k
12 (1 − ν 2 ) ⎜⎝ b f ⎟
⎠
tf
where:
k = the local buckling coefficient that depends
on edge and loading conditions (= 0.425 here) bf bf
E = Young
Young’ss modulus = 200 x 103 MPa
ν = Poisson’s ratio (0.3 for steel)
Plate buckling
• A thin flat rectangular plate subjected to compressive
forces along its short edges has an elastic critical buckling
stress ((σcr ) g
given byy
kσ π E ⎛ t ⎞
2 2
σ cr = ⎜ ⎟
12(1 − ν )⎝ b ⎠
2
kσ is the plate buckling parameter which accounts for edge

support conditions,
conditions stress distribution and aspect ratio of the
plate
Plate buckling in
g compression
p
Bounded plate
in uniform
compression
n = number of ½ sine waves
For bounded
flanges kb = 4
Flange plate behaviour in compression
Critical buckling coefficient kσ therefore depends on:
Flange in Compression
• Boundary conditions
L
t
• Stress distribution
(a) (b)
b
Simply supported on
• Aspect ratio all four edges Buckling coefficient k
5
b
(width/thickness) Simply supported 4
longitudinal edge b L Free
3 Exact
0 425 + (b/L) 2
k = 0.425
NOTE; for a web in pure 2
compression both longitudinal L (c)

edges
g are simply
p y supported
pp and 1
0.425
Free
kσ = 4.0. longitudinal edge 0 3
1 2 4 5
FREE FLANGE OUTSTAND (d) Plate aspect ratio L / b
Example 3
p 3
What must we restrict the width to thickness ratio bf/tf to in order to
ensure yielding at fyf will occur before elastic local buckling?
If buckling is to be prevented,
prevented then from:
2
π E ⎛⎜ t f
2 ⎞
⎟
σ ol =k
12 (1 − ν 2 ) ⎝⎜ b f ⎟
⎠
2
0 .425 × π × 200 × 10
2 3 ⎛ tf ⎞
f yf > σ ol = ⎜ ⎟
(
12 1 − 0 .3 2 ) ⎜b
⎝ f
⎟
⎠
bf
so that f yf ≤ 277 (fy in MPa)
tf
Section classification
AS
AS4100 defines three types of cross section:
d fi th t f ti
(a) COMPACT SECTION
(b) NON ‐ COMPACT SECTION
( )
(c) SLENDER SECTION
Section classification depends on:
Section classification depends on
• slenderness of each element (defined by
a width‐to‐thickness ratio)
idth t thi k ti )
• the compressive stress distribution
Slenderness parameter
⎛ bf ⎞ fy
λ e = ⎜⎜ ⎟
⎟ 250
⎝ tf ⎠
fy in MPa units
Variations in λey and

λep due to residual
stress effects
, λe
The section slenderness,
From the previous example we saw that the section slenderness (bf/tf) is
important in enforcing yielding to occur before elastic buckling.
It will be shown how this can be extended even further.
t be s o o t s ca be e te ded e e u t e
N.B.
fy must be in units of MPa ( = N/mm2)
The SLENDERNESS λe the significance of the f y term is
of a flange is defined by: apparent from f Examplel 3.
The “normalising” with respect to 250
MPa is historical as most steels once
⎛ bf ⎞ fy had fy = 250 MPa. Yield stresses are
λ e = ⎜⎜ ⎟
⎟ 250 now higher.
⎝ tf ⎠ (b f t f ) f y 250 obviously is more
transparent than (b f t f ) f y
((a) COMPACT SECTION
)
These sections allow the FULL PLASTIC MOMENT Mp and for
the strain hardening region to be entered before ELASTIC
BUCKLING occurs.
Sections must be COMPACT if plastic analysis/design is to be utilised.
The section slenderness is governed by:
The limits on λεp are much ‘tighter’

λ e ≤ λ ep th when
than h fol = fy ini Example
E l 3
because higher strains at fy are
needed to make local buckling occur
in the strain hardening region.
λe p is constant
Section classification There are limits for flange and web
classification
Th limits
The li it are therefore:
th f
λep = 10 [stress‐relieved flanges]
= 9 [hot‐rolled]
[h t ll d]
= 8 [welded]
[ ]
The difference is due to initial geometric out‐of‐
straightness and to different residual stresses.
Residual Stresses
Hot rolled
Hot‐rolled Welded
Compact section
p
M
Moment
t M - ρ of a
PLASTIC SECTION
MP
Inelastic local
MY buckling well into the
strain-hardening
range
curvature -ρ
The design equation is then:
M *
≤ φM S φ = 0 .9 M S = M P = fyS
Example 4
p 4
530UB92.4
Sx = 2370 x 103 mm3
fyf = 300 MPa
209
5333
10.2
209 N.B. Some UB’s have λe > 9.

We have not considered the
compactness of the web (this
will be done latter).
(b) NON‐COMPACT SECTION
These sections allow the FIRST YIELD MOMENT My to be reached,
but buckle locally before Mp can be attained.
Their moment/curvature response is: The design
equation is then:
Moment
M-ρ of a NON-COMPACT SECTION M * ≤ φM S
MP φ = 0 .9
MY and for a
Inelastic local buckling NON‐COMPACT
before Mp is reached SECTION
λe ≤ λey
M S = f y Ze
curvature -ρ
Non‐compact section
For non-compact
non compact sections: λep ≤ λe ≤ λey
The λey limits are ‘looser’ than the λep limits and essentially
correspond to the coincidence of yielding and elastic local buckling,
but they are modified to include residual stresses and initial geometric
imperfections in the strength.
The limits are therefore

λey = 16 [most flange outstands]
= 15 [welded flange outstands]
N.B. We saw in Example 3 that first yield [MY ] and elastic local buckling
coincided when (b f t f ) f y = 277 , or
(b f t f ) f y 250 = λe = 277 250 = 17.5 This is close to the above limits.

p
Ze is the effective section modulus.
Ze = S
S if MS = MP
of course,
f
Ze = Z if MS = MY
[Z = elastic section modulus,
MY = fy Z ]
p
R l behavior
Real b h i
Moment
MP
MS
MY Linear
approximation
IInelastic
l ti local
l l
buckling
ρy curvature -ρ
For non-compact sections we can interpolate linearly between

MY and MP, based on the value of λe.
p
Moment Linear
approximation
MP
MS
MY
⎡ λey − λe ⎤
Ze = Z + ⎢ ⎥ (S − Z )
⎢⎣ λey − λep ⎥⎦
λep λe λey λe
Section strength of
section with λe Check:
λe = λep Ze = Z + 1(S-Z)
1(S Z) = S [plastic]
λe = λey Ze = Z + 0(S-Z) = Z [non-compact]
((b) SLENDER SECTION
)
These sections buckle locally even before the yield stress (and My) are reached.
The moment/curvature response is:
h i
For slender
Moment sections:
M-ρ of a SLENDER SECTION λ e > λ ey

MP φ = 0 .9
MY
and for a
SLENDER
Buckling failure prior to MY SECTION:
curvature -ρ M S = f y Ze
Slender section
The effective section modulus may be calculated by two methods:
Method 1:
An effective width approach omits from each flange the width in excess of that
which corresponds to λey.
be be
tf
compression flange (partially effective, 2be)
ineffective (ignore)
(g )
tension flange (fully effective, b)
Slender section
The effective width be is defined such that:
be fy be λ ey
= λ ey or =
tf 250 b λe
Although accurate, the method may be cumbersome for beam cross‐sections as the
effective section becomes MONOSYMMETRIC, i.e.
Need to calculate new centroid and I:
Centroid of
original section yC ZC = I ZT = I
yC yT
Centroid of yT
Z e = min[Z C , Z T ] and since yT < yC
d f ti ti
defective section
Ze = I
yC
Slender section
Method 2:
Method 2
An easier and simpler method to use:
⎛ λ ey ⎞
Ze = ⎜⎜ ⎟⎟ Z
⎝ λe ⎠
where Z is the elastic modulus calculated for the full section.
Section classification based on web
slenderness
l d
So far we have considered the compression flange which may
f f
buckle locally under UNIFORM STRESS.
The web is subjected to bending stress (compression along one edge,
tension along the other edge) and may also buckle locally.
tension along the other edge) and may also buckle locally
C C
web
T T
Under bending, the coefficient k in web is approximately 23.9.
Web local buckling
g
Stocky flange
Slender
web Buckled web
Stocky flange occurs in slender webs

with large bending and/or
shear stress
h t
Web crippling
Occurs due to localised yielding of the
g
web near concentrated loads.
Behavior is dominated by gross yielding
over a small web region.
web
b
slenderness
Webs can be classified similarly to flanges as
Webs can be classified similarly to flanges as:
COMPACT: λe < λep

The limits are:
NON‐COMPACT:
NON COMPACT: λep ≤ λe < λe y
dw fy
SLENDER: λe ≥ λe y λe =
tw 250
tw
dw
λep = 82 λey = 115
slenderness
l d
For a SECTION to be COMPACT:
both the FLANGES and WEB must be compact.
For a SECTION to be NON‐COMPACT:
EITHER the FLANGE or WEB or BOTH are non‐compact.
For a SECTION TO BE SLENDER:
EITHER the FLANGE or WEB or BOTH are slender.
Compact flange ii.e. this SECTION is
hi i
classified as
Slender web SLENDER
Example 5
p 5
Calculate the design bending (section) capacity for
the cross‐section shown.
240
4 fy = 250 MPa throughout
8
10
240
Example 5
p 5
The cross section is therefore NON‐COMPACT.
f
Example 5
p 5
Box‐cross‐sections
For the compression flange, k
p g , = 4.0
For the web in bending, k = 23.9
compression
i
bf flange
b
bf
d
tf
Welded box column in Rectangular (or square) hollow section
bending [RHS or SHS]
Box‐cross‐sections
For the compression flange, k = 4.0
The classifications are the same as for flange outstands, but with:
λey = 45 [ hot-rolled]
hot rolled]
λep = 30 = 40 [ lightly welded]
= 35
3 [ hheavily
il welded]
ld d]
COMPACT if λe = (b f t f ) f y 250 < λep
again NON COMPACT if

NON‐COMPACT λep ≤ λe < λey
SLENDER if λe ≥ λey
The webs of box cross‐sections are clearly the same as those of I‐sections.
DESIGN
OF
LATERALLY
UNRESTRAINED
BEAMS
Lecture Outline
Lateral torsional buckling
Elastic lateral buckling
Twisting moment
warping
Moment gradient factor, αm
Slenderness reduction factor, αs
Idealised end conditions
full, lateral, partial and unrestrained
In-plane bending
X (u)
Y (v)
Out-of-plane buckling
φ φ
X (u)
Y (v)
or Lateral–Torsional Buckling
Lateral Torsional Buckling
or
Flexural-Torsional Buckling
or
Member Capacity
or
Lateral-Torsional buckling
or
Out-of-Plane buckling
Lateral buckling or flexural torsional buckling
φ
u
Buckled web
Buckled configuration
Original
configuration
u – lateral displacement
φ – twist
Introduction
Clamp at
root
• Slender structural elements
loaded in a stiff plane tend to
fail by buckling in a more
flexible plane.
• In the case of a beam bent
about its major axis, failure
Unloaded
may occur by a form of
buckling which involves both Buckled position
lateral deflection and twisting. position
Dead weight
Lateral-torsional
Lateral- load applied
vertically
buckling
Consider an I-beam …..
• Perfectly elastic, initially M M
straight, loaded by equal L
and opposite end moments Section
Elevation
about its major axis.
• Unrestrained along its length. Plan
• End Supports … z
– Twisting (φ) and lateral x
deflection (u) u
prevented.
– Free to rotate both in the y
plane of the web and on
plan.
φ
Strength limit state bending moment
capacity
Design equation for bending strength
Design capacity ≥ factored strength limit

state moment
Lateral buckling
Lateral buckling is the most influential strength limit
state in the design of steel beams.
Lateral buckling is also called flexural-torsional buckling

(or member buckling) and involves the lateral or sideways
instability of long slender beams.
Beams with FULL LATERAL RESTRAINT do not buckle

laterally and their strength is the
CROSS-SECTION STRENGTH defined by:
M * ≤ φM S M S = Ze f y φ = 0 .9
Lateral buckling
Most commonly beams do not have full lateral restraint and the
nominal strength Ms must be reduced to the MEMBER
BENDING STRENGTH Mb.
Lateral buckling is catastrophic and so

represents a STRENGTH LIMIT STATE.
The design equation is:

*
M ≤ φM b φ = 0 .9
Lateral buckling or flexural torsional buckling
Occurs in slender, laterally unrestrained beams.
Beam deflects laterally ( = sideways) by u and twist φ.

Like columns, the beam reaches an energy configuration at which it prefers to
snap into an OUT-OF-PLANE buckled position rather than continuing to bend
IN-PLANE.
M {unstable if u, φ = 0 after buckling moment}
buckling moment or “point of bifurcation”
stable buckled position
u, φ
Lateral buckling
We must therefore calculate Mb based on

lateral buckling of the beam.
This is done by undertaking firstly an

ELASTIC BUCKLING ANALYSIS.
The elastic buckling resistance depends on the
following cross-section properties:
Minor axis bending stiffness EIy

Torsion resistance GJ
Warping resistance EIw
Iy = minor axis second moment of area (mm4)
J = torsional constant (mm4)
Iw = warping constant (mm6)
E = Young’s modulus 200,000 MPa

for G = E
G = Shear modulus 80,000 MPa
steel 2(1 + ν )
ν = 0.3
Iy, J, Iw are all tabulated in the One Steel Handbook.
Alternatively for the doubly-symmetric I-section:
3
bf bf t f
Iy = (N.B. web ignored)
6
tw 1 n 1 3
tf
dw
3 i =1
3
3
(
J = ∑ bi ti = 2t f b f + t w3 d w )
I w = I y h 2 4 (doubly symmetric )
Twisting moment - torque
Consider a built-in cantilever subjected to a

twisting moment ( ≡ torque)
Mt
move “in” move “in”
ELEVATION
move “out”
PLAN Mt
Warping
An interpretation of “warping”:
A situation where plane sections do not remain

plane during torsion.
This occurs with lateral buckling and its effect is

reflected in the warping constant Iw.
Torsion
The equation of torsion is:
3
dφ dφ
M t = GJ − EI w 3
dz dz
uniform torsion warping torsion
resistance resistance
φ = angle of twist
Lateral buckling
Basic model for lateral buckling is a “simply supported I-beam”

subjected to a uniform bending moment M.
“Simply supported” in the lateral buckling sense

means lateral deflection and twist are prevented at
the beam ends (u = 0, φ = 0), but the flanges are
free to rotate in their planes when the beam buckles
laterally.
Simply supported I-beam - model
M M free to rotate in plane during
buckling, but u = φ = 0
L
buckled
ELEVATION top flange
PLAN
M M
BMD
Elastic buckling moment
The ELASTIC BUCKLING MOMENT is:
2
π EI y 2
π EI w
Mo = 2
⋅ GJ + 2
L L
(N.B. This is stated without proof. See Chapter 6 of Trahair & Bradford.)
Elastic buckling
Recall for the elastic buckling of a pin-ended column:
2 pin-ended
π EI y column
N oc = 2
deformed
L shape
Euler buckling load

(elastic critical buckling load – pin-ended column)
Example 1
Calculate the elastic lateral buckling moment for a simply supported
460UB82.1 beam of length L = 3m subjected to uniform bending.
191 From OneSteel Tables section properties handbook:
16
I y = 18.6 × 106 mm 4
J = 701× 103 mm 4
460
9.9
I w = 919 × 109 mm6
16
191
460UB82.1
N.B. this is the ELASTIC BUCKLING MOMENT and not the actual
BUCKLING STRENGTH Mb which also depends on the yield stress fy.
Mb will be determined later.
Of course beams in reality are rarely loaded in uniform bending,

nor are they pin-ended (or “simply supported”) so the formula for
Mo needs some modification.
So far we have considered uniform bending only.

This is very conservative as the elastic buckling moment
(Mo) is increased by unequal moments, transverse loads etc.
This effect is reflected in the αm values given in

Table 5.6.1 of AS4100.
M single curvature M M double curvature M
L L
+ = compression
M M M - = tension
+ BMD +
-
BUCKLED M
SHAPE
moment is
moment is highest very small in
in this region this region
The effect of the moment gradient is reflected in the αm values given in
Table 5.6.1 of AS4100 (see attachment).
Alternatively, the BMD is often given using analysis software (Microstran,
Spacegas, Multiframe etc.). Therefore
M*m = maximum
* design moment within a
1.7M m segment
αm = ≤ 2.5
( ) ( ) ( ) 
 *2 *2 * 2
 M 2 + M3 + M 4  where M*2, M*4 = design
moments at quarter
points of a segment
M*m M*3
x
M*4 M*3 = design moment
M*2 at the mid-length of a
segment
S/4 S/4 S/4 S/4 i.e. BMD segment

Moment modification factors
The SLENDERNESS REDUCTION FACTOR αs converts the ELASTIC
REFERENCE BUCKLING MOMENT Mo into a DESIGN STRENGTH.
 2 
1/ 2 
 M s  M  where Mo - the elastic reference
αS = 0.6   + 3 − s  buckling moment determined
 Mo  

Mo  from Le (effective length)
 
π 2 EI y π 2 EI w
Mo = 2
⋅ GJ +
L
e L2e
αs represents a transition between Ms – the section bending

capacity depending on
Ms) and elastic
full yielding (at whether the cross-section is
buckling (at Mo) compact, non-compact or
slender = Ze fy
αs Section strength at Ms
1.0
Elastic buckling at Mo
αs
0
Le
Long beam is not influenced
Short beam does not buckle by yielding as its bucking
laterally and αs = 1 moment is very small
There are four types:
• FULL RESTRAINT (F)

• PARTIAL RESTRAINT (P)
• LATERAL RESTRAINT (L)
• UNRESTRAINED (U)
• FULL RESTRAINT (F)
Lateral deflection and twist are effectively prevented, i.e.
brace
concrete
stiffeners slab
compression
flange
seat support shear

connector
•PARTIAL RESTRAINT (P)
Lateral deflection prevented at some point other than at the

compression flange, and partial twist thus occurs during bucking.
compression
flange
P φ
buckled
configuration
tension
flange
Seat support restrains tension (T) flange fully at ends.

•LATERAL RESTRAINT (L)
Compression flange is restrained against translation during

buckling, but the cross-section is free to twist during buckling.
screws
brace
thin roof sheeting –
quite stiff in-plane but thin sheeting “bends”
flexible in bending during buckling
UNRESTRAINED (U)
Free to both displace and twist during buckling,

i.e. cantilever tip.
W*
cantilever tip
For these idealised end conditions, AS4100 specifies a
TWIST RESTRAINT FACTOR kt
RESTRAINTS kt
FF FL LL FU 1.0
end 1
end 2 3
 d w  t f 
1 2
FP PL PU 1+    
 L  2t w 
3
 d w  t f 
PP
1 + 2   
 L  2t w 
Effects of load height
Load applied above the shear centre ( ≡ centroid for doubly
symmetric I-section) causes an increased “destabilising
torque” that lowers the buckling load.
W
W
W W
load at shear centre load at top flange level

Effects of load height
To account for the height of application of the load, AS4100 specifies a
LOAD HEIGHT FACTOR kl
For load WITHIN THE BEAM SEGMENT

RESTRAINTS AT SHEAR CENTRE AT TOP FLANGE
FF FP FL 1.0 1.4
PP PL LL
FU PU 1.0 2.0
For load AT THE END OF THE BEAM SEGMENT

RESTRAINTS AT SHEAR CENTRE AT TOP FLANGE
FF FP FL 1.0 1.0
PP PL LL
FU PU 1.0 2.0
Load and rotation factors: AS4100
conservatively
kr = 1
Lateral restrain classifications
Lateral restrain classifications
End restraints: examples
Twist factor: AS4100
Effective length Le
The reference buckling moment Mo is written in terms of the
EFFECTIVE LENGTH Le similarly as previously as:
2
π EI y π 2 EI w
Mo =
L 2
e
⋅ GJ +
L2e
Le = kt kl L
L = segment length or length of a N.B. AS4100 also has a “rotational
sub-segment between full and/or restraint factor” kr that is difficult to
partial restraints quantify and which we shall take
equal to unity (conservatively):
kt = twist restraint factor
Le = kt kl kr L = kt xkl x 1.0 x L
kl = load height factor
L e = kt kl L
Bending capacity, Mb
Finally, the design equation for bending within a segment is:
*
M ≤ φM b
M b = α mα s M s ≤ M s φ = 0 . 9
αm reflects the effect of the distribution of the bending
moment along the beam.
αs reflects the elastic lateral buckling (via Le Mo) and
yielding (Ms). It accounts for load height and restraint (via Le).
Bending capacity, Mb
Clearly if αmαs < 1.0, the full SECTION STRENGTH in bending is
not attained (Ms), and the beam will buckle laterally at Mb. This
is very often the case.
Mb is the MEMBER STRENGTH in deference to Ms which is

the SECTION STRENGTH.
αm reflects the bending moment effects (moment gradient) and is

reasonably difficult to control as the loading is fixed.
αs can be increased by using a bigger section
(larger Iy, Iw, J) or by bracing the beam to decrease Le.
Example 2
Determine the maximum design moment M* of a 200UC52.2 .
The effective length Le = 3.5m and the end moments are as shown.
M* 0.4M*
204
12.5
206
8.0
S x = 570 × 103 mm3
12.5
204 I y = 17.7 × 106 mm4
200UC52.2
fyf = 300 MPa J = 325 × 103 mm4
I w = 166 × 109 mm6
Example 2
1. Determine SECTION CAPACITY Ms

Example 2
2. Determine MEMBER CAPACITY Mb

Example 2
Example 2
In this case the SECTION STRENGTH Ms governed rather

than the MEMBER STRENGTH Mb that is determined by
lateral buckling.
This is because of:

• the low value of Le
• the high moment modification factor am that produced a
very high elastic buckling moment Mo . αm.
This is NOT always the case and commonly:
Mb < Ms.
Example 3
The loads are applied on the top flange.
Determine the maximum design value of W*.
4W* W*
A B C D
200UC52.2
Grade 300
P L U
3m 3m 3m
S x = 570 × 103 mm3
204
12.5
I y = 17.7 × 106 mm4
J = 325 × 103 mm4

206
8.0
I w = 166 × 109 mm6
12.5
204
Example 3
In-plane analysis
∑ C
M = 0 = 6 R *
A − 3 4W(*
+ 3W )
*
R A* = 1.5W *
M B* = 1.5W * × 3 = 4.5W * BMD
* * * 3W* D
M = −W × 3 = −3W
C
A B -
+ C
4.5W*
Example 3
Segment ABC – moment gradient
3β m FL
16
Example 3
Segment ABC – effective length
Example 3
Segment ABC – elastic buckling capacity
Segment ABC – section capacity

Example 3
Segment ABC – slenderness reduction factor, αs

Example 3
Segment CD – elastic buckling capacity

Example 3
Segment CD – slenderness reduction factor, αs
Example 4
A simply supported beam with a span of 15m has a nominal central concentrated
live load of 100 kN acting on the top flange. The beam is restrained against
lateral displacement and twist only at the ends, and is free to rotate in plan.
Design a suitable WB in accordance with AS4100 of Grade 300 steel.
150kN
15m
Example 4
Assume fyf = 300 MPa, compact section
α m = 1.35
Guess α s = 0.25
M sx ≥ 562.5 × 10 6 / (0.9 × 1.35 × 0.25) = 1851.9 kNm

Sx ≥ 1851.9 × 10 6 / 300 = 6172.8 × 103 kNm
Try a 800WB192
b f = 300 mm A g = 24400 mm 2
t f = 28 mm S x = 8060 × 10 3 mm 3
d = 816 mm I y = 126 × 10 6 mm 4
t w = 10 mm J = 4420 × 10 3 mm 4
9 6
fyf = 280 MPa
I w = 19600 × 10 mm
Example 4
Example 4
DESIGN
SHEAR
CAPACITY
Lecture Outline
Strength
g limit state
Local buckling
Intermediate transverse stiffeners
YIELD limit
li it state
t t
BUCKLING limit state
Combined shear and bending
L d bearing
Load b i stiffeners
tiff
YIELD limit state
BUCKLING limit state
Strength limit state
shear capacity
Design equation for shear

strength
t th
(φ Vv ) ≥ V *
D i
Design capacity
it ≥ factored
f t d strength
t th limit
li it
state shear
Local buckling in shear
The WEB off a steel
Th t l member
b resists
i t th
the
SHEAR STRESSES.
Local buckling in shear may restrict the

SHEAR CAPACITY of a BEAM.
The design equation is:
V ≤ φVv
*
φ = 0.9 Vv = nominal
shear
h capacity
it
Consider firstly
y when the shear stress in
the web is APPROXIMATELY UNIFORM.
shear
Parabolic
P b li but
b
stress
approximately
d dw tw
uniform
*
V
=
τ (d w t w )
For this case DEFINE Vv = Vu (u – uniform)
Equation
2
π E
2
⎛ tw ⎞
τ ol = k ⎜⎜ ⎟⎟
12 (1 − ν 2
) ⎝ dw ⎠
can also be used for local buckling

with shear stresses.
Example
p 1
Unsitffened web yielding in shear before buckling locally.

If the web is to yield before buckling locally then:
fy
τy = ≤ τ ol
3
For a long web, k = 5.35 and using E = 200 x 103 MPa, ν = 0.3
produces 2
f yw π × 200 × 10 ⎛ t w ⎞
2 3
≤ 5.35 ⎜⎜ ⎟⎟
3 (
12 1 − 0.3 2
) ⎝ dw ⎠
dw f yw
which rearranges to ≤ 81.9
tw 250
Example
p 1
f yw
The yield capacity is then Aw ≈ 0.58 Aw f yw
3
dw 82
Hence in AS4100 if <
tw f yw 250
The web yields before buckling and Vu = Vw

where Vw = 0.6 Aw f yw
For universal sections Aw = dtw
For welded sections Aw = dwtw
Example
p 1
when d w t w > 82 / f yw 250 the capacity equals the

local buckling capacity τ ol × Aw
dw 82
and so when ≥
tw f yw / 250
th webb buckles
the b kl before
b f i ld andd Vu = α vVw
it yields
where Vw = 0.6 Aw f yyw and

2
⎧ ⎫
⎪ ⎪
⎪ 82 ⎪
α v = ⎨ ⎬
⎪ dw f yw ⎪
⎪ t ⎪
⎩ w 250 ⎭
Example
p 1
N.B.
¾ When bucklingg governs,
g , it is common to add
vertical stiffeners as Vu drops off rapidly as 1 (d w t w )2
¾The provision of these vertical stiffeners will not

i
increase the
th capacity
it when
h yielding
i ldi governs, i.e.
i
when 82
d w tw <
f yw 250
(they only increase the buckling capacity)

Vertically – stiffened webs
If a web has vertical stiffeners,, its strength
g is increased markedlyy because:
• the elastic local buckling coefficient is increased
• a benign tension field action develops similar to a truss action
Of course this only applies when Vu < Vw
stiffener web flange stiffener
s
dw
Verticallyy – stiffened webs
The nominal capacity is: Vu = α vα d V w ≤ V w
2
⎧ ⎫
⎪ ⎪
αv
⎪
= ⎨
82 ⎪
⎬ 0 . [
75 (d w / s )2
+1 ]
⎪ dw fy ⎪
⎪ t ⎪
⎩ w 250 ⎭ when
s ≥ dw
2
⎧ ⎫
⎪ ⎪
αv
⎪
= ⎨
82 ⎪
⎬ [(d w / s ) + 0 . 75
2
]
⎪ dw fy ⎪
⎪ t ⎪
s < dw
when
⎩ w 250 ⎭
1−αv
αd = +1
1 .15α v 1 + (s / d w )
2
αv reflects the local buckling contribution.

Under shear, the local buckling coefficient is approximately:
k = 5 .35 + 4 (d w s ) s ≥ dw
2
k = 5 .35 (d w s ) + 4 s < dw
2
αd reflects the TENSION FIELD contribution.
stiffener
stiffener
web flange
The stiffened web ppanel acts like a truss,, but the compression
p region
g of the
thin web plate is very slender and unable to resist much compressive stress.
Check the equations: Let s >> d (no stiffeners)
(d w / s )
2
→0 so αv =
82
1 αv
1−
d w f yw αd → +1 →1
t w 250
1.15αv ⋅ ∞
2
⎧ ⎫
Hence ⎪ ⎪
⎪ 82 ⎪ which is the same as for
Vu = ⎨ ⎬ × 1 × Vw an unstiffened web.
⎪ d w f yw ⎪
⎪t ⎪
⎩ w 250 ⎭
Example
p 2
Calculate the design shear capacity for a 200x2 web plate if

stiffeners are placed at 400 mm intervals.
Example
p 2
Example
p 3
What stiffener spacing in the 200x2 web plate is needed

to resist a design shear V* = 56kN?
Example
p 3
This design
Thi d i equation ti agrees withith the
th previous
i design
d i check
h k and
d illustrates
ill t t
the bilinear interpolation in the (αv αd) table.
Non-uniform shear stress distribution
The shear may be nonuniform in a monosymmetric beam:
parabola
2Vu
Vu =
⎛ f vm ⎞
0.9 + ⎜⎜ ⎟⎟
τ ⎝ f va ⎠
The h Vu is defined
h strength d f d as earlier
l forf uniform
f shear
h stress
fvm = maximum shear stress For design: V ≤ φVv φ = 0.9

*
fva = average shear stress
Non-uniform shear stress distribution
*
τvm = fvm = maximum shear stress =
V Qmax
It w
area A
at this location Q = A ⋅ y
τva = fva = average shear stress

y
V*
τ va = f va =
d wt w
f vm Qmax
For this case: = ⋅ dw
f va I
Proportioning intermediate transverse stiffeners
Intermediate transverse stiffeners are used to PREVENT BUCKLING OF

THE WEB IN SHEAR when subjected to a design shear force V*.
Recall the design check is: Vu = α vα d V w ≤ V w

αv and αd are calculated based on a stiffener spacing s.
V w = 0 .6 Aw f yw
The stiffener must be STIFF ENOUGH to prevent
local buckling, as well as STRONG ENOUGH to carry
the tension field component without failing.
They must therefore be designed for STRENGTH and STIFFNESS.

MININUM AREA: A minimum area is required for the stiffeners to carry

the vertical force in the tension field action utilised in the use of αv.
The minimum area rule is:
⎧⎪ s ( s / dw )
2 ⎫⎪
As ≥ 0 .5γAw (1 − α v )⎨ − ⎬
⎪⎩ d w (
1+ s / dw )2
⎪⎭
γ = 1.0 for a pair of stiffeners

=11.8
8 for a single stiffener comprising of an angle section
= 2.4 for a single plate stiffener
αv = factor determined earlier = f ((d w / t w ) f yw / 250 , s / d w )

MININUM STIFFNESS:
Stiffeners must be stiff enough to enforce a node
at the web/stiffener junction at local buckling web
I s ≥ 0 .75 d w t w3 s / dw < 2
3 3
1 .5 d t
≥ 2
w w
s / dw ≥ 2
s
stiffener
Iw is the second moment of area of the stiffener about the

web centreline.
Buckling
g capacity
p y
When intermediate stiffeners are used,
used the capacity of the web is
Vb = αvαdVw.
Hence: V ≤ φ ( Rsb + Vb )
*
φ = 0 .9
Rsb = buckling capacity determined in the same way as for a

load bearing stiffener
⎛ dw f yws ⎞⎟
Vb = αdαvVw as earlier, where αv = f ⎜ ,
⎜ tw 250 d w ⎟⎠
⎝
Vw = 0.6Awfy as earlier
End p
panel
At the end of the beam the tension field must be “anchored”
anchored .
sep
end panel – tension field

action cannot be mobilised
This can be achieved by choosing s in the design equation:
V * ≤ φ (α vα d )V w with α d = 1 .0
Connection of intermediate stiffener to web
< 4tw
< 4tw
Stiffener/web connection must be capable of resisting a design shear force of:
t w2
0.008 f ys [kN / mm] fys in MPa (N/mm2)
bs
tw = web thickness in mm
bs = stiffener outstand in mm
Stiffener outstand
As for a load bearing stiffener – local buckling

of stiffener must not occur prior to attainment of
the yield stress, i.e.
⎛ bs ⎞ f ys
⎜⎜ ⎟⎟ ≤ 15
⎝ ts ⎠ 250
Vertically – stiffened webs
local b
buckling
ckling of the web
eb in shear
yes END
YIELD LIMIT proportion
STATE INTERMEDIATE
V * ≤ φVu no (TRANSVERSE)
stiffeners
N.B αvαd
Vw = 0.6fyAw includes s
Vu = α vV w V b = α vα d V w
(spacing)
αv ≤ 1 yes
BUCKLING
LIMIT STATE
no V ≤ φVb
*
no
V * ≤ φVw no increase Aw decrease s

yes
yes
END
END
Sometimes Vv has to be reduced where high shear forces V* and high moments M*
coincide.
(for example, in a continuous beam where V* and M* are high at an internal support)
- BMD -
SFD
g
Design capacity: V ≤ φVv m
*
φ = 0.9
Vvm = Vv when M ≤ 0.75(φM s )

*
⎧ 1.6M ⎫ *
M *
Vvm = Vv ⎨2.2 − ⎬ when 0.75 ≤ ≤ 1.0
⎩ φM s ⎭ φM s
MS is BENDING SECTION CAPACITY.
1.0
Vvm/Vv
0.75 1.0
M*/φMs
Proportioning method –
an alternative procedure
If the flanges
g have enough g capacity
p y to resist the bending
g moment,,
the web may resist all of the shear force. Thus,
M ≤ φM f φ = 0.9
*
Mf = Cdf = Tdf = Af fyf df C = Af fyf

Af = area of flange
df = distance
di t b
between
t
flange centroids
DESIGN THE WEB

df ≡ Mf
ONLY FOR SHEAR
V ≤ φVv
* then T = Af fyf
Web crippling limit state
Occurs due to localised yielding of
the web near concentrated loads.
Behavior is dominated by gross

yielding over a small web region.
web
b
“Crippling”
Crippling is caused by YIELDING of the web due to concentrated
loads (point loads and reactions).
CRIPPLING IS PREVENTED BY LOAD BEARING STIFFENERS

PLACED IN PAIRS ON EACH SIDE OF THE WEB AND WELDED TO
THE FLANGE.
We have to design
g for two Stiffener p
plates
limit states: welded to web
and flanges
• YIELD and
web
• BUCKLING
“CONCENTRATED
CONCENTRATED LOADS” LOADS are only an abstraction
(structural idealisation) used in structural analysis
In reality,
y, the loads are applied
pp to the flange
g byy a STIFF BEARING PLATE
P* Stiff bearing
plate
flange
ELEVATION
web
Web crippling
pp g limit state
We will consider firstlyy the case when NO STIFFENERS are p
present.
If either the YIELD or BUCKLING limit state fails for the unstiffened web
then stiffeners must be design for
for.
The bearing stress is assumed to disperse through the flange at 1:2.5
bearing R* flange R*
plate
1
bbf 1
2.5 2.5
web
b
ELEVATION END ELEVATION

Web crippling
pp g – YIELD limit state
For the YIELD LIMIT STATE:
R ≤ φRby
*
φ = 0.9 The 1.25 factor accounts
for the benign
g triaxial
stress state at the
flange/web interface
Rby = 1.25bbf t w f y where
h the
th restraining
t i i
actions allow large stresses
yielding to be resisted so that the
bearing strength is taken as
((1.25fy)
Web crippling – BUCKLING limit state
For the BUCKLING
LIMIT STATE,
S the
h
stress is dispersed as bb dw/2
below to obtain bb:
1
SUPPORT REACTION 1
1 dw/2
2.5
CASE
R* The web is then considered as an

POINT LOAD
CASE
R* “effective column” as below:
effective column
N
tw
1
2.5
1 1 1
dw/2
2.5
1 1 Le bb
dw/2
bb
N
The BUCKLING LIMIT STATE is then:
R ≤ φRbb
*
φ = 0.9
Rbb is the buckling capacity of a column bb wide by tw thick with a

slenderness ratio Le/r = 3.5 (dw/tw)
buckling
bearing
r ≡ radius
di off gyration
ti ≡ I/A
The BUCKLING capacity Rbb of the “column”
column can be obtained from the
following recipe:
Le fy dw fy
1. Calculate the MODIFIED SLENDERNESS: λn = = 3.5
r 250 tw 250
2. Use the column tables with λn and αb = 0.5 to determine αc (T6.3.3(3))
3. The column capacity is then: Rbb = α c ⋅ (t wbb ) ⋅ f y
If Rb = min [Rby, Rbb] the check is then: R ≤ φRb φ = 0.9

*
Web crippling
If either the YIELD or BUCKILNG limit states fail for an unstiffened web
then PAIRS OF LOAD BEARING STIFFENERS will be required.
tw bs
bs
ts A A
A-A web
If the stiffeners are to be adequate they must again

satisfy YIELD and BUCKLING limit states.
Web crippling
N.B.
• load
l d bearing
b i stiffeners
iff resist
i ““concentrated”d” lloads
d
• intermediate transverse stiffeners (which were considered
earlier) resist local buckling of the web in shear.
The YIELD LIMIT STATE is: R ≤ φRsy

* φ = 0.9
Rsy = Rby + As f ys yield
stiffened
Rby
b - capacity of unstiffened web (as earlier)
As - area of stiffener (2bsts)
fys - yield stress of stiffener

Example 4
Check the adequacy of a pair of load bearing stiffeners 100 x 16 plates with
fys = 350 MPa for the girder shown with a design load of 1600 kN applied
through a stiff bearing of length 300 mm. Check YIELD only.
300
25
1500
10
b = 1.25bbf t w f y
Rby
25
300
Rsy = Rby + As f ys
Web crippling
pp g – BUCKLING limit state
The BUCKLING LIMIT STATE is: R ≤ φRsb
* φ = 0.9
stiffened
buckling
Rsb is the column buckling capacity of the following
effective cross-section:
cross section:
web
ts Eff ti cross-section
Effective ti
tw bs
s = spacing
bs between
ls ls 17.5t w stiffeners
or s / 2
f y / 250
(whichever is less)
Web crippling
The column buckling capacity Rsb can be obtained from the following recipe:
Le
1. Determine the slenderness ratio:
r
Le = 0.7dw if the flanges are restrained by other structural members against twist
rotation, i.e.
members
prevent
Le = 1.0 dw twist
otherwise
Web crippling
r ≡ I/A
For the effective section:
I ≈ (2 b s + t w ) × t s / 12
3
(
A = 2 b s t s + 2 × 17 . 5 t w / )
f y / 250 t w
or
A = 2 b s t s + 2 × (s / 2 )t w whichever is less
Web crippling
Le fy
2. Calculate the modified slenderness ratio: λn =
r 250
3. Determine αc from tables using αb = 0.5
4. The BUCKLING STRENGTH is then: Rsb = α c Af y
N.B. The load bearing stiffener must YIELD before it buckles locally
it lf Th
itself. Therefore,
f
bs f
≤ 15
ys
outstand of stiffener
ts 250 yield stress of
stiffener
Example
p 5
Check the BUCKLING LIMIT STATE in Example 4.
4
300
25 16
10 100
1500
10
100
25 ls ls
300
EFFECTIVE
STIFFENER/WEB
CROSS SECTION
CROSS-SECTION
Example 5
(Flanges unrestrained
i against
i twist)
i
Example
p 5
Clearly load bearing stiffeners design is a TRIAL & ERROR

PROCESS requiring design checks.
Web crippling
load bearing stiffeners resist “concentrated” loads
WITHOUT INCLUDE
STIFFENERS STIFFENERS
YIELD LIMIT BUCKLING

STATE LIMIT STATE
YIELD LIMIT BUCKLING
STATE LIMIT STATE
Rby = 1 .25bbf t w f y Rbb = α c ⋅ (t wbb ) ⋅ f y

Rsy = Rby + As f ys Rsb = α c Af y
R* ≤ φRb no R ≤ φRs
*
Rb = min[Rbb, Rby] no
Rs = min[Rsy, Rsb]
yes increase As
yes
END END
Steel Beam-Columns
Strength
Limit
State
Reference
e e e ce Material
ate a
9AS4100 – 1998 Steel Structures: Standards Australia, Sydney
9AS1170 1 & AS1170

9AS1170.1 AS1170.2
2LLoading
di C Codes:
d Standards Association
of Australia, Sydney, 1998.
9NS Trahair & MA Bradford: The Behavior and Design of Steel

Structures to AS4100, 3rd Australia edition, E&FN Spon, London, 1998.
9MA Bradford, RQ Bridge & NS Trahair: Worked Examples for

Steel Structures, 3rd edition, AISC, Sydney, 1997.
9ST Woolock, S Kitipornchai & MA Bradford: Design of Portal

Frame Buildings
Buildings, 3rd edition,
edition AISC,
AISC Sydney,
Sydney 1999.
1999
Lecture
ectu e Out
Outline
e
9 Steel Beam-column
9 Strength limit state
9 Types of failure:
9 in-plane failure
9 lateral-torsional
l t l t i l buckling
b kli
9 biaxial failure
BMD, Mx
Frames
a es
x - direction
2-D frame
BMD, My
y
x
y - direction
w
3 D frame
3-D
w, UDL applied in both
y x and y direction
x
In-plane
p a e be
behavior
a o
STEEL BEAM COLUMNS are subjected to
COMBINED BENDING and COMPRESSION
N
M1
B
This is typical of a
column in a rigid
frame:
A
M2
N
Steel beam
Beam (UDL - Beam
major axis loading) (couple)
Beam
(torsion)
Beam (UDL -
minor axis loading)
Column Beam-column
(axial compression) (axial compression
+ transverse loading)
In--plane
In p a e be
behavior
a o
There are three STRENGTH LIMIT STATES that may have to be considered:
(i) IN
IN-PLANE
PLANE FAILURE
when the member is loaded about its major axis with full lateral support so that lateral
beam buckling cannot occur (or column buckling cannot occur around the minor axis)
or when the column is bent about its minor axis
(ii) FLEXURAL-TORSIONAL BUCKLING

when the member is bent about its major
j axis and there is insufficient lateral support
pp
(iii) BIAXIAL FAILURE

when the member is loaded about both principal axes
In--plane
In p a e be
behavior
a o
X (u)
Y (v)
Out--of-
Out of-plane
p buckling
g
φ φ
X (u)
Y (v)
or Flexural–Torsional Buckling
In--plane
In p a e be
behavior
a o
M β mM
N N
Lateral restraints
−1 ≤ βm ≤ 1
For a column with an imperfection δo the moment under the

application of an axial force N at mid-height
mid height is:
N ×δ o
N E = π EI / L
2 2
1− N NE
Euler buckling load
[P-δ effect (second order effects)]
In--plane behavior
In
R ll
Recall,
e0
N N
P-δ effect
M
M Nδ
z
δ δ
L
M [1-(1+β) z/L]
βM
N M
eL FIRST ORDER EFFECTS
eccentrically applied axial load N
results in double curvature bending SECOND ORDER EFFECTS
In--plane
In p a e be
behavior
a o
N δ
N
ο
The first-order moment Nδo is therefore amplified by:
In a beam-column, the imperfection may be thought of as

being caused by the moments M and βmM at the ends
M β mM
N N
In--plane
In p a e be
behavior
a o
Thee deflected
de ected sshape
ape of
o the
t e beam-column
bea co u iss ggiven
ve by ((Trahair andd Bradford,
d o d, 1998
998 –
Chapter 7):
v=
M
[cos μz − (β m cos ecμL + cot μL )sin μz − 1 + (1 + β m ) z L]
N
N π2 N
where μ =
2
= 2
EI L N E
N
when β < − cos π
N E the maximum moment is:
⎧⎪ ⎛ N N ⎞
2
⎫⎪
M m = M ⎨1 + ⎜⎜ β m cos ecπ + cot π ⎟ ⎬
⎪⎩ ⎝ NE N E ⎟⎠ ⎪
⎭
N
and when β ≥ − cos π the maximum moment is
NE
(i.e. at the end of the member)

In--plane
In p a e be
behavior
a o
These equations are clearly cumbersome
cumbersome, and the maximum
moment is approximated by:
cm
M max =M ≥M 0 6 0 4βm
1− N NE where
h cm = 0.6-0.4
The maximum stress in the beam-column is:
N M max
σ max = +
A Z
Axial stresses Bending stresses
In--plane
In p a e be
behavior
a o
If the beam column reaches its maximum strength when σmax = fy then:
beam-column
N M max
σ max
N M max
= fy = + /fy 1= + or
A Z Af y Zf y
N M ⎛ cm ⎞ cm
1= + ⎜⎜ ⎟⎟ M max =M ≥M
NY M Y ⎝ 1 − N N E ⎠
from
1− N NE
where
In AS4100:
NY = Afy is the squash load
NY is replaced by the strength
MY = Zfy is the first yield moment
Ns (=kf Ag fy)
MY is replaced by the bending strength
Ms = Ze fy Effective modulus so
In--plane
In p a e be
behavior
a o
D i equation:
Design ti
The DESIGN MOMENT M* is usually obtained from a second-

order elastic frame program (i.e. Microstran or Spacegass)
cm
which has the amplification
p factor build into it.
1 − N NE
Alt
Alternatively,
ti l theth maximum
i momentt M*max can be
b obtained
bt i d ffrom a fi
first-
t
order (linear) analysis and then amplified to produce M*.
In--plane
In p a e be
behavior
a o
AS4100 thus requires the design actions N* and M* to satisfy:
⎛ N *
⎞
M ≤ φM S ⎜⎜1 −
*
⎟⎟
⎝ φNS ⎠
The strength φMs(1-N*/φNs) is called φ Mr .
Reduced from Ms due
to axial force.
φN S
[N.B. for a R-C cross-section]:
N*
φNo N *
strength
p
envelope
φM S strength M*
envelope
M*
φM o
Example
a pe1
Determine
D t i the
th d
design
i majorj axisi section
ti momentt capacity
it
φMrx of a 200UC52.2 of Grade 300 steel which has a design
axial compressive force of N* = 143.9 kN
204
f y = 300 MPa
12.5
A = 6660mm2
2206
8.0
S x = 570 ×103 mm3

12.5
Plastic section modulus
Example
a pe1
For compression:
F bending:
For b di
Example
a pe1
For combined actions:
Plastic
ast c capac
capacity
ty
The equation: If the cross
cross-section
section is
M ≤ φM S 1− N φN S
*
( *
) COMPACT (i.e. local
buckling is not a problem
and λe < λep) then the stress
is based on first yield at
distribution at failure is:
f il
failure, i.e.
i
PLASTIC
fy BEHAVIOUR fy
Stress reaches
first yyield fy
M* M*
N* N*
ELASTIC
BEHAVIOUR
Example
a pe2
Pl ti analysis
Plastic l i off a rectangular
t l cross-section
ti
f y = 300MPa
b
fy
M* C
N* d dn > d / 2
N A
T
fy
Geometric
centroid Plastic C = bxdnxfy
neutral axis
T = bx((d-dn)xfy
Example
a pe2
N = C − T = bd n f y − bdf y + bd n f y = − N S + 2d nbf y
⎛ d dn ⎞ d
M = C ×⎜ − ⎟ +T ×
⎝2 2 ⎠ 2
These equations may be solved for dn, and using
N S = bdf y
bd 2
MS = fy
4
produces at plastic failure
2
⎛ N ⎞ M
⎜⎜ ⎟⎟ + =1
⎝ NS ⎠ MS
In--plane
In p a e be
behavior
a o
2
M *
⎛ N *
⎞
+ ⎜⎜ ⎟⎟ = 1
1.0 φM S ⎝ φN S ⎠
N*
φN S M* N*
+ =1
φM S φN S
M * φM S 1.0
The linear interaction may therefore often be too conservative. In AS4100, if the cross-
section is COMPACT and EFFECTIVE (kf = 1) and doubly symmetric then
⎛ ⎞
M *
≤ φM = φM × 1 . 18 ⎜⎜ 1 −
N*
⎟⎟ ≤ φ M φ = 0 .9
φN S
rx S S
⎝ ⎠
Example
a pe3
The 200UC52
Th 200UC52.2 2 considered
id d earlier
li iis d
doubly-symmetric
bl t i
compact (λe < λep for bending) and effective (λe < λey for
compression). Hence
φM rx = 1.18 × 153.9(1 − 143.9 1798) = 167.1kNm
204
⎛ N *
⎞
12.5 M * ≤ φM rx = φM S × 1.18⎜⎜1 − ⎟⎟ ≤ φM S
⎝ φN S ⎠
2206
8.0
but φM S = 153.9kNm < 167.1kNm
12.5 The section is thus unaffected by axial

compression and fails plastically at
φM S = 153.9kNm
In--plane
In p a e be
behavior
a o
The equation: M ≤ φM rx
*
is a check on the strength of the cross-section under bending (M*)

and i (N*)
d compression
If th
the b
beam-column
l is
i too
t slender
l d (i.e.
(i Le/r
/ is
i too
t great)
t) it may fail
f il
by column buckling at NC rather than yield at NS.
N.B. We have considered it to be laterally restrained, so it cannot

buckle laterally at Mb < MS. We will check this later.
In--plane
In p a e be
behavior
a o
M x ≤ φM ix
*
Hence in AS4100:
⎛ N* ⎞
M ix = φM sx ⎜⎜1 − ⎟⎟ N.B. We have assumed the
⎝ φN C ⎠ b
beam-column
l fails
f il in-plane
i l by
b
column buckling about the x-
In-plane
p bent about x-axis
strength axis. It cannot fail by buckling
φ N C = φ (α C k f Af y )
about the y-axis because it is
laterally restrained.
is the column strength

NC must be determined therefore from λnx
Effective length
g factor
For column design or checking we generally use the effective length
Le (although the above example has shown how λn can be determined
from the elastic bucklingg load determined byy a computer
p program
p g or
from charts in text books).
Le = ke L
L is the column length;

ke is
i the
h EFFECTIVE LENGTH FACTOR
Some standard cases for isolated columns are given below

(Trahair & Bradford, 1998):
Effective length
g factor
l =L l = L/ 2 NE l = 0.7L NE l = L/ 2 NE l = 2L NE
NE
l L
l
L l L L L l l
l
π 2EI 4π 2EI 2π 2EI 4π 2EI π 2EI

NE = NE = 2 NE = 2 NE = 2 NE =
L2 L L L 4L2
Theoretical
1.0 0.5 0.7 0.5 2.0
ke
AS4100
ke 1.0 0.5 0.85 0.7 2.2
Example
a pe4
Check
Ch k th
the 200UC52
200UC52.22 considered
id d earlier
li if it iis subjected
bj t d tto
design moment of 121.5 kNm and 124.7 kNm as well as an
axial compression of 143.9 kN. The effective length Le about
the x-axis is 7.0 m.
f y = 300MPa
204
rx = 89.1mm
12 5
12.5
206
8.0 124.7 kNm 121.5 kNm
12.5
143.9 kN 143.9 kN
Example
a pe4
⎛ N* ⎞
M ix = φM sx ⎜⎜1 − ⎟⎟
⎝ φN C ⎠
In--plane
In p a e be
behavior
a o
The linear interaction equation is essentially based on first yield

at fy and may in some cases be too conservative. Thus for
compact doubly symmetric sections (with kf = 1), AS4100 uses:
⎡ ⎧
⎪ ⎛ + β
3
⎫⎛ ⎞⎤
m ⎞ ⎪
*
1 N
M ≤ φM ix = φM sx ⎢⎨1 − ⎜ ⎟ ⎬⎜⎜1 − ⎟⎟⎥
*
⎢⎣⎪⎩ ⎝ 2 ⎠ ⎪⎭⎝ φN C ⎠⎥⎦

⎛1+ βm ⎞
3
N*
+ 1.18⎜ ⎟ 1−
⎝ 2 ⎠ φN C
≤ φM rx
Example
a pe5
For the 200UC52.2 in the previous example
204
f y = 300MPa
12.5
rx = 89.1mm
206
80
8.0
124.7 kNm 121.5 kNm

12 5
12.5
143.9 kN 143.9 kN
Example
a pe5
In--plane
In p a e be
behavior
a o
If the cross-section is bent about the y-axis then in AS4100:
M ≤ φM ryy φ = 0.9
*
y
⎡ N ⎤
*
M ry = M sy ⎢1 − ⎥
⎣ φN S ⎦
Section capacity about y-axis
and out-of-plane buckling CANNOT occur.

In--plane
In p a e be
behavior
a o
Further if the cross-section is doubly symmetric and compact,
the less conservative equation below may be used:
M ≤ φM ry
*
y φ = 0.9
⎡ ⎛ N *
⎞
2
⎤
M ryy = 1.19M syy ⎢1 − ⎜⎜ ⎟⎟ ⎥ ≤ M syy
⎢⎣ ⎝ φN S ⎠ ⎥⎦
Section capacity about y-axis
Example
a pe6
Determine
D t i the
th d
design
i minor
i axis
i section
ti momentt capacity
it
φMry of a 200UC52.2 of Grade 300 steel which has a design
axial compressive force of N* = 143.9 kN
204 S y = 264 ×103 mm3

Z y = 174 ×103 mm3
12.5
b
206
80
8.0
N.B. for a rectangular section d
12 5
12.5 S = bd 4 Z = bd / 6
2 2
So S = 1.5Z and the code requires that

Z e ≤ 1.5Z
Example
a pe6
Out--o
Out of--p
of plane
a e be
behavior
a o
A beam
beam-column
column bent about its principal (x) axis may buckle laterally and twist,
if there is insufficient lateral support, at a load which is significantly less than
the maximum load predicted by an in-plane analysis.
This flexural-torsional buckling may occur while the member is still elastic, or
after some yielding due to in-plane
in plane bending and compression has occurred
occurred.
Out-of-plane
behaviour
In-plane
behaviour
Flexural-torsional bucking of beam-columns

Out--of-
Out of-plane
p buckling
g
φ φ
X (u)
Y (v)
or Flexural–Torsional Buckling
Out--o
Out of--p
of plane
a e be
behavior
a o
Consider an elastic beam-column in uniform bending:
Moc Moc
Noc Noc
SIMPLY SUPPORTED
Out--o
Out of--p
of plane
a e be
behavior
a o
The combination of moment Moc and compression Noc to cause lateral
buckling (i.e. buckling out of the plane of loading) is derived in
Chapter 7 of Trahair and Bradford (1998) as
⎛ ⎞⎛
2
⎛ M oc ⎞ N oc ⎞
⎟ ⎜ 1 − N oc
is the Euler buckling load
⎜⎜ ⎜
⎟⎟ = 1 − ⎟⎟
⎜ ⎟⎜
⎝ Mo ⎠ ⎝ Ny ⎠⎝ Nz ⎠
⎛ π EI y ⎞ ⎛ π 2 EI y
⎟ ⎜ GJ + π EI w
⎞
2 2
where Mo = ⎜ ⎟⎟ Ny =
⎜ L2 ⎟ ⎜ 2
L2
⎝ ⎠⎝ L ⎠
is the torsional buckling load (i.e. the load to buckle

GJ ⎛ π 2 EI w ⎞
Nz = 2 ⎜⎜ 1 + ⎟⎟ the member by twisting about its longitudinal axis,
axis
2 Ix + Iy
ro ⎝ GJL ⎠ and ro2 = , ro = polar radius of gyration)
A
Out--o
Out of--p
of plane
a e be
behavior
a o
⎛ ⎞⎛
2
⎛ M oc ⎞ N oc ⎞
⎜⎜ ⎜
⎟⎟ = 1 − ⎟ ⎜ 1 − N oc ⎟⎟
Equation ⎜ ⎟⎜
⎝ Mo ⎠ ⎝ Ny ⎠⎝ Nz ⎠
does not account for the amplification of Mc due to Ncxδ, where δ is the mid-
1
span deflection. We have seen that the amplification is
1− N N X
where N x = π 2 EI x L2 as the member is bent about its x-axis
⎛ ⎞⎛
2
⎛ M oc ⎞ N ⎞
⎜⎜ ⎟⎟ = ⎜ 1 − oc ⎟ ⎜ 1 − N oc ⎟⎟ can be replaced by:
Hence equation ⎜ ⎟⎜
⎝ Mo ⎠ ⎝ Ny ⎠⎝ Nz ⎠
⎛ ⎞⎛
2 2
⎛ M oc ⎞ ⎛ N ⎞ ⎞
⎜⎜ ⎟⎟ = ⎜⎜ 1 − oc ⎟⎟ ⎜ 1 − N oc ⎟ ⎜ 1 − N oc ⎟⎟
⎜ ⎟⎜
⎝ Mo ⎠ ⎝ Nx ⎠ ⎝ Ny ⎠⎝ Nz ⎠
Out--o
Out of--p
of plane
a e be
behavior
a o
For most hot-rolled sections Noc<<Nx, and Ny<<Nx so that:
(1 − N N z ) > (1 − N N y )(1 − N N x )
⎛ ⎞⎛
2
⎛ M oc ⎞ N ⎞
⎜⎜ ⎜
⎟⎟ = 1 − oc ⎟ ⎜ 1 − N oc ⎟⎟ can then be approximated by:
Equation ⎜ ⎟⎜
⎝ Mo ⎠ ⎝ Ny ⎠⎝ Nz ⎠
N oc 1 M oc
+ =1
Ny (1 − N c N x ) M o
This equation is the basis of the AS4100 design rule.

rule
Out--o
Out of--p
of plane
a e be
behavior
a o
M oc
Since 1 − N oc N x
corresponds to the amplified moment

(that is, the second order M* from a stiffness package),
this equation becomes:
N* M*
+ ≤1
φN c φM b
or M ≤ φM ox
*
x
φM ox = φM b (1 − N φN c )
out of plane
*
Example
a pe7
Check the out
out-of-plane
of plane member capacity of the 200UC52.2
200UC52 2 beam-
beam
column of Grade 300 steel considered previously with end moments of
121.5 kNm and 124.7 kNm that bend it into reverse curvature if the
effective
ff ti lengths
l th for
f column
l and
d beam
b lateral
l t l buckling
b kli are both
b th
Le = 7000 mm.
204
A = 6660mm 2 I x = 52.8 × 10 6 mm 4 I y = 17.7 ×106 mm 4
ry = 51.5mm J = 325 × 103 mm 4 I w = 166 × 109 mm 6
12.5
206
8.0
12.5
Example
a pe7
Example
a pe7
Example
a pe7
Biaxial
a a bebending
d g
More
o e generally
ge e y a beam-column
be co u iss bent
be about
bou BOTH
O major es by M*x and
jo axes d M*y ,
as well as being subjected to a compressive force N*.
Thi situation
This it ti is i complex
l tot model
d l accurately.
t l AS4100 requires
i a CROSS
CROSS-
SECTION CHECK to be made according to: * *
M *
N M
+ + ≤1
x y
φ N S φ M Sx φ M Sy
or for compact doubly-symmetric I-sections
according to the less conservative:
γs γs
⎛ M * ⎞ ⎛ M *
⎞
⎜ x ⎟ +⎜
y
⎟ ≤1 ⎛ N* ⎞
⎜ φM ⎟ ⎜ φM ⎟ M = 1 . 18 M sx ⎜⎜ 1 − ⎟⎟ ≤ M sx
⎝ prx ⎠ ⎝ pry ⎠ prx
⎝ φN S ⎠
where:
⎛ ⎛ N* ⎞
2
⎞
= 1.19 M sy ⎜1 − ⎜⎜ ⎟≤M
*
N ⎟⎟
γ s = 1. 4 + ≤ 2..0 M pry
⎜ ⎝ φN S ⎟ sy
φN s ⎝ ⎠ ⎠
Biaxial
a a bebending
d g
AS4100 also requires a MEMBER CHECK to be made according to:
γm γm
⎛ M *
⎞ ⎛ M *
⎞
⎜⎜ ⎟⎟ +⎜ ⎟ ≤1
x y
⎜ φM ⎟
⎝ φ M brx ⎠ ⎝ bry ⎠
M brx = min[M ix , M ox ]
M bry = M iy
γ m = 1 .4
Example
a pe8
Determine the maximum design value M* of a 200UC52
200UC52.22 beam-column
beam column
of Grade 300 steel which has a design axial compressive force of N*=
143.9kN, major axis (x-axis) end moments of M* and 0.974M* causing
reverse curvature
t b
bending,
di andd minor
i axis
i (y-axis)
( i ) end
d momentst off 0.4
04
M* and 0.4M* causing single curvature bending. Le = 7m for column
and beam buckling.
204
12.5
Mx A = 6660mm 2 I x = 52.8 × 10 6 mm 4
ry = 51.5mm I y = 17.7 ×106 mm 4
206
8.0
x
J = 325 ×10 mm
3 4 I w = 166 × 109 mm 6
12.5
My
y
Example
a pe8
Example
a pe8
Frames
Lecture
ectu e Out
Outline
e
9 C l
Column:
9 elastic buckling load
9 effective length factor
9 Frames:
9 with simple joints
Types: 9 with semi-rigid joints
9 with rigid joints
9 First order (linear, no P-δ effects)

9 Second order (nonlinear, P-δ effects)
Analysis Method:
9 Elastic Buckling Analysis
(braced and sway frames)
Effective length
g factor – isolated column
For column design or checking we generally use
the effective length Le
Le = ke L
L is the column length;
ke is
i the
h EFFECTIVE LENGTH FACTOR
Some standard cases are given below (Trahair & Bradford, 1998):
Frame Idealisation
STRUCTURAL FRAMES are composed
p of one dimensional members
connected together in skeletal arrangements which transfer the applied loads to the
supports.
Reduction of 3-D framework to plane frames

Two-dimensional flexural frames
TWO DIMENSIONAL FRAMES – a number of independent

two-dimensional frames with in-plane loading.
THE STRUCTURAL BEHAVIOUR of a flexural frame is

influenced by the behaviour of the member joints, which are usually
considered to be either SIMPLE, SEMI
SEMI-RIGID
RIGID or RIGID,
according to their ability to transmit moment.
Member joints
Force & Moment connection
Moment connection
Force connection
Frames
a es
While most FRAMES are three-dimensional, they may often be

considered as a series of parallel two-dimensional
two dimensional frames,
frames
or as two perpendicular series of two-dimensional frames.
THE BEHAVIOUR of a structural frame depends on its

arrangement and loading, and on the type of
connections used.
Frames
The members usually have substantial BENDING ACTIONS
The members usually have substantial BENDING ACTIONS,
and if they also have significant axial forces, then they must be
designed as beam‐ties or beam‐columns.
I f
In frames with SIMPLE CONNECTIONS, the moments
ith SIMPLE CONNECTIONS th t transmitted
t itt d
by the connections are small, and often can be neglected, and
the members can be treated as isolated beams,
or eccentrically loaded beam‐ties or beam‐columns.
However, when the connections are SEMI‐RIGID or RIGID,
there are important moment interactions between the members.
Frames with simple joints
No moment is transmitted through a SIMPLE
JOINT,, the members connected to the jjoint mayy
rotate.
If there are sufficient number of pin-joints to make the structure statically

determinate then each member will act independently of the others,
determinate, others and may be
designed as:
an isolated tension member, compression member, beam or
beam-column.
(if the
th pin-jointed
i j i t d structure
t t i indeterminate,
is i d t i t then
th some partt off it may actt as a
rigid-jointed frame)
Frames with simple joints
One of the most common methods of designing frames with
SIMPLE JOINTS is often used for rectangular frames with
vertical (column) and horizontal (beam) members under the action
of vertical loads only.
Th columns
The l i suchh a frame
in f are assumedd to
t actt as if eccentrically
t i ll
loaded.
(it should be noted that such a pin-jointed frame is usually incapable of resisting
transverse forces, and must therefore be provided with an independent bracing
or shear
h wall
ll system)
t )
Frames with semi
semi-rigid
rigid joints
SEMI-RIGID JOINTS are those which have

d
dependable
d bl momentt capacities
iti andd which
hi h partially
ti ll
restrain the relative rotations of the members at the joints.
The action of these joints in rectangular frames is to reduce the

maximum moments in the beams,
beams and so the semi-rigid design
method offers potential economies over the simple design method.
Frames with rigid joints
Behaviour:
RIGID JOINT – a joint

j i which
hi h has
h sufficient
ffi i rigidity
i idi to virtually
i ll
prevent relative rotation between the members connected.
Properly arranged welded and high-strength friction grip bolted
joints are usually assumed to be rigid.
There are important interactions between the members of frames with rigid
joints, which are generally stiffer and stronger than frames with simple or semi-
rigid joints.
Therefore rigid frames offer significant economies.

Behaviour:
Although a RIGID FRAME may behave in an approximately linear fashion

while its service loads are not exceeded, especially when the axial forces are small,
it becomes non-linear near its in-plane ultimate load because of yielding and
buckling effects.
When the axial compression forces are small, failure occurs when a sufficient
number of plastic hinges have developed to cause the frame to form a collapse
mechanism, in which case the load capacity of the frame can be determined by
plastic analysis of the collapse mechanism.
g j
Methods of Analysis:
9 First
First‐order elastic analysis
order elastic analysis Stress resultants (M, N & V)
( , )
and deflections
9 Second order elastic analysis Equilibrium
Stress‐strain
Stress strain
9 Advanced analysis Compatibility
9 First
First‐order plastic analysis
order plastic analysis
Collapse Load (Equilibrium, Mechanism) Stability
Buckling loads
Effective lengths
9 Elastic buckling of braced frames
9 Elastic buckling of unbraced (sway) frames
First-order
First order elastic analysis
Assumptions:
9 Material behaves linearly (yielding effects are ignored);
9 The members behave linearly (no P-δ effects are taken into account)
9 The frame behaves linearly (no frame instability effects such as those
caused by the moments of the vertical forces and the horizontal frame
deflections P-Δ
deflections, effects, are taken into account)
i.e. Flexibility
y method of analysis,
y , Stiffness method of analysis
y
(commercial computer packages)
Second-order
Second order elastic analysis
Second order effects in elastic frames include additional moments
moments.
The second-order
second order moments arising from the member deflections from the
straight line joining the member ends are often called the P- δ effects.
The second-order moments arising from the joint displacements Δ are often
called
ll d the PΔ
h P-Δ effects
ff t .
9 I braced frames, the

In th joint t Δ are small,
j i t displacement
di l ll
and only the P-δ are important.
9 I unbraced
In b d fframes, the P Δ effects
th P- ff t are iimportant,
t t
and often much more so than the P- δ effects.
Second-order elastic analysis
y
P
P
Δ
ISOLATED COLUMN
δ
P
P-δ P-Δ
P P
P P Δ
δ δ Δ
FRAME
δ δ sway
braced
Second-order
Second order elastic analysis
Independent Behaviour Interactive Behaviour
First order plastic analysis
PLASTIC ANALYSIS tends to be used less commonly,
y,
even if a steel structure satisfies the more stringent conditions
that must be imposed for rational plastic analysis.
All instability effects are ignored.
The collapse
p strengthg of the frame is determined by
y using
g the rigid-plastic
g p
assumption and finding the plastic hinge locations which first convert the frame
to a collapse mechanism.
All members must be ductile so that the plastic moment capacity can be
maintained at each hinge over a range of hinge rotations sufficient to allow the
plastic collapse mechanism to develop
develop.
Plastic analysis and design will be considered in subsequent

lectures, but it is worth noting that the plastic analysis is
dependent on the elastic buckling load factor (λc) of the frame.
Advanced analysis
Ideally, the member stress resultants (M,
Ideally (M V,V N) should be
determined by a method of frame analysis which accounts for
both second
second-order (P-δδ and P
order effects (P Δ), inelastic
P-Δ)
behaviour, residual stresses and geometrical imperfections,
and anyy local or out-of-plane
p buckling g effects.
Such a method has been described as an advanced analysis.
Advanced analysis is still basically a research tool.

Elastic buckling of braced frames
Analysis:
The results of an elastic buckling analysis may be used to approximate any second-order effects.
The set of member forces Nom which causes buckling depends on the distribution of
th axial
the i l forces
f in
i the
th frame,
f and
d iis often
ft expressedd in
i terms
t off a load f t λc by
l d factor b
which the initial set of axial forces Nim must be multiplied to obtain the member
buckling so that Nom = λc Nim.
forces Nom at the frame buckling,
Alternatively, it may be expressed by a set of effective length factors km which

define the member forces at frame buckling by Nom = π2EIm/(kmLm)2
The determination of the frame buckling load factor λc may be carried out using a suitable
computer program (i.e. buckling analysis option in Microstan)
Elastic buckling of braced frames
A l i
Analysis:
Alternatively, the effective length factor km of each compression member

may be obtained by using estimates of the member relative end stifnesses
γ1, γ2 in a braced member chart (AS4100).
The direct application of this chart is limited to the vertical columns of regular
rectangular frames with regular loading patterns in which each horizontal beam
has zero axial force, and all the columns buckle simultaneously in the same
mode.
Effective length
g factor – frame column
More generally a column may be in a braced frame or a sway frame.
Elastic spring
6 restraints against
rotation and
translation
5 B 4 B
Elastic spring
p g
2 A 3 restraints against
rotation
A
1
A is restrained by Column A-1 and beams A-2 and A-3

B is restrained by column B-6 and beams B-5 and B-4
Relative end stiffnesses – braced frame
If the frame is BRACED AGAINST SWAY, and is of regular rectangular geometry
with negligible axial force in the beams, ke is the solution of (Trahair & Bradford,
1998)
2
γ Aγ B ⎛ π ⎞⎛ γ A + γ B ⎞⎛ π π ⎞ tan π ke
⎜⎜ ⎟⎟ + ⎜ ⎟⎜⎜1 − cot ⎟⎟ + =1
4 ⎝ ke ⎠ ⎝ 2 ⎠⎝ ke ke ⎠ π ke
∑ (I L )
γA = columns
∑ β (I L )
where at end A modifying factor
e beams
∑ (I L )
γB = columns
and similarly at end B
∑ β (I L )
e beams
ke is then obtained from Fig. 4.6.3.3 of AS4100. The values of βe are given below.
Stiffness factor,, βe – far end restraint conditions
Non Sway (Braced) Frame Sway Frame
β e = 1.0
M M M M
far end rigid
g
6EI/L
2EI/L β e = 1.0
β e = 1.5
M M
far end pinned 3EI/L
3EI/L β e = 0.5
β e = 2.0
M M
far end fixed
4EI/L β e = 0.67 4EI/L
Relative end stiffnesses
FIXED BASE PINNED BASE
column column
B B
beam beam
A A
γ A = 0.6 γ A = 10
Buckling
g load factor – braced frame
For a BRACED FRAME ((i.e. one that is not free to sway) y)
the procedure to calculate the effective length is:
STEP 1. C l l t γA and
1 Calculate d γB for
f each
h off the
th columns.
l
STEP 2.
2 Use
U th
the chart
h t to
t determine
d t i ke for
f each
h off th
the columns.
l
π 2 EI
N om =
STEP 3. Calculate
(k e L ) 2 for each of the columns.
STEP 4. Estimate the BUCKLING LOAD FACTOR, λm N om

f each
for h off the
h columns,
l h N* is
where i the
h axial
i l λm =
N*
compression in the column.
Effective length factor – braced frame
STEP 5.
5 Estimate the FRAME BUCKLING LOAD FACTOR from
λcr = min of the λm values
STEP 6. Recalculate Nom = λcrN* for each of the columns
π 2 EI
N om = = λ cr N *
STEP 7. By using
(L e )2
recalculate the effective length for each of the columns from
π EI
2
Le =
N om
Example
a pe1
16 kN 40 kN
Member Section A (mm2) I (mm4)
E A 100UC14 1890 3.18x106
24 kN 60 kN 56 kN 100 kN
D 5m B, E 250UB25 3270 35.4x106
C, D 150UC23 2980 12.6x106
B F F 250UB37 4750 55.7x106
A C 5m
Find the effective length for each of
6m 8m the columns.
A first order matrix stiffness analysis produces the following axial forces in this
braced frame:
Member A B C D E F
N* (kN) -39.5 -0.8 -197.4 -31.9 -7.6 +4.7
Example
a pe1
C
Example
a pe1
Elastic
s c buc
bucklingg loads:
o ds:
Buckling load factor:

A
D
Example
a pe1
Recalculate
ec cu e bucbucklingg loads
o ds in each
e c member:
e be :
A
C
D
Effective lengths
C
Elastic buckling of sway (unbraced) frames
Analysis:
The determination of the frame bucking load factor λc of a rigid-jointed
rigid jointed
unbraced frame may also be carried out using a suitable computer program.
For isolated unbraced members of very simple unbraced frames, a buckling

analysis
l i may also
l beb made
d from
f first
fi principles.
i i l
Alternatively the effective length factor, km of each compression member may be

obtained by using estimates of the relative end stiffnesses γ1, γ2 in a chart such as
that of AS3600.
Relative end stiffnesses – sway frame
If the frame is FREE TO SWAY and is of regular rectangular geometry with
negligible axial force in the beams, ke is the solution of:
γ Aγ B (π ke ) − 36 ⎛ π ⎞ ⎛ π ⎞
2 2
= ⎜⎜ ⎟⎟ cot⎜⎜ ⎟⎟
6(γ A + γ B ) ⎝ ke ⎠ ⎝ ke ⎠
where (as for a braced frame)
∑ (I L ) ∑ (I L )
γA = columns
γB = columns
∑ β (I L ) ∑ β (I L )
and
d
e beams e beams
ke is obtained from Fig. 4.6.3.3 of AS4100

Effective length factor – sway frame
The procedure for determining Le in a SWAY FRAME is:
STEP 1. Calculate γA, γB and use the chart to determine ke for each column
π 2 EI
N om =
(k e L )
STEP 2. Calculate 2 for each of the columns
STEP 3. For each STOREY calculate its buckling load factor from
λ ms = ∑ (N
om L)
∑ (N*
L )
4 Estimate frame bucking load factor from λcr = min of the λms values
STEP 4.
STEP 5. Recalculate Nom = λcrN* for all the columns

π 2 EI
STEP 6. Recalculate Le = for all the columns
N om
Example
a pe2
20 40 20 kN
Member A (mm2) I (mm4)
10
C A, E 6660 52.8x106
50 50
B 80 5m B, D 3860 17.6x106
D
C 3270 35.4x106
30
F 5210 86.4x106
A E 5m
Find the effective length for each of
6m 6m the columns.
A first order matrix stiffness analysis produces the following axial forces in this
braced frame:
Member A B C D E F
N* (kN) -116.2 -37.5 -22.5 -42.5 -143.9 -8.9
Example
a pe2
Elastic
s c buc
bucklingg loads:
o ds:
Upper storey columns
Example
a pe2
Elastic
s c buc
bucklingg loads:
o ds:
Lower storey columns
Example
a pe2
Buckling
uc g load
o d factor:
co :

Example
a pe2
Recalculate
ec cu e bucbucklingg loads:
o ds:

Design of connections I
Lecture Outline
Bolts bolt group
Bolts,
Welds,, weld ggroup
p
butt weld, fillet weld
Force connections
splices in tension and compression, truss joints, shear splices
and connections in beams
Moment connections
b
beam momentt splice
li
Force and moment connections

seat for the beam-to-column connection, semi-rigid beam
to-column connection, the full strength beam splice
Connections
Connections are used to transfer the forces supported
pp by
y a structural
member to other parts of the structure or to the support.
They are also used to connect braces and other members which provide
restraints to the structural member.
Connections join members using CONNECTORS

CONNECTORS, such as bolts, bolts pins,
pins
rivets, or welds, and may include additional plates or cleats.
The arrangement off the

Th h components iis usually
ll chosen
h to suit
i the
h type off
action (force or moment) being transferred and the types of member
((tension or compression
p member,, beam,, or beam-column))
A connection is designed by analysing the method of force transfer from the

member through the connection and its components to the other parts of the
structure, and by proportioning each component so that it has sufficient
capacity for the force that it is required to transmit.
Connections
The need for connections:
gap Axial action

N N (longitudinal stresses )
σ stress/force
t /f transfer
t f required
i d
P Bending
g action
M (longitudinal stresses)
M
Shear action
(shear stress )
σC
surfaces slide past each other
σT
R Lack of compatibility
P
Torsion action
CONNECTIONS
(shear stress)
bracket rotates (a) hold parts together
P (b) allow transfer of internal actions
Connections
Real connections usuallyy have combinations of these actions:
V Moment action due to V & H.

T
H Tension action due to H.
M
S Shear action due to V
V.
e V
T Torsion action due T = Ve.
Shear action due to V.

S
Connections
Splice:
p
design for
M* and V*
BMD
V
M* M M
SFD
V* V
Bolts
Several different types of bolts may be used in structural connections
connections,
including ordinary structural bolts (i.e. commercial or precision bolts
and black bolts), and high strength bolts.
Bolts may transfer loads by shear and bearing, by friction between

plates clamped together,
together or by tension.
tension
i.e.
4.6 – ultimate tensile strength Æ fuf (f-fastener) “400 MPa”

- structural or “block bolts” (industrial buildings)
8.8 – high strength bolts Æ fuf = 830 MPa

(yield is 0.8 of 830 Æ 664 MPa)
Pins
Pin connections
Pi ti usedd to
t be
b provided
id d iin some triangulated
t i l t d frames
f where
h
it was thought to be important to try to realize the common design
assumption
p that these frames are p
pin-jointed.
j
The cost of making a pin connection is high because of the machining

required for the pin and its holes, and also because of difficulties in
assembly.
Pins are now rarely used, except in special applications where it is

necessary to allow relative rotation to occur between the member being
connected.
t d
Rivets
In the past,
past hot
hot-driven
driven rivets were extensively used in structural
connections. They were often used in the same way as ordinary
structural bolts are used in shear and bearing and in tension
connections.
There is usually less slip in a riveted connection because of the tendency

for the rivet holes to be filled by the rivets when being hot-driven.
Shop riveting was cheaper than filed riveting, and for this reason shop
riveting was often combined with field bolting.
However,, the use of riveting

g has declined considerably,
y, and has been
largely replaced by welding or bolting.
Bolts, rivets
Bolt dimensions
4 6 commercial bolts
4.6 8 8 high strength bolts
8.8
σ σ fuf = 830 MPa
fuf = 400 MPa
MP
fyf = 240 MPa proof stress fyf = 660 MPa
fy fy
ε 0.2% permanent strain ε
nominal
diameter
diameter dc core
D ds of tension
of dia.
stress area
fastener
Types of filed connections
Joints between beams
Force &
M
Moment connection
i
Force connection M
Moment connection
i
Force connection

Force &
Moment connection
Beam--to
Beam to--column joints
M
Moment
t connection
ti
Force connection
Moment connection
Axial shear
Force connection
Force connection Force connection Force connection

Eccentric shear / Tension
Force & moment
connection
ti
Force connection
Flexible end connections
Any moment
transfer can
b neglected
be l t d
Force connections
Rigid and semi-
semi-rigid connection
Force & moment

connection
Force & moment connection

Semi--rigid
Semi g connection
Force & moment connection

Prying action
Connections to concrete cores
Web panel in shear
(instability)
Axial compression and
bending moment
A h
Anchorages
Base plate
Contact steel-concrete and concrete in compression

Bolt tightening
g g
SNUG TIGHTS (S) – achieved by full effort of a person using a
standard spanner (friction between two surfaces is not too high)
BERARING (B) – design action transferred by shear in bolts and

bearing on connected parts at STRENGTH LIMIT STATE
FRICTION (F) – bolts tightened to induce a minimum tension so

that damping action transfers shear at SERVICEABILITY LIMIT
STATE due to friction
TENSION ((T)) – snugg tightened

g and then tightened
g further a
certain number of fraction of turns
Bolts
Bolts suffer only 2 actions, tension and shear.
bolts in tension
T
C M
P
bolts in shear Torsion e P
P/2 P/2 P (Pe causes shear)
S
P
P
P/2 S
P/2
two shear planes P one shear plane
Bolt categories
g
very flexible (semi
(semi-rigid
rigid connection)
4.6/S
only snug tightened
8 8/S
8.8/S
88.8/TB
8/TB
can be snug tightened too but it is wasteful
8.8/TF
friction capacity
capacit (serviceability
(ser iceabilit limit state)
Commercial
C i l packages
k (i.e.
(i Microstran,
Mi t Spacegas,
S etc.)
t ) assume
moment connection (hence connections are able to resist
bending moment)
Modes of failure
B lt in
Bolts i TENSION
Bolts in SHEAR
B lt in
Bolts i BEARING
Desi n checks required:
Design
a. Bolt strength
g
b. Plate bearing
c. Plate tearing:
i Straight
i. St i ht across
ii. Staggered
Modes of force transfer
Force
connection
Bolted plates in shear and
tension
ae
df
Tearing out at end of a plate,

due to tension
V*v ≤ φ Vv
fup - ultimate
lti t ttensile
il strength
t th off
φ =0.7 Vv= ae t fup plate material
Bearing failures
top
p plate
p other p
plate beam reaction
V* B V* B per bolt local crushing

under washer
Force
connection
Strength
g limit state
φ = 0 .8
Shear
V f
*
≤ φV f (i) Connections are less ductile
than beams
(ii) We do not want connection
to be the ‘weakest link’ in
Vf* = design shear force
the structure
Vf = nominal shear capacity of bolt
Vf = 0.62 fufkr (nnAc + nxAo)
nn= number of shear planes with treads IN the shear plane whose
bolt area is Ac
nx= number of shear planes without treads EXCLUDED from

shear plane whose bolt area (shank area) is Ao
Shear distribution in a
force connection
Strength limit state
kr= reduction factor for a lapped
pp connection of length
g Lj
If: Lj < 300 mm Æ kr = 1.0
300 < Lj < 1300 mm Æ kr = 1.075 – Lj /4000

nx = 1
Lj > 1300 mm Æ kr = 0.75
nn = 3
T* Ao
T*
nx
Lj nn
nn
Shear nn
Not exactly in equilibrium Æ planes Ac
moment imbalance
Tension
φ = 0 .8
N *
tf ≤ φ N tf
Ntf* = design tension force

φNtf = design tension capacity of bolt
Ntf = As fuf
As = tensile stress area of bolt
Shear and tension
Bolts
o s aree only
o y subjected
subjec ed too two
wo actions:
c o s: TENSION
NS ON and dS
SHEAR,,
caused by axial forces, shear forces, bending moments and torsion,
when tension and shear occur together, the bolt strength has to
satisfy the following interaction equation:
2 2 INTERACTION CURVE
⎛ V *
⎞ ⎛ N *
⎞
⎜ f
⎟ +⎜ tf
⎟ ≤ 1 .0 pure shear
EAR
⎜ φV ⎟ ⎜ φN ⎟ pure
⎝ f ⎠ ⎝ tf ⎠
SHE
tension
safe
φ = 0 .8 AXIAL
Vf , Ntf = nominal
i capacities
i i determinedi earlier
i
(snug tighten bolts Æ there is no tensile force in bolts)
Shear and tension
Shear and tension – typical examples
NO BENDING BENDING
PV
PV P P
CG of CG of e
bolt PH bolt PH
group group
Shear per
Sh
Line of P through CG PV /n bolt V*vf
Shear force e Pv
S from loading PH /n
Tension per
M Moment b lt V*tf
bolt
from
frame M = Pv e
action M causes extra
t
tension per bolt
BENDING
Beam--to
Beam to--column joints
Moment connection
Force connection
Moment connection
BENDING
Tension in these bolts
T1
T
y T23
h h1 h y
M 2 h3 NA y3
2
1
d
dn C
S dn/3 b dn/3
Plates compressed
mp together
g
Could calculate position of NA by trial and error until ΣT ≈ ΣC,

but usually dn ≈ h/6.
(i) Take moment about line of force C.
M = n1T1h1 + n2T2h2 + etc. n1= No. of bolts on level 1
(ii) From linear force diagram
T2 = T1 y2/y1 , T3 = T1 y3/y1
(iii) Substitute into M equation and rearrange.
T1 = M y1 /(Σnihiyi) per bolt at level 1.
(iv) Shear per bolt = S / total number of bolts.
(v) Now apply shear and tension interaction equation.
However if there are horizontal forces, such as Phe , eccentricities etc,

include their effects and then apply interaction equation.
Ply in bearing
Bearing force on ply Vb* due to a bolt
ae
V ≤ φ Vb
ply *
b
bolt
φ = 0 .9
Vb = nominal bearing capacity of ply
Vb = 3.2d f t p fup > aet p fup

df = bolt diameter
tp = thickness of ply
fup = ultimate tensile strength of ply
Example 1
Checking the capacity of a connection
– lap splice connection - Splice
l plates,
l 2x10mm
10 thick
h k
fy = 260 MPa steel, fu = 410 MPa
35 70 70 35
35 70 70 35
40
70 N* N* N*
* 10 N*
20
70
10
40
ELEVATION
PLAN
9M24,8.8/S Spliced plate, 20mm thick
fy = 250 MPa steel, fu = 410 MPa
a. Bolt strength
M24 8.8 /S in dholes= 26mm
Threads intercept one shear plane
plane, plain shank the other shear plane.
plane
Design capacity of bolts in shear = φVfn + φVfx = 133 + 186 = 319 kN [TA2.2]
b Plate bearing
b. (spliced plate)
Vb = 3.2 x 24 x 20 x 410 = 630 kN ≤ 35x 20 x410 = 287 kN
Since 287 < 319, plate bearing capacity governs.
Example 1
Serviceability limit state for bolt
For 8.8/TF where slip at service load is to be limited
Although a serviceability limit state still uses a capacity reduction factor φ
Shear:
V ≤ φ V sf φ
*
sf = 0 .9
V*sf = nominal bolt shear capacity for friction-type connection
Vsf = μneiNtikn
μ = slip factor (coefficient of friction) taken usually as 0.35
nei = number of effective interfaces

kn = 1.0 for standard holes
= 0.85 for short slotted or oversize
Nt = minimum
i i bolt
b lt pretension
t i in i holes
generating a friction-type connection = 0.7 for long slotted holes
Shear + Tension
2 2
⎛ V *
⎞ ⎛ N *
⎞
⎜ sf
⎟ +⎜ tf
⎟ ≤ 1 .0
⎜ φV ⎟ ⎜ φN ⎟ φ = 0 .7
⎝ sff ⎠ ⎝ ti ⎠
Vsf* = design serviceability shear force
Ntf* = design strength shear force (bolt pre-tension)
Nti = bolt p
pretension
Minimum Nti VALUES (kN)
M16 – 95
M20 – 145
M24 – 210
M30 – 335
M36 - 490
Bolt group subjected to in-
in-plane
loading
doubler plate
weld bolt
Momentt
M
connection
end plate
column stiffener
stiffener
Consider n bolts of equal area subjected to force P eccentric e

to the y-axis which passes through the bolt centroid.
P Pe
y e
≡
C x P
in-plane
loading
Separate shear caused by P and Pe are hard to calculate and sum vectorially.
Instead we calculate position of

INSTANTANEOUS CENTRE OF ROTATION.
Force Vfi* on i-th bolt and radium ri from centre of rotation.
y
(xc, 0) P
e
ri Vfi*
x
in-plane
loading
V = kri A
*
fi
k = constant
A = area of bolt
k =
Pe
Iz
( )
n
I z = A∑ x + y 2 2
about centroids xc = −
P
kn A
N.B.
(1) force in x
x-direction
direction as well its effect can be included in the same way; and
V *
fi = {V fi* x 2 + V *
fi y 2 }1 / 2
(2) if welds are used replace the bolt area with the weld size and summations by
integrals along the weld
Example
p 2
A typical web side plate connection is shown in the figure on

the next slide in which a single 10mm thick side plate is bolted
t th
to the web
b off a b
beam andd iis welded
ld d tto th
the fl
flange off th
the column.
l
In designing the welds, the beam reaction is assumed to act
through the centroid of the bolt group at a distance of 90mm
from the face of the column. In designing the bolts, the beam
reaction is assumed to act at the line of the weld at a distance of
90mm from the centroid of the bolt group.
Problem:
For a design beam reaction of 250 kN, determine the maximum
shear force in a bolt of the bolt group
Example
p 2
Example
p 2
Solution:
The calculations are based on the instantaneous centre of
rotation approach of Chapter C9 of the Commentary (AS4100).
By inspection, the centroid of the bolt group is at its geometric
centre.
Example
p 3
Determine the maximum shear in the bolt group in the beam

splice shown. 25
55 140 30 75 Member design
actions at bolt group
centroid
65
35 Shear = +160kN
70 Moment = +20kNm
70
35
8-M20 8.8/S bolts.
Threads in shear plane.
2x280mm E48XX fillet welds.
Single web plate.
This problem demonstrates the in-plane elastic analysis of a bolt group.

Example
p 3
Example
p 4
Check an M20 88.8/S
8/S bolt whose treads intercept a single shear
plane for a design shear of Vf* = 43.1kN
25
55 140 30 75 Member design
actions at bolt group
centroid
65
35 Shear = +160kN
70 Moment = +20kNm
70
35 8-M20 8.8/S bolts.
Threads in shear plane.
Single web plate.
This problem illustrates the determination of the shear capacity of a bolt.

Example
p 4
Example
p 5
Determine the maximum design tension force that can be
transmitted in conjunction with a design shear force of Vf* =
43.1kN byy an M20 8.8/TF bolt whose threads intercept
p a single
g
shear plane. Member design
25 actions at bolt group
55 140 30 75
centroid
Shear = +160kN
65 Moment = +20kNm
35
70
70 8-M20 8.8/S bolts.
35 Threads in shear plane.
plane
Single web plate.
This problem illustrates the checking of the strength of a bolt under combined
shear and tension.
Example
p 5
Example
p 6
Determine the maximum serviceability tension force that can
be transmitted in conjunction with a serviceability shear force
of Vsf* = 30.0kN byy an M20 8.8/TF bolt in a standard hole.
This problem illustrates the checking of the serviceability of a bolt in a friction-
grip connection with a single interface.
Bolt groups in torsion
e PV Pys = P/n
y
Bolt shear PTx
due to r
torsion y
CG x
T = PVe PTy
x PT
CG of bolt group bolt shear due
to torsion
From mechanics of solids Æ PT = torsional constant x r
Torque per bolt Æ Ti = PT x r = C x r2 = C x (xi2 + yi2)
For n bolts, total torque Æ T = Σ Ti = C x r2 = C Σ (xi2 + yi2)
Torsional constant Æ C = T /Σ (xi2 + yi2)
Bolt g
groups
p in torsion
In bending Æ σ = My/I
In torsion Æ PT = Tr/IP
or torsional components
p Æ PTx = Ty/I
y P, PTy = Tx/IP
where Æ IP = Σ (xi2 + yi2)
CRITICAL BOLT – vectorial effect of components is maximum
PTy
PTy PTy
Pmax = P + (PTy + PyS )

PTy 2 2
Tx
PTy PTy
PTy VECTORIAL SUMMATION

PTy
PTy
PTy
PTy PTy PTy
Design of connections II
Lecture Outline
Welds, weld group

butt weld
weld, fillet weld
M
Moment
t connections
ti
beam moment splice
Force and moment connections

seat for the beam-to-column connection, semi-rigid beam
to-column connection, the full strength beam splice
Welds
Structural connections between steel members are often made by arc
arc-welding
welding
techniques, in which molten weld metal is fused with the parent metal of the
members or joint plates being connected.
Welding is often cheaper than bolting because of the great reduction in the
preparation
p p required,
q , while ggreater strength
g can be achieved,, the members or
plates no longer being weakened by bolt holes, and the strength of the weld
metal being superior to that of the material connected.
In addition, welds are more rigid than other types of load-transferring

connectors.
On the other hand, welding often produces distortion and high local residual
stresses,
t and
d results
lt iin reduced
d dd ductility,
tilit while
hil fi
field
ld welding
ldi may b
be diffi
difficult
lt
and costly.
Welds
Force connection
Force connection
Intermediate web stiffeners
Butt welds
Butt welds
Fillet welds
Butt welds are frequently used to splice tension members

members.
A full penetration weld enables the full strength of the member to be developed,
while
hil the
th butting
b tti together
t th off theth membersb avoids
id any joint
j i t eccentricity.
t i it
Butt welds often require

q some machining
g of the elements to be jjoined.
Special welding procedures are usually needed for full strength welds between
thi k members
thick b to
t control
t l the
th weld
ld quality
lit andd ductility,
d tilit while
hil special
i l inspection
i ti
procedures may be required for critical welds to ensure their integrity.
Butt weld
Fillet welds
We will
w only
o y co
consider
s de equal
equ leg
eg fillet
e we
welds
ds here:
e e:
throat
t
t 2
throat
t
weld size
Design
g actions are calculated/unit length
g of weld on p
plane of throat:
Longitudinal shear, transverse shear, normal force all act on throat and
are summed vectorially to produce:
vw* = design force per unit length of weld

Fillet weld joint
Forces on weld elements
The forc
force pperr un
unitt length
ngth of fillet weld in the x,, y and z
directions may be determined using the familiar expressions:
* * general fillet
P M zy
y
vx =
* x
− weld group
P*
Lw I wp centroid of fillet
y
weld group M*
Py* M *
zx
vy =
*
− y
P*x
Lw I wp
*
M*x x
* *
P M y M x M* z
v = + −
* z x y
z
Lw I wx I wy z Weld in x-y
P*z plane, z = 0
General fillet weld group

Design equation
Strength
S e g des
design:
g :
v ≤ φv w
*
w
v *
w = (v ) + (v ) + (v )
*
x
2 *
y
2 * 2
z
D i off any generall fillet

Design fill t weld
ld group subject
bj t to
t a generall design
d i action
ti sett
(P *x, P *y, P *z, M *x, M *y, M*z )
may be obtained by evaluating the property set
Lwx, Lwy, Lwz, Iwx, Iwy, Iwp (see Table on next slide)
and substituting into the governing equation
(fillet weld group loaded ‘in-plane’
in-plane and ‘out-of-plane’)
out-of-plane ),
checking that the governing inequality is satisfied, at each of the critical points.
Practical fillet weld g
groups
p
Many y fillet weld groups
g p comprise p lines of welds parallel
p to the x and y axes.
For such relatively regular fillet weld groups, the identification of possible critical
points is correspondingly more straightforward.
y The possible critical points for

2 1 a fillet weld g
groupp consisting
g of
3 8
lines of weld parallel to the x
and y axes only are numbered 1
to 8.
8
x
4 7
5 6
Possible critical p
points in
particular weld group
Forces on weld elements
where:
Lw - the total length of the weld;
Iwx, Iwy - the second moments of area of the weld elements
(treated as a line element) about the x and y axes respectively;
Iwp - the p
polar moment of area of the weld elements about the
centroid of the weld group (treated as a line element)
= Iwx + Iwy
The previous expressions can be Px* M z* y where:

v =
*
x −
sightly modified in order to allow Lwx I wp Lwx, Lwy, Lwz
them to reflect realistic Py* M z* x
distributions of the design force v = − the lengths of the weld
*
y
Lwy I wp assumed to receive the
set ((P*x, P*y, P*z) between * component forces along
components of the total length of Pz* M x* y M y x
v =
*
z + − the individual x, y and z
the weld group, as follows: Lwz I wx I wy axes respectively
Fillet Weld Group Loaded
‘i -plane’
‘in-
‘in l ’
Fillet weld group loaded ‘in-plane’ by a common

design action set of forces (P*x, P*y) and design moment (M*x):
* *
P M zy
vx =
* x
−
Lwx I wp
Py*
Py* *
M x Pz*
v =
*
y + z
L wy I wp M z*
v*z = 0
‘out--of
‘out of--plane’
Fillet weld group loaded ‘out-of-plane’ by a common

g action set of forces (F*y, F*z) and design
design g moment (M*x)):
v*x = 0
Py*
v *y = Py*
L wy Pz*
* *
P M xy
vz =
* z
+ Mx*
Lwz I wx
‘out
out--of
out of--plane
plane’
P e Line weldsÆ
unit thickness
Lw1 Lw1
Mx
z x x yt 1
Lw2
Py yc
Centroid of
y weld group y A y
v*y = P*y/Lw = force per unit length acing in y-direction

Lw = total weld length = 2Lw1 + 2Lw2
v *z = M *xyc/Iwx = normal force per unit weld in x-direction at point A
Iwx = second moment of area of unit weld about centroid (mm3)
Weld group subjected to out-
out-of
of--
plane loading
throat
vn vz
vy (perpendicular)
vt
force per unit length
vz = p
produces normal component
p vz / 2 and transverse component
p vz / 2
on throat.
{ (
vw = v + vz 2
y 2 ) + (v
2
z / 2 )}
2 1/ 2
Therefore at A (say)
= v y2 + v z2
n
A∑ y 2
Py
For bolts calculate Ix as and V y = etc.
n
Design
g equation
q
Strength
S e g des
design:
g :
v ≤ φv w
* φ = 0 .8 SP
w
vw = nominal
i l capacity
it off fillet
fill t weld
ld per unit
it llength
th
φ = 0 .6 GP
vw = 0.6fuwttkr
SP – special
p ppurpose
p
kr = reduction factor for length of weld Lw(m) (high degree of inspection)
GP – general purpose
= 1.0 (Lw < 1.7) (low degree of inspection)
= 1.10
1 10 –0.06L
–0 06Lw (1.7
(1 7 < Lw < 8.0)
8 0)
= 0.62 (Lw > 8.0)
tt = throat
th t thi
thickness
k =t/ 2
fuw = ultimate tensile strength
g of weld
= 480 MPa for E48XX electrodes (most common)
= 410 MPa for E41XX electrodes
Weld stress trajectories
j
Weld symbols
Weld symbols
Example 1
Determine the maximum shear per unit length in the uniform
thickens weld group caused by a design shear force of 160kN
through
g the centroid of the bolt ggroupp and a moment of 20kNm
N
about the centroid of the bolt group.
25 Member design
55 140 30 75 actions at bolt group
centroid
65 Shear = +160kN
35 Moment = +20kNm
70
8-M20 8.8/S bolts.
70
Th d iin shear
Threads h plane.
l
35
Single web plate.
This problem demonstrates the in-plane elastic analysis of a fillet weld
group under combined shear and bending.
Example 1
The centroid of the weld group is (70 + 30 + 25 + 37.5) = 162.5 mm from
the centre of the bolt group.
V * = −160 kN, M * = 20 + 160 × 162.5 / 1000 = 46.0 kNm

{
( I x + I y ) / t = 2 × 280 3 / 12 + 2 × 280 × (75 / 2 )
2
}
= 4 . 446 × 10 6 mm 3
A / t = 2 × 280 = 560 mm
(
x c = −V * (I x + I y ) / M * A ) yc = 0
(
= 160 × 10 3 × 4 .446 × 10 6 × t / 46 .0 × 10 6 × 560 × t )
= 27 .6 mm
rmax = (75 / 2 + 27 .6 ) 2
+ 140 2 vw* = M *rmax t / (I x + I y )
= 154 .4 mm = 46.0 × 10 6 × 154.4 / 4.446 × 10 6

= 1.597 kN/mm
Example 2
Determine the weld leg size required for the equal leg fillet weld
group, if the weld category is SP and the electrode is E48XX.
25 Member design
55 140 30 75 actions at bolt group
centroid
65 Shear = +160kN
35 Moment = +20kNm
70
70 8-M20 8.8/S bolts.
35 Threads in shear pplane.
Single web plate.
This problem illustrates the design of a fillet weld group

Example 2
f uw = 480 MPa
k r = 1.0
φ = 0.8
vw* = 1.597 kN / mm
1.597 × 103 ≤ 0.8 × 0.6 × 480 × tt × 1.0
tt ≥ 6.93mm
t ≥ 6.93 × 2 = 9.8mm Use 10x10 SP E48XX weld.
N.B. A smaller weld could be used if the weld group dimensions

were increased
increased. This would require the reanalysis of the weld
group.
Example 3
An 8mmx8mm SP fillet weld from E48XX electrodes has a
longitudinal design shear per unit length of vwL* = 1.0kN/mm and
transverse design shears per unit length of vwx* = 0.6kN/mm
0 6kN/mm and
vwy* = 0.4 kN/mm. Check the adequacy of the weld.
This problem illustrates the checking of a fillet weld under combined loadings.
loadings
vw* = (1.0 2
)
+ 0.6 2 + 0.4 2 = 1.233kN / mm
f uw = 480 MPa
tt = 8 / 2 = 5.66mm
k r = 1.0 φ = 0.8
φvw = 0.8 × 0.6 × 480 × 5.66 × 1.0 = 1.303kN / mm > 1.233kN / mm = vw*
Therefore OK.
Example 4
Box section fillet welded to end plate
(Fillet loaded out-of plane)
y
2 1 weld
3 8 group
450 kN cetroid
305
x
90 kNm Design actions:
4 7
5 6 Px* = 0 , Py* = − 450 kN , Pz* = 0
203
M *
x = 90 kNm
kN , M *
y = 0, M *
z =0
Weld g
group
p properties:
p p
L w = 2 (305 + 203 ) = 1016 mm
Example 4
If it is
i assumedd that
th t the
th vertical
ti l shear
h is i primarily
i il taken
t k by
b the
th websb
of the box section, then this vertical shear must be assumed to be
transferred through the vertical fillet weld only.
Hence,
L w = 2 × 305 = 610 mm
d = 305 mm
b = 203 mm
I wx = d 3
6 + bd / 2 = 14 . 2 × 10 mm
2 6 3
at ppoints 1,, 2,, 3,, 8 y = 152.5 mm

4, 5, 6, 7 y = − 152 . 5 mm
Example 4
Global set of design actions per unit length
v*x = 0 v*y = - 450/610 v*z = (90000) × ( ± 152.5)/14.2×106
= - 0.738 at points 3, 4, 7, 8 = + 0.967 at points1, 2, 3, 8 ( y = + 152.5)
=0 at points1, 2, 5, 6 = - 0.967 at points4, 5, 6, 7 (y = -152.5)
R l
Resultant force
f per unit
i length:
l h
v w* = (− 0 . 738 )2 + (± 0 . 967 )2
= 1 . 22 kN/mm
Weld capacity:
φ = 0.8 fuw = 480MPa
8 mm E48XX fillet weld
t w = 8 tt = 8 2 = 5.66
φ v w = φ 0.6 f uw t t k r = 1 .30 kN/mm > v w*
kr = 1
Example 5
Fillet welded bracket loaded In-Plane
y
180 kN
275 175 d = 300 mm
b = 275 mm
3 2 1 weld centroid
Weld group
centroid
300 b2
x x = = 89 . 0 mm
x 2b + d
4 5 6
design actions
Px* = 0 Py* = − 180 kN Pz* = 0
M *
x =0 M *
y =0
M *
= − 180 × (275 + 175 − 89 . 0 )
critical points z
= − 64980 kNmm
Example 5
Weld group properties:
Lw = 2× 275+ 300= 850mm
assume Lwx = Lwy = Lwz = Lw = 850mm
I wp = I wx + I wy
3002 (6× 275+ 300) 2753 (275+ 2× 300)

I wp = +
12 3(2× 275+ 300)
= 21.8×106 mm3
at points 1, 6 : x = 275− 89.0 = +186
y = ± 300/ 2 = ±150
at points 2, 3, 4, 5 : x = − 89.0 y = ±150
Example 5
Global design actions per unit length:
Resultant
R lt t fforce per unit
it length:
l th
points 1, 6
− M *
zy − 64980×150
v*x = =−
I wp 21.8×106 vw* = (± 0.447)2 + (− 0.767)2
= + 0.447 at points 1, 2, 3 ( y = +150) = 0.888 kN/mm
= − 0.447
44 at points
i 4, 5, 6 ( y = −150
1 0)
6 mm E48XX fillet weld
φ v w = φ 0.6 f uw t t k r
Fy* M *
x −180 − 64980×186
v*y = + z = + = 0 . 978 kN/mm > v w*
Lwy I wp 850 21.8×106
∴ OK
= −0.767 at points 1, 6 (critical)
φ = 0.8 fuw = 480MPa
−180 − 64980× (− 89.0)
= + t w = 6 t t = 6 2 = 4.24
850 21.8×106
= +0.054 at points 2, 3, 4, 5 (not critical) kr = 1
Reference material
NS Trahair & MA Bradford: The Behaviour and Design of Steel

Structures to AS4100, 3rd Australian edition, E&FN Spon,
London, 1998.
ST Woolcock, S Kitipornchai & MA Bradford: Design of Portal

F
Frame Buildings,
B ildi 3rd edition,
diti AISC,
AISC S
Sydney,
d 1999
1999.
TJ Hogan & IR Thomas: Design of structural connections, 4th

edition, AISC, Sydney, 1994.

CVEN3302 Structural Design CVEN3302 Structural Design

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CVEN3302 Structural Design

Semester 2,, 2009

Standard sections Cell Form Beams

Strain hardening Est

Mild Strength Steel σ ≤ 450 MPa

High Strength Steel σ ≥ 450 MPa

Uniaxial Princcipal stress

Preliminary designs and selection

Economy – Capital cost is not just the structural component

Steel skeleton connected

Columns were concrete

¾ the eight of all materials of constr ction incorporated into

Superimposed dead load

φMu, φNu, φVu – the strengths are determined from

A d fl i li i δ lim with client

φMu φVu φNu

Nominal capacity Mmax = Ms = Mp

M = φ Sx f yf = 0.9 ×1190×10 × 300 Nmm

Rolled I-section Hollow section

Welded box section

Rolled I-section Hollow section Welded box section

The stress to cause ELASTIC LOCAL BUCKLING σol is given

kσ is the plate buckling parameter which accounts for edge

n = number of ½ sine waves

NOTE; for a web in pure 2

compression both longitudinal L (c)

Variations in λey and

The limits on λεp are much ‘tighter’

The design equation is then:

209 N.B. Some UB’s have λe > 9.

The limits are therefore

(b f t f ) f y 250 = λe = 277 250 = 17.5 This is close to the above limits.

For non-compact sections we can interpolate linearly between

M-ρ of a SLENDER SECTION λ e > λ ey

Stocky flange occurs in slender webs

COMPACT: λe < λep

COMPACT if λe = (b f t f ) f y 250 < λep

again NON COMPACT if

• Unrestrained along its length. Plan

Design equation for bending strength

Design capacity ≥ factored strength limit

Lateral buckling is also called flexural-torsional buckling

Beams with FULL LATERAL RESTRAINT do not buckle

Lateral buckling is catastrophic and so

The design equation is:

Occurs in slender, laterally unrestrained beams.

Beam deflects laterally ( = sideways) by u and twist φ.

M {unstable if u, φ = 0 after buckling moment}

buckling moment or “point of bifurcation”

stable buckled position

We must therefore calculate Mb based on

This is done by undertaking firstly an

Minor axis bending stiffness EIy

E = Young’s modulus 200,000 MPa

Alternatively for the doubly-symmetric I-section:

Consider a built-in cantilever subjected to a

A situation where plane sections do not remain

This occurs with lateral buckling and its effect is

Basic model for lateral buckling is a “simply supported I-beam”

“Simply supported” in the lateral buckling sense

The ELASTIC BUCKLING MOMENT is:

Recall for the elastic buckling of a pin-ended column: