Professional Documents
Culture Documents
th
Vol. 1(2), pp. 027-036, May 6 2011
www.primejournal.org/PRE
The crisis of ineffective learning interactions in schools was expressed in 1998 by Black and Wiliam: ‘in
terms of systems engineering, present policies in many countries seem to treat the classroom as a
black box’. Since that time many nations have adopted formative assessment as a key strategy for
improving classroom instruction and student engagement. The ‘black box’ is an object of criticism
because it functions primarily as a receptive system where certain inputs from the outside such as
standards and tests with high stakes are fed into the box. It is now widely understood that such
learning environments reduce the opportunity for meaningful learning interactions inside the classroom
and diminish the motivation to learn among students. This article assumes an international perspective,
examining the theory of self-determination (SDT) and various socio-cultural theories on motivation and
how they intersect with formative assessments.
INTRODUCTION
Formative assessment: evidence, interpretation and principles which appear here are derived from a number
adaptation of coordinated sources (for example, ARG, 1999; Black
and Wiliam, 1998a, 1998b; Crooks, 1988; Stiggins 2007;
A strategy for improvement which links curriculum, Assessment Action Group /AiFL Programme
instruction and assessment is best known in the US as Management Group [AAG/APMG], 2002-2008; OECD,
‘formative assessment’ (hereafter FA) and is ‘now 2005). Students must collaborate with teachers and
recognized as one of the most powerful ways to enhance parents/carers in order to:
student motivation and achievement’ (Cauley and
McMillan, 2010). The theoretical ideal of FA is for •be able to understand clearly what they are trying to
students to develop the capacity to gather evidence of learn, and what is expected of them;
their own learning, which they then interpret and use to •be given immediate feedback about the quality of their
plan the next steps of the learning process. The positive work and what they can do to make it better;
impact of classroom practices which encourage •be given advice about how to sustain improvement;
autonomous regulation upon motivation and self esteem •be fully involved in deciding what needs to be done next
has been emphasized by international research groups, •be aware of who can give them help if they need it and
such as Cambridge University’s Assessment Reform have full access to such help;
Group (ARG, 1999) and the work of the Organization for •be able to build knowledge of themselves as learners,
Economic Cooperation and Development (OECD, 2005). and become meta-cognitive;
Arising from the work of Black and Wiliam (1998a; 1998b) •take more responsibility for their learning and participate
and the ARG (1999) the FA process is founded upon more in the process of learning.
eight strategic principles that demand high-quality
interactions among students. High-quality interactions are The final key principle is to engage parents and carers in
characterized by equality, mutuality and reciprocity (for the learning process. The importance of parental or carer
example, Damon and Phelps, 1989; Askew, 2000). The inclusion was confirmed by Townsend (1997), who found
028 Ian Clark
be emphasized and external control reduced by providing functioning meld together (Renninger, 2000; Pressick-
supportive conditions in which emotional and Kilborn and Walker, 2000). Pressick-Kilborn and Walker
psychological health is promoted so that learning takes (2000) explicitly address the social factors which may
place in a risk free environment. In doing so FA strategy create interest in learning and present contrasting
draws from Deci and Ryan’s emphasis on autonomy and contexts in which interest may arise: situational interest
the observation that intrinsic motivation persists only and personal interest. Situational interest arises when
when fostered by an appropriate (classroom) climate. interest is triggered by the environment and can be
Socio-cultural perspectives on motivation depict groups viewed as an internalized, transformed, and integrated
of learners as ‘learning communities’ and quite naturally social message that has penetrated the personal core of
emphasize the importance of conditions, explicitly the self and which becomes externalized in various social
recognizing the power of teachers and parents/carers to contexts. For socio-cultural theorists it is clear that ‘the
facilitate the positive internalization of values and social world influences the development of interest’
attitudes toward school work. So, autonomy is mediated (Pressick-Kilborn and Walker, 2000 p. 163). Alexander
by parents, teachers and peers; a dynamic (1997) theorizes that situational interest may evolve into
conceptualized as the ‘zone of free movement’ (ZFM) by personal interest across time through repeated exposure
Valsiner (1997), which describes the extent of choice and as knowledge about the issue or activity increase.
extended to the student. Valsiner intertwines the ZFM Thus engagement is also modified by perceptions of self-
with the ‘zone of promoted action’ (ZPA) a conceptual competence, a notion also central to SDT. In ‘emergent
space in which parents/carers encourage children to interaction’ (EI) (Wertsch and Stone, 1985; McCaslin
engage with new activities that the expert considers 2004) self-knowledge in negotiated through interpersonal
important for their development. Autonomy is therefore engagement and meaningful opportunity with significant
encouraged by allowing students the freedom to set their others such as parents, teachers and peers.
own goals while guiding the student in how to shape Just as self-determination theory and EI examine the
those goals in a principled manner which meets the aims conditions that elicit and sustain intrinsic motivation, FA
of the curriculum. Valsiner completes the conceptual draws from socio-psychological and socio-cultural
framework by adding a modified notion of Vygotsky’s theories on social engagement and offers a practical
zone of proximal development (ZPD) which contains all framework which operates to engage students with the
the possibilities for future development and as such is social process of learning. For example, in the Canadian
empirically inaccessible. A key aspect for emphasis OECD (2005) case-study positive interdependence
regarding autonomy is that of peer interaction and how (Johnson and Johnson, 1996) and relatedness (Ryan and
young learners either promote autonomy or exert control Deci, 2000) is fostered in Math classes by compiling
over each other as they learn together. For example the groups of five students who all exhibit different levels of
OECD (2005) present an FA case study from a Canadian expertise. As one student is reported as saying, ‘we
school as they develop a program known as PROTIC always make sure to help and support each other in our
which encourages autonomy by requiring students to learning’ (OECD, 2005, p. 101). A school in Denmark
th
‘identify learning aims within the framework provided’ (p. took this further and brought together students from 8 ,
th th
101). It can be seen that Valsiner’s ZFM and ZPA are 9 and 10 grades as a part of their whole school
present in the PROTIC blueprint. In the PROTIC initiative called ‘Moving toward a Project Oriented School’
program, this process of guided goal-setting accelerates (OECD, 2005 p. 119). In the Canadian school
movement across the ZPD through a process of regular engagement (and autonomy) is furthered by the use of
reflection (every 9 days), and the production of written portfolios, which teachers regularly assess and provide
reflection papers on their own learning, their team comments only feedback on the quality of the work.
learning and the achievement of personal and program
learning targets. Their papers then become records Motivation and classroom climate
which they can use to make future choices and analyze A key catalyst for motivation contiguous with social
ways in which they might do things differently. The OECD engagement is that of classroom climate. It is clear that in
reported that students found it initially difficult to deal with creating a supportive environment in which all contributions
the level of autonomy (‘ZFM’) afforded to them, however are valued students will feel empowered to contribute in a
after several projects students began to plan for their own positive and productive way both inside and outside the
learning effectively. The potential for students to become school. Of particular importance to understanding the
self-regulated learners has been supported by other conditions that foster positive social processes is
international studies, for example in Scotland (Condie, McCaslin’s elaboration upon Wertsch and Stone’s (1985)
Livingstone, and Seagraves, 2005). ‘emergent interaction’. McCaslin writes, ‘in this
perspective internalization is inherently social; it blurs the
The social emergence of engagement distinction between self and other’ (p. 259). Both Ryan
Socio-culturalists hold that interest arises when cognitive and Deci’s self-determination theory and emergent
(stored knowledge) and affective (internalized value) interaction (EI) theory focus upon the internalization of
values as the process from which motivation to act
030 Ian Clark
Phase 1 Phase 2
SA/A SA/A
The developments enhance the learning of all pupils 75.00% 67.00%
Pupils have increased confidence and show greater self-esteem 70.50% 72.00%
Pupils are more motivated toward learning 70.00% n/a
Pupils have become more actively involved in the learning process 81.00% 82.00%
arises. McCaslin’s position is similar to that of Goos, (2002-2004) in Scottish schools. The first was conducted
Galbraith and Renshaw’s (2002) who applied the term by Hallam, Kiston, Peffers, Robertson and Stobart (2004)
‘collaborative zone of proximal development’ to their and later by Condie, et al (2005). Hallam et al (2004)
research into mathematics education, which explains the found strong positive consensus among teachers (n=72)
internalization of knowledge as a process of scaffolding regarding enhanced involvement, motivation and
‘involving mutual adjustment and appropriation of ideas’ confidence in their students. Condie et al (2005) used
(p. 195). Pressick-Kilborn and Walker (2002) suggest that questionnaires as a part of their method and issued the
learning relationships characterized by equality and same basic template in two phases spaced 16 months
mutuality stimulate interest in the task and promote apart. 44 teachers and 21 head-teachers participated in
sustained on-task interactions. This view was expressed phase 1; 56 teachers and 26 head-teachers participated
in the earlier work of Damon and Phelps (1989) who also in phase 2 of the survey. The responses to the Condie et
highlighted equality and mutuality as critical dimensions al questionnaire concur with the favorable indications
for effective collaborative learning. It appears clear that received by Hallam et al., (2004) regarding learning,
for socio-culturalists mutuality is a critical feature and one confidence and motivation (see Table 1).
which must exist if the classroom climate is to support McCroskey and Richmond (1992) remark that discipline
learning and is a key feature of the model for action problems, ‘…are merely symptomatic of the cause and
research presented later in this paper. achieving a productive and relatively stress-free learning
Unfortunately, such awareness is not widely exhibited environment involves more than controlling student
by policy makers. Consequently, many resources are misbehavior effectively. All aspects of what happens in
deployed to the prevailing policy - assessment of learning the classroom are contingent upon eliciting cooperation
- that there are no resources left to train teachers on how from every class member,’ (p. 44). The term
to undertake the FA strategies which meet the social and 'management' in a FA classroom context takes on a
psychological needs of the students (Stiggins 2004). unique meaning because it entails the effective
Stiggins, in an interview with the US National Staff management of the learning process by developing
Development Council observes: activities which support learning through high quality
‘The key is to understand the relationship between interaction such as, discussion, feedback and goal
assessment and student motivation. In the past, we built setting. Such strategies create a classroom climate of
assessment systems to help us dole out rewards and low-control and high-autonomy, which in turn catalyzes
punishment. And while that can work sometimes, it greater intrinsic motivation, curiosity, and desire for
causes a lot of students to see themselves as failures. If challenge (for example Deci, Nezleck and Sheinman;
that goes on long enough, they lose confidence and stop 1981). McCaslin (2004), in similar fashion highlights
trying’ (1999, p. 12). teacher management strategies as crucial to the learning
The practical in-service effect of FA is that students of socio-cultural roles and the more general rules of
keep learning and remain confident that they can responsible behavior. Formative assessment strategies
continue to learn at productive levels if they keep trying to support productive social behavior because the learning
learn. Stiggins (2005) observes that student use environment is one of mutually supportive interaction and
information from assessments when determining the positive interdependence among students (Johnson &
strength of their engagement with the process of learning, Johnson, 1996).
or indeed whether to continue trying at all. In other words, Advancements in practice do not come easily. Many
students who internalize the values found in an FA teachers take more than one year to engage with the
classroom are much less likely to experience downward- idea of classroom dialogue because it requires ‘a radical
spiraling motivation problems and disaffection which change in teaching style from many teachers…it is this
leads to withdrawal of effort, poor achievement and aspect of formative assessment work that teachers are
discipline. Of interest are two separate research papers least likely to implement successfully’ (Black and Wiliam,
which evaluated the crucial development stages of FA 2006a p.14). However, after reflecting upon the work
Prime Research on Education 031
undertaken together with teachers in the UK and US to and continues to undermine the psychological health of
implement cooperative practices, it was noted, ‘the many students. To focus our learning systems on ever
involvement of students both in whole-dialogue and in more effective, valid and reliable methods of gathering
peer group discussions, all with a change in classroom assessment data is of course important yet to focus
culture…was creating a richer community of learners, solely upon it is to reinforce the undesirable dominance of
where the social learning of the students was becoming our current assessment systems. We are obsessed with
more salient and effective’ (Black and Wiliam, 2006a, p. the mistaken belief that the course to school
17). improvement is better navigated by using more frequent,
and more intense standardized testing. Consequently
Cooperation, excitement and confidence large numbers of students are at risk of psychological
The inalienable fact, as Ryan and Deci (2000) put it is harm, a risk created by the extrinsic, high-control
‘motivation produces’ (p. 69), yet it is that which drives classrooms, in which even questioning styles can be
our motivation to take action that is the essential focus of termed ‘synchronous summative’.
analysis. Ryan and Deci parallel authentic motivation
with intrinsic motivation and note that people moved by Applying Ryan and Deci’s socio-cognitive model
such factors ‘have more interest, excitement and The level of external control is a key aspect of FA in
confidence’ (p. 69) than people who are externally terms of reducing its negative impact and is also the
controlled. Cooperative learning groups foster self- central concept of self-determination theory in seeking to
determination and the intrinsic regulation of learning understand the extent to which individuals: a) internalize
behavior because they are characterized by positive (‘take-in’) an external value and b) integrate a value so
interdependence, individual accountability, face-to-face that regulation emanates from their sense of self (Deci
promotive interaction, the appropriate use of and Ryan, 2000). For Deci and Ryan external motivation
interpersonal and small-group skills, and group is a continuum along which the student’s self-
processing. Cooperative learning groups support determination increases as the level of external
relatedness and consequently act as powerful catalysts regulation (the various inputs into the ‘black box’)
for higher achievement, more positive relationships decreases (see Figure 1).
among students, and greater psychological health For many students, compulsory education will never be
(Johnson and Johnson 1996, Ryan and Deci, 2000). more than ‘autonomous extrinsic’ or what Ryan and Deci
The strategic principles which underpin FA implicitly describe as a ‘somewhat internal’ experience. While this
recognize Deci and Ryan’s (2000) assertion that is not an ideal intrinsic state it does suggest that students
relatedness, competence and autonomy are, ‘essential who exhibit this type of regulation have greater
for facilitating optimal functioning of the natural autonomous control over their own actions and that
propensities for growth and integration, as well as for teaching practice which encourages students to
constructive social development and personal well-being’ consciously accept and value the process of learning is
(p. 68). The reciprocal causality between the an effective starting point for the development of more
psychological needs of students and their subsequent authentic types of intrinsic regulation by deploying
motivation to learn has had little impact on the culture of teaching strategies which support relatedness and
measurement and testing which to dominates the agenda autonomy. McCaslin (2004) provides an instance of
032 Ian Clark
home-life in which a young student’s motivation to Some 35 years later the FA classroom system seeks to
complete homework is driven by the values of his parents fully value and recognize learners' achievements by
and their wish for a better life. As such the young student acknowledging the individuality of personal experience
is motivated to do his homework in the hope of a better and the accommodation of learners' needs in the
material existence. Applying this scenario to Deci and instruction. As such FA is a robust composite of
Ryan’s continuum, the young learner may be placed as motivational theory because it brings into existence a
‘introjected regulation’ because he may feel guilt if he did curriculum architecture which explicitly recognizes that
not complete the homework, feeling that he has individuals participate in multiple communities of practice
‘betrayed’ his parents values, or alternatively the student (Lave and Wenger, 1991) and that the values of one
could be exhibiting a more intrinsic form of regulation community may conflict with those of another, potentially
depending on the extent to which his parents values have inhibiting positive learning behaviors (Pressick-Kilborn
been internalized and are personally meaningful. The and Walker, 2000).
depth of internalization, argue socio-culturalists is Learner and teacher perspectives on personalization
dependent on the opportunity for and quality of and choice may be summarized as follows:
interpersonal interaction.
Learner: I am involved in planning my learning and
The role of curriculum setting challenging goals for myself. Assessment
The curriculum architecture has an important role in information helps me to see how far I have come and
fostering more authentic forms of student regulation. The what I need to do to achieve my goals and motivates me
principles of engagement and motivation are contiguous to set new goals. I am assessed in ways that allow me to
with those of personalization and choice, and are highly demonstrate and recognise the full range of my
significant features of an effective curriculum. Ryan and achievements. Where appropriate, I am involved in
Deci (1985) observe that choice, acknowledgement of decisions about when and how this assessment will take
feelings, and opportunities for self-direction enhance place.
intrinsic motivation because they allow people a greater
feeling of autonomy. The arrangements for assessment Teacher: The learning, teaching and assessment
should therefore be responsive to individual needs and activities I plan create opportunities for dialogue to help
support particular aptitudes and talents in order to learners set and achieve challenging goals based on high
challenge and motivate all learners to develop to their quality feedback on their progress. In planning teaching
fullest. The curriculum should recognize that learners learning and assessment, I consider the needs of the
progress in different ways and, based on their wide needs of learners. I plan an appropriate range of
experiences go on to make different choices. activities to give learners the opportunity to demonstrate
Assessment should reflect these differences by giving their learning and provide feedback accordingly.
each child increasing opportunities for exercising (Clark, 2010a).
responsible personal choice as they move through their
school career. Once they have achieved suitable levels of The centrality of high-quality interactions
attainment across a wide range of areas of learning the The process of feedback is the starting point for FA. Yet,
choice should become as open as possible. There should not all feedback is formative and therefore not all
be safeguards to ensure that choices are soundly based feedback is effective. From a cognitive aspect FA
and lead to successful outcomes. The effectiveness of provides feedback which closes the gap between a
such safeguards is dependent on the ability of individual learner’s current status and the desired learning goal. It
teachers to understand the principles of assessment for also intersects with Ryan and Deci’s perspectives on
learning and apply them in the classroom in order to feedback. FA, like Ryan and Deci, posits that feedback
support the fullest development of learners, while should be effectance-promoting and free from demeaning
minimizing distortions in learning (AAG/APMG, 2002- evaluations. Deci (1975) found that negative
2008). The notion of personalization and choice is by no performance feedback diminished intrinsic motivation, a
means new. For more than 30 years researchers have fact reflected in the FA classroom where misconceptions
been aware that relating new knowledge to learners' are welcomed as opportunities for learning and public
existing understandings of the world is an effective way comparisons are discouraged.
for learners to acquire deeper meaning from new Ryan and Deci (2000) ask the critical question:
information. Since personalization of the curriculum
emerged as a valid pedagogical principle, it has been ‘Given the significance of internalization for personal
discussed as a means of motivating learners by experience and behavioral outcomes, the critical issue
incorporating their goals and choice of topics into a becomes how to promote autonomous regulation for
curriculum, particularly for addressing values (Howe and extrinsically motivated behaviors. That is, what are the
Howe, 1975), and as a model of behavior modification for social conditions that nurture versus inhibit internalization
disruptive students (Mamchak and Mamchak, 1976). and integration?’
Prime Research on Education 033
The quality of dialogue between students, while central to where the students know not only the purpose of each
effective learning must be supported by the discursive activity but also the assessment criteria, in advance.
strategies of their teachers. A key FA strategy is the Confident and independent learning can be promoted by
sharing of learning objectives with learners, an aspect reassuring students that they can do well on the course,
also given the significance of emphasis in their research discussing the criteria and distributing prepared
on mathematics education by Turner, Warzon and checklists and exemplars which clearly illustrate what
Christensen (2010, p.5) who highlight the oft heard success looks like (Cauley and McMillan, 2010). Students
student query: ‘Why do we have to learn this?’ Turner et are then more able to self and peer-assess and can
al bring meaning to the process by sharing the goals of remind themselves of the success criteria by simply
the lesson with students. As such they are being given referring to the checklists prepared to support their
feedback which facilitates the internalization of the values learning (AAG/APMG, 2002-2008). When they are clear
of the curriculum. Ryan and Deci (2000) emphasize the about these, children achieve more, through paying
‘that relatedness, the need for belongingness and attention to the key aspects required. The objective is to
connectedness with others, is centrally important for create an environment that is student lead rather than
internalization’ (p.73). Further Deci and Ryan’s one which requires micro-management because the
perspectives on the integration of extrinsic motivation students exhibit an unwillingness to learn or claim
intersect with the strategic aims of a FA curriculum and forgetfulness of their learning activities. Students who
classroom when they observe that autonomy is internalize the values found in an FA classroom assess
‘facilitated by a sense of choice, volition, and freedom their work and receive the benefits associated with the
from excessive external pressure towards behaving or improvement of their own work before they turn it in
thinking in a certain way’ (p. 74). As Deci and Ryan point (Cauley and McMillan, 2010; Bruce, 2001). The
out there are social conditions which inhibit AAG/APMG found that students were more criteria aware
internalization, a fact that socio-culturalists also and focused on success. In addition motivation and
understand well. Co-regulation of the zone of proximal engagement improved as they felt that they were able to
development (ZPD) is not by definition a positive achieve the realistic targets. Teachers should create a
experience (McCaslin, 2004). The peer-interaction productive and supportive learning environment both
presented above characterizes the least effective style of implicitly by using the checklists and explicitly by using
interaction as ‘competitive’ which has a model-dependent appropriate discourse in the classroom (Tiberius 1990).
meaning as being low in both mutuality and equality Students can develop a deeper understanding of their
which (even in the absence of empirical demonstration) learning when they are given opportunities to discuss the
we would predict to diminish motivation to learn. learning process with their teacher and their peers
(AAG/APMG, 2002-2008). Students’ are greatly
Developing the drive to achieve supported in this fundamental aspect of FA by the
To develop the drive to achieve, students need to believe reduction of teacher/student asymmetry and the
that achievement is possible which means that early promotion of mutuality (McCaslin, 2004; Goos et al, 2002;
opportunities for success should be provided (American Damon and Phelps, 1989) in the classroom atmosphere.
Psychological Association 1992, Forsyth and McMillan, In a cooperative classroom it is important that the teacher
1991). It is then crucial to strongly attach academic consciously avoids messages that reinforce positional
success to moderate effort (Cauley and McMillan, 2010). power or those that emphasize extrinsic rewards and
Vansteenkiste, Simons, Lens, Sheldon and Deci (2004) sanctions. Instead of using questioning techniques which
in their field experiments with high-school and college demand obedience, such as ‘I require’, ‘you must’, or ‘you
level students found that the variables of effort and should’, more open discourse such as ‘I think you will
autonomy are very highly correlated with each other. find…’or ‘I will be interested in your reaction to,’ are more
This suggests that attributing academic attainment to applicable (Johnson and Johnson 1996, Lowman 1990).
effort is a crucial feature of classrooms which are More open-questioning techniques may be adopted that
autonomy supportive. This finding is confirmed by Dweck help students to explore the parameters of their own
(2007) who found that, praising students for their effort understanding. If such questions are put to a whole class
encourages a growth mind-set by boosting their group coupled with a no-hand up policy the increased
confidence in their ability to grow and learn. scope afforded to the students requires that they are
In FA students are informed of the learning goals in given a substantive amount of time to answer. A longer
terms that they understand from the very beginning of the wait time than the usual 3-4 seconds before accepting
teaching and learning process. It is unrealistic to expect responses encourage extended responses, and
them to simply know how success may be achieved – as promotes deeper thinking and learning. While there is
already noted unrealistic expectations cause fundamental significant evidence to suggest extended thinking times
motivational issues, and this particular ‘oversight’ causes promote deep-processing among students, it is
them from the very outset. particularly challenging for teachers who are required to
Independent learning can take place in conditions stand and wait for students to respond (Black and Wiliam,
034 Ian Clark