Bioresource Technology 83 (2002) 27–36

Review paper

Advances in poultry litter disposal technology – a review

a,*
B.P. Kelleher , J.J. Leahy a, A.M. Henihan a, T.F. O’Dwyer a,
D. Sutton b, M.J. Leahy c
a
Chemical and Environmental Science Department, University of Limerick, Limerick, Ireland
b
Materials and Surface Science Institute, University of Limerick, Limerick, Ireland
c
Department of Physics, University of Limerick, Limerick, Ireland
Accepted 6 August 2001

Abstract
The land disposal of waste from the poultry industry and subsequent environmental implications has stimulated interest into
cleaner and more useful disposal options. The review presented here details advances in the three main alternative disposal routes for
poultry litter, specifically in the last decade. Results of experimental investigations into the optimisation of composting, anaerobic
digestion and direct combustion are summarised. These technologies open up increased opportunities to market the energy and
nutrients in poultry litter to agricultural and non-agricultural uses. Common problems experienced by the current technologies are
the existence and fate of nitrogen as ammonia, pH and temperature levels, moisture content and the economics of alternative
disposal methods. Further advancement of these technologies is currently receiving increased interest, both academically and
commercially. However, significant financial incentives are required to attract the agricultural industry.
2002 Elsevier Science
Ltd. All rights reserved.

Keywords: Poultry litter; Composting; Anaerobic digestion; Direct combustion

1. Introduction (NO3 ) contamination of groundwater. High levels of

Waste from the poultry industry includes a mixture of
excreta (manure), bedding material or litter (e.g. wood
shavings or straw), waste feed, dead birds, broken eggs
and feathers removed from poultry houses. Other wastes
include those from cage, conveyer belt and water-
flushing systems. The litter and manure component of
this waste has a high nutritional value and is used as an
organic fertiliser, thus recycling nutrients such as ni-
trogen, phosphorous and potassium. These components
(poultry litter) have traditionally been land spread on
soil as an amendment. However, over-application of this
material can lead to an enriching of water nutrients re-
sulting in eutrophication of water bodies, the spread of
pathogens, the production of phytotoxic substances, air
pollution and emission of greenhouse gases. Eutrophi-
cation has been suggested as the main cause of impaired
surface water resources, US EPA (1996). Bitzer and
Sims (1988) reported that excessive application of
poultry litter in cropping systems can result in nitrate
*
Corresponding author. Tel.: +353-61-213012; fax: +353-61-202568.
E-mail address: brian.kelleher@ul.ie (B.P. Kelleher).
NO3 in drinking water can cause methaemoglobinaemia
(blue baby syndrome), cancer, and respiratory illness in
humans and fetal abortions in livestock, Stevenson
(1986). Alternative, environmentally acceptable, dis-
posal routes, with potential financial benefits, may lie in
large-scale biomass to energy schemes that can also
provide an easier to handle fertiliser as a by-product.
Three options have been considered and in some cases
implemented: centralised anaerobic digestion, compo-
sting and direct combustion with combined heat and
power. The cost of transporting feedstock has, in all
cases, been the limiting factor.
2. Characterisation
The three wastes of primary concern in poultry pro-
duction are the bedding litter used for poultry housing,
the manure resulting from poultry production and dead
birds common to all operations. This review looks at
disposal options for the first two materials. The com-
position of both litter and manure is predominantly
water and carbon (C) with smaller amounts of nitrogen

0960-8524/02/$ - see front matter
2002 Elsevier Science Ltd. All rights reserved.
PII: S 0 9 6 0 - 8 5 2 4 ( 0 1 ) 0 0 1 3 3 - X
28 B.P. Kelleher et al. / Bioresource Technology 83 (2002) 27–36
(N) and phosphorous (P) and trace levels of chlorine
(Cl), calcium (Ca), magnesium (Mg), sodium (Na),
manganese (Mn), iron (Fe), copper (Cu), zinc (Zn) and
arsenic (As). Poultry litter refers to the bedding material
used during the poultry production cycle. Materials used
as litter include straw, sawdust, wood shavings, shred-
ded paper and peanut or rice hulls. During the pro-
duction cycle accumulating manure is mixed with litter
and at the end of the cycle both are removed together.
Chemical and physiochemical characterisation of
poultry manure are summarised in Table 1 (Guerra-
Rodriguez et al., 2001). Nitrogen exists in several forms
and is constantly transformed by microbial activity,
and changes in temperature, pH, moisture and oxygen
concentration. The concentration of ammonia nitrogen
is important when considering any of the three disposal
techniques. Poultry manure contains significant con-
centrations of organic nitrogen due to the presence of
high levels of protein and amino acids. Of the nitrogen
in fresh manure, 60–80% is typically in organic form,
such as urea and protein. Depending on environmental
conditions a large percentage of this organic nitrogen
(40–90%) is converted to ammonia within a year.
Ammonia exists as either gas (NH3 ) or in an ionised
þ
state ðNH4 Þ , which is water-soluble. NH3 gas can be
lost to the atmosphere while NH4 can be transformed
by microorganisms to nitrate (a process known as ni-
trification). Nitrate is highly mobile in water and can
be present in runoff. During anaerobic digestion of
poultry manure the concentration of endogenous am-
monia-nitrogen rises considerably. While some mem-
bers of an anaerobic microorganism population can use
ammonium ions, an excess of ammonium can inhibit
the destruction of organic compounds, the production
of volatile fatty acids, and methanogenesis (Krylova
et al., 1997). The presence of ammonium ions also
contributes to a corrosively high pH and leads to
handling, storage and disposal problems. The minimi-
sation of ammonia content is desirable for any treat-
ment of poultry litter.
Table 1
Chemical and physiochemical characterisation of poultry manure,
Guerra-Rodriguez et al. (2001)
Solid poultry
manure
Organic matter content, % dry matter 85.38
pH 8.8
Moisture, % wet weight 48.69
Total nitrogen, % dry weight 3.56
Inorganic nitrogen, % dry weight 1.74
Ammonia nitrogen, % dry weight 1.76
OCC/nitrogen ratio 10.89
TCC/nitrogen ratio 12.24
P2 O5 , % dry weight 0.71
K2 O5 , % dry weight 3.79
3. Methods of disposal
3.1. Composting
Composting is the aerobic degradation of biode-
gradable organic waste. It is a relatively fast biodegra-
dation process, taking typically 4–6 weeks to reach a
stabilised material. The composted material is odourless
and fine textured with a low moisture content and can be
used as an organic fertiliser. Composted poultry litter is
easy to handle and pathogen free. Disadvantages are
cited as loss of nitrogen and other nutrients during
composting, equipment cost and labour, odour and
available land (Sweeten, 1988).
Moisture and C/N ratio have a major influence on a
successful composting process. For poultry waste, a low
C/N ratio contributes to large ammonia losses (Gray
et al., 1971). A high moisture content, of more than
75%, inhibits a quick start to the composting process.
The moisture content (or the degree of material drying)
is a major influence on the decomposition rate and the
tendency to stabilise, since the metabolic heat generation
during decomposition drives evaporation. Factors that
contribute to moisture loss include evaporation, leach-
ing and aeration, natural or forced. Rynk et al. (1991)
reported that moisture content should be maintained
between 40% and 60% during the composting process,
although Fernandes et al. (1994) have reported that
successful composting of poultry manure mixed with
peat or chopped straw has been obtained in a passive
static-pile at high initial moisture levels (73–80%).
Ammonia emissions during the composting of
chicken litter represent significant environmental
change. Elwell et al. (1998) carried out studies on the
composting of poultry litter without added amend-
ments. They found that while overly wet material can
hamper initial operation, the general progression dries
the material and produces a granular output that is
below 20% (wt%) moisture and can be bagged and/or
sold commercially. More importantly the study reported
that there was very high ammonia production relative to
more conventional manure composting. Kithome et al.
(1999) measured NH3 volatilisation during composting
of poultry litter and evaluated the potential of different
additives to reduce the loss of NH3 using a laboratory-
composting simulator. Various amendments were added
to the poultry manure including two natural zeolites,
clay, coir (mesocarp of coconut fruit), CaCl2 , CaSO4 ,
MgCl2 , MgSO4 and Al2 ðSO4 Þ3 . Composting lasted from
49 to 56 days and volatilised ammonia was trapped in a
0.3 M H2 SO4 solution. The composted materials were
weighed and analysed for moisture content, total N and
NHþ 4 . NH3 volatilisation loss for the unamended ma-
nures ranged from 47% to 62% of the total manure N.
However, a layer of 38% zeolite placed on the surface of
the manure reduced NH3 losses by 44%, whereas 33%
 B.P. Kelleher et al. / Bioresource Technology 83 (2002) 27–36
coir placed on the surface of the manure reduced NH3
losses by 49%. Composting poultry manure with the
addition of 20% alum reduced NH3 losses by 28%. The
addition of zeolites, coir and alum produced composts
with high NHþ 4 concentrations ranging from 17% to
53% of total N. 20% CaCl2 decreased NH3 volatilisation

but did not result in increased NHþ 4 or NO3 concen-
trations. The 38% zeolite and 33% coir-amended com-
posts had total N concentrations of 17% and
31% g kg1 , respectively. The zeolite and coir amend-
ments were therefore proposed to be the most successful
for reducing NH3 losses during composting of poultry
manure.
Raviv et al. (1999) found that the addition of
squeezed grapefruit peels to poultry litter compost was
found to have a beneficial effect on the characteristics of
the end product. Unamended composting of poultry
manure in an aerated pile resulted in overheating (>65
C) and rapid loss of total volatile solids (TVSs) and of
nitrogen. The addition of 5% (on a dry weight basis) of
squeezed grapefruit peels lowered the pH of the aqueous
phase of the raw materials from 6.6 to 5.8 and enabled
the temperature of the pile to be controlled below 60 C.
Amendment with the peels also resulted in an increase in
the amount of conserved nitrogen by approx. 80%. In
contrast nitrogen was conserved more than the TVS on
a relative basis in the peel mixture but conserved less
than the TVS in the poultry manure alone. The authors
suggest that previously released NHþ 4 may have been
biologically immobilised in the mixture.
Kirchmann and Lundvall (1998) concluded that
composting of animal wastes, including poultry wastes,
should be restricted to those that need to be hygenised.
This followed laboratory tests to study the effect of
different solid manure treatments concerning NH3 losses
during storage and after application to soil. Composting
resulted in drastically higher NH3 emissions than did
anaerobic decomposition during incubation. However,
application of the composted material to soil resulted in
low NH3 losses, as NH4 –N concentrations were low.
Significantly, the study found that the largest reduction
in NH3 losses from poultry excreta was achieved if the
excreta were dried prior to storage and incorporated
into soil. In contrast, composting caused significantly
higher NH3 emissions.
Despite these NH3 losses Gagnon and Simard (1999)
reported that the addition of poultry litter compost to a
sandy loam soil resulting in comparatively high soil
mineral N content at the end of incubation. Of a number
of different composts, including dairy, sheep and horse
derived material, poultry litter compost resulted in the
highest soil Mehlich-3 P content.
More evidence of the volatilisation of ammonia and
of nitrogen-containing compounds from composted
poultry manure was provided by Mondini et al. (1996).
A comparison of the carbon and nitrogen contents of
29
composting and active drying poultry litter provides
evidence that while there was an N and C reduction in
the composted material, C content remained the same
and N actually increased in the dried poultry litter. A
humification index showed a decreasing trend in both
products, indicating the formation of humic substances
in both processes, although at different rates. The or-
ganic matter of the composted material showed much
higher levels of stabilisation.
A study was undertaken by Georgakakis and Krintas
(2000) to investigate and optimise a composting system
known as the Hosoya system in composting poultry
manure in a typical layer poultry farm in Greece.
The hosoya system is one of the two treatment sys-
tems that have been applied for the treatment of wastes.
The other is the Okada system and both are of Japanese
origin. Both systems are based on the operation of
specially designed manure turning and chopping me-
chanical system (MTCM). The system consists of a se-
ries of rotating metallic knives or forks with which the
waste is completely turned, aerated and gradually pu-
shed to the end of the installation. This installation
consists of an open, shallow, oval shaped concrete
channel about 80–100 m long and 4–6 m wide. It can
serve about 100 000–120 000 layers. A greenhouse-type
shelter covers the channel consisting of a metallic skel-
eton covered by hard plastic sheets. This covering en-
sures that the sun will warm the air inside during sunny
days in winter and early spring. During warmer times of
the year excess solar heat loads are removed by opening
large doors and windows on the sidewalls of the shelter.
The channel is filled with the waste material up to a
total depth of 1.0–1.2 m. In both systems the MTCM
rolls along rails placed on the top of the channel side-
walls. The main difference between the two systems is
that, with the Okada, the channel is straight while the
Hosoya is oval shaped. As a result, in the Okada the
manure is pushed straight forward by the MTCM from
the entrance at the one end of the channel to the exit at
the other end. The Hosoya system results in continuous
mixing of the manure around the oval channel and only
a part of it, equivalent to that entering the channel,
leaves the system. The MTCM in the Hosoya system
completes a full run along the oval channel in approx.
2 h including a period of 15–20 min for maintenance or
standby. On a daily basis, a maximum of 12 full runs
can then be completed. One complete run results in the
displacement of 1.5 m of manure along the channel or a
maximum of 18 m after 12 runs completed in 24 h.
Therefore, the minimum travelling time for fresh ma-
nure to reach the exit of the 80 m long channel is 4.44
days. Fresh manure is batch fed daily to the oval
channel and an equivalent quantity of final material is
removed from the exit, in order to keep the total
quantity in the channel constant and at the required
depth. During the turning and pushing of manure by the
30 B.P. Kelleher et al. / Bioresource Technology 83 (2002) 27–36
MTCM, surrounding air is incorporated and moisture is
lost by evaporation.
The Hosoya system controls the initial moisture
content by mixing the incoming fresh manure with the
recirculated dry old material in the channel and this
helps to start the composting process. Moisture control
of the material in the oval channel is necessary to avoid
blockages of the MTCM operation (Hosoya & Co.,
1996).
A particle size of less than approx. 12 mm is formed
from the initially muddy-textured raw material due to
the turning effect of the MTCM in the oval channel. The
reduction of particle size enhances degradation due to
the greater surface area available to microbes and an
increase in void space for oxygen.
Georgakakis and Krintas studied the performance of
the Hosoya system by taking samples of poultry manure
during a run and analysing them for moisture content,
and total and volatile solids. The temperature of the
material and temperature and relative humidity of the
surrounding air were also monitored. The results
showed that the composting process could not be com-
pleted in the Hosoya system. The initial turning and
mixing results in a large temperature drop but there is
insufficient time for composting to take place. The au-
thors recommend that this system could be used as a
preliminary treatment for materials with high moisture
content before more traditional techniques are used.
Brodie et al. (2000) carried out comparative trials
between static piles and turned windrows and provided
data to support which method shows the best potential
for producing commercially viable compost. The study
found that, provided the basic raw materials are the
same, including such properties as porosity, nutrient and
moisture balance, then the composting process is for-
giving and that both static and machine turned compost
processing are suitable for poultry litter composting at
less than optimal C:N ratios.
3.2. Anaerobic digestion
Anaerobic digestion is used worldwide as a unit
treatment for industrial, agricultural and municipal
wastes. It involves the degradation and stabilisation of
an organic material under anaerobic conditions by mi-
crobial organisms and leads to the formation of meth-
ane and inorganic products including carbon dioxide:
Organic matter þ H2 O
anaerobes
! CH4 þ CO2 þ New biomass þ NH3 þ H2 S þ heat:
The organic components of poultry litter can be
classified into broad biological groups: proteins, carbo-
hydrates and lipids or fats. Carbohydrates make up the
bulk of the biodegradable material and include cellulose,
starch and sugars. Proteins are large complex organic
materials composed of hundreds of thousands of amino
acid groups. Lipids or fats are materials containing fatty
acids. The anaerobic treatment of poultry litter involves
two distinct stages (Williams, 1999). In the first stage,
complex components, including fats, proteins and
polysaccharides, are hydrolysed and broken down to
their component subunits. This is facilitated by facul-
tative and anaerobic bacteria, which then subject the
products of hydrolyses to fermentation and other met-
abolic processes leading to the production of simple
organic compounds. This first stage is commonly re-
ferred to as acid fermentation and in this stage organic
material is simply converted to organic acids, alcohols
and new bacterial cells. The second stage involves the
conversion of the hydrolysis products to gases (mainly
methane and CO2 ) by several different species of strictly
anaerobic bacteria and is referred to as methane fer-
mentation. The two stages are illustrated in Fig. 1.
Anaerobic digestion is a relatively efficient conversion
process for poultry litter producing a collectable biogas
mixture with an average methane content of 60%. Sys-
tems are usually site specific but must have a certain
minimum amount of poultry litter to supply a given
system. The methane produced by this process can be
used as a fuel for boilers, as a replacement for natural
gas or fuel oil and can also be fired in engine-generators
to produce electricity for on-farm use or sale to elec-
tricity companies.
The residual sludge is stable and can be used as a soil
fertiliser. For larger operations the gases would need to
be scrubbed to remove impurities but may then be
compressed and sold commercially to fuel companies.
The poultry litter contains a higher fraction of biode-
gradable organic matter than other livestock wastes and
this includes high levels of organic nitrogen due to the
high content of protein and amino acids. The concen-
tration of endogenous ammonia-nitrogen rises consid-
erably during anaerobic digestion of poultry litter. While
a certain amount of ammonium ions can be utilised by
some anaerobic bacteria, an excess of ammonium can
inhibit the destruction of organic compounds, the pro-
duction of volatile fatty acids and methanogenesis.
Krylova et al. (1997) found that an excess of ammonia-
nitrogen in a fermentation medium can cause inhibition
of the anaerobic process in the following ways: (1) free
ammonia, which is more toxic for anaerobic microflora
than ammonium ion, is formed during the fermentation
process; (2) amination of a-ketoglutaric acid from the
metabolic pool of the tricarboxylic acid cycle can cause
difficulties in the metabolism of organic compounds and
(3) the release of ammonia-nitrogen may result in accu-
mulation of volatile fatty acids. For these reasons, the
minimisation of levels of ammonia is an important pri-
ority during the anaerobic treatment of poultry litter.
A possible solution to solve this problem is to dilute
the material to 0.5–3.0% total solids, which has the effect
 B.P. Kelleher et al. / Bioresource Technology 83 (2002) 27–36
Fig. 1. Pathways in anaerobic digestion.
of eliminating ammonia inhibition. Unfortunately this
method results in a large increase in volume of waste
and renders the method economically non-viable.
However, Bujoczek et al. (2000) varied the amounts of
fresh chicken manure and anaerobically digested sludge
(poultry manure stored anaerobically for half a year) to
investigate the highest solids level at which digestion was
still feasible. The efficiency of conversion to methane
was found to decrease with increasing organic loads to
the digester. The highest solids content at which diges-
tion was successful was approx. 10% total solids. Itodo
and Awulu (1999) found that methane yield decreased
after a threshold of 5% total solids was reached. The
same investigation provided evidence that methane yield
from the anaerobic digestion of poultry waste was
higher than that from the digestion of piggery and cattle
waste. Similar work by Callaghan et al. (1999) agreed
with these findings.
Facilitated by the addition of exogenous NH4 Cl, it
was demonstrated by Krylova et al. (1997) that almost
all nitrogen becomes ammoniacal during anaerobic di-
gestion of poultry litter. The results also indicated that
methane production was stable between ammonium
levels of 2–10 g l1 but that higher ammonium levels
resulted in significant reductions in both biogas and
methane production (10–30 g NH4 Cl l1 ). High levels of
ammonium (>30 g l1 ) resulted in a decrease in the
numbers of all physiological microbial groups (espe-
cially proteolytic and methanogenic). However, the au-
thors also studied the effect of addition of powdered
phosphorite ore [10% (w/v)] on methane production and
concluded that this addition resulted in enhanced
methane production at NH4 Cl concentrations up to
30 g dm3 . NH4 Cl also changed the composition of the
31
methanogenic consortium while there was a partial re-
covery in the numbers of proteolytic and methanogenic
bacteria. Phospherite addition had a positive effect up to
50 g dm3 of NH4 Cl but at concentrations above this
there was irreversible inhibition of methanogenesis that
could not be eliminated by the addition of phosphorite.
There have been several approaches to improving
digester performance including optimising temperature,
total solid content and retention time and the addition
of adsorbents and surfactants. Desai et al. (1994) and
Desai and Madamwar (1994a,b) looked at these possi-
bilities and concluded that the production of total gases,
including methane, from digestion of poultry litter
mixed with cheese whey was optimal under the following
conditions:
• Retention time was kept to approx. 10 days, a load-
ing rate of 6.0 g total solid/litre of digester per day
was used and a total solid content of 6% (w/v) was
present.
• 4 g l1 of an adsorbent was added (in this case silica
gel). There was then a twofold enhancement in total
gas production.
• The addition of surfactants, such as sodium lauryl
sulfate, results in an increase in digestion.
Alternatively, when 20 mM of FeSO4 was added to a
daily-fed poultry-litter digester, it increased methano-
genesis by 42% and increased the turnover rate of total
solids, volatile solids and volatile fatty acids and the
number of methanogens (Rao and Seenayya, 1994).
These approaches deserve consideration although the
economics of such additives could be inhibitory.
An attempt to use solar power to provide tempera-
tures in the thermophilic range (40–60 C) and use
stones to store the heat required was made by Itodo et al.
32 B.P. Kelleher et al. / Bioresource Technology 83 (2002) 27–36
(1997). The tests resulted in a reduction in biogas yield.
The problem of using solar energy in thermophilic di-
gestion is that temperature fluctuation results in lower
biogas yield, and digestion at thermophilic temperatures
is more sensitive to fluctuation than digestion at meso-
philic temperatures. The storage of heat using stones for
supplemental heating during periods of low tempera-
tures within the solar house was inefficient, as temper-
ature varied from the mesophilic to the thermophilic
range. The authors recommend improvements to design
features to enable it to hold all the heat energy available
and enhance the application of solar energy in thermo-
philic digestion.
Codigestion of poultry waste with other manures can
have a beneficial effect on biogas production. The codi-
gestion of hog and poultry waste was investigated by
Magbanua et al. (2001). The study found that codiges-
tion of the wastes was not only viable but that there was
also a superior biogas yield from treatments of combined
waste as opposed to the digestion of the wastes on their
own. The two wastes complimented each other with the
hog waste supplying methanogens and poultry waste
providing additional substrate. Problems that may result
in a material such as poultry litter being unsuitable for
digestion, such as a high or low pH, may be offset by
codigestion with another material. This is an important
consideration when choosing a disposal option.
3.3. Direct combustion of poultry litter
The third alternative disposal route is direct com-
bustion of poultry litter with the potential to provide for
both space heating of poultry houses and large-scale
schemes involving power generation or combined heat
and power. Modern systems are efficient combustion
facilities with sophisticated gas cleanup, which produce
energy and reduce the waste to an inert residue with
reduced pollution. The calorific value of poultry litter
decreases with increasing moisture content, air dried
samples having a typical value of 13.5 GJ/ton, which is
about half that of coal. Poultry litter has a low ash fu-
sion temperature. This ash fusion can cause problems
when using a conventional grate combustion system.
Parameters such as combustion temperature, air mixture
and moisture content must be held within optimal
specifications for the efficient running of a combustion
facility and vary for combustion design. The process
produces an ash residue, which retains most of the
phosphate and potash present in the fresh litter. The
original nitrogen concentration is variable and loss to
the atmosphere on combustion as NOx is not considered
a problem (Dagnall, 1993). The ash is stable, sterile,
easier to handle and transport and more marketable as
an organic fertiliser than conventional poultry litter.
Combustion facilities may be classified by the type of
system used, the nature of the waste to be combusted
and their capacity. However, a broad division can be
made between mass-burn incineration and other types
(Williams, 1999).
Mass-burn combustion: Large-scale incineration in a
single-stage chamber unit in which complete combustion
or oxidation takes place. Typical volumes of waste are
between 10 and 50 ton/h.
Other types of combustion: Other types of combustion
involve small-scale volumes typically between 1 and 2
ton/h. Examples include fluidised bed, cyclonic, rotary
kiln and liquid and gaseous incinerators.
The most successful conversion of poultry litter to
energy involves the use of mass burn combustion and, in
particular, step-grate combustion systems. Fibropower,
Page and Allen (1993), officially opened their poultry-
litter-fired power plant, thought to be the first com-
mercial plant of its type in the world, at Eye in Suffolk
UK in November 1993. The plant generates a gross
output of 14 MWe. After in-house use of electricity, a
net output of 12.5 MWe is supplied to a 33 kV power
line for distribution through local electricity networks.
The poultry litter itself comes from barn reared broiler
hens and is a mixture of wood shavings, straw and
chicken droppings. The wood shavings and straw im-
proves the burning process and permits control of the
moisture content. The high calcium content of the litter
produces a self-cleansing effect and reduces the need to
introduce calcium as a cleaning agent for gaseous
emissions. The escape of odours from the storage facility
is minimised by the use of negative pressure. Fuel is fed
into a boiler through a stepped-grate system, which
ensures that the material has a residence time of 2 s at
850 C thereby killing pathogens and preventing the
emission of odour. The system is fed by two unmanned
cranes that mix the litter from the supplier farms before
loading it on four elevators. The fuel is then moved
through the furnace by the step-grate system. After
combustion, an electrostatic precipitator is used to en-
sure low dust emissions.
A sister company, Fibrowatt, constructed a 13.5 MW
facility in Glanford and a 38.5 MW unit in Thetford,
England (Anonymous, 1996). The Eye and Glanford
projects developed Fibrowatt’s expertise and experience
in the use of poultry litter as a fuel. The moisture
content of the litter supplied to Eye was found to be
higher than expected and resulted in problems. There-
fore, new technology was introduced for the boiler used
at Glanford. The boiler is a Detroit stocker grate, a
chain grate with spreader stockers which blow the fuel
into the boiler and ensure that the majority of the fuel is
burnt in mid-air. The plant at Eye employs a moving
grate which means that the litter is burnt on the floor of
the boiler. The spreader stocker arrangement used in
Thetford is more effective and is now used at most
biomass conversion facilities not using fluidised-bed
technology.
 B.P. Kelleher et al. / Bioresource Technology 83 (2002) 27–36
An electrostatic precipitator controls particulate
emissions, in the Eye and Glanford plants. However, the
Thetford plant controls its emissions with the use of a
cyclone and baghouse in series, further reducing par-
ticulate emissions. Due to the clean nature of poultry
litter, neither Eye nor Glanford employs equipment to
limit SO2 or HCL emissions. As an extra precaution the
Thetford facility decided to inject lime into the flue gas
between the cyclone and the baghouse, minimising SO2
and HCL. The addition of lime results in a modified ash
component that adds a new dimension to its use as a
fertiliser.
Construction of the Thetford power station began in
1996 and it was handed over to the owners in June 1999.
Having proven the systems technical and economic vi-
ability the operation was shut down after a year’s op-
eration. The shutdown has provided an opportunity to
implement more process improvements. Recommis-
sioning took place in February 2000 and it is expected
that the plant will exceed the load factors experienced
with the first two plants of 91.3% (Staff Report, Modern
Power Systems, 2000). Another example of advances
incorporated into the Thetford plant is the use of spiral
screw feeders that transfer the litter to a conveyor belt,
then to the steam generator where it is pneumatically
transferred into the boiler furnace. This is a much more
efficient process than that of the two other plants where
crane grabs are used to transfer the fuel from the de-
livery bunkers to the boiler furnace. The litter is, as
stated, combusted at more than 850 C with a residence
time of 2 s. These conditions are usually specified for the
reduction of dioxin. Small amounts of chlorine are
present in the flue gas but the complete mechanisms to
Fig. 2. Flow diagram of poultry litter fuelled power plant, Staff Report, Modern Power Systems (2000).
33
generate furans, dioxin or long chain polymers do not
occur in the process. Fig. 2 shows a simplified schematic
of how the process works.
An alternative method of direct combustion of
poultry litter is by fluidised bed combustion. There are
three main types of fluidised beds, bubbling (Fig. 3),
turbulent or circulating bed types. All designs consist of
a bed of sand in a refractory-lined chamber through
which primary combustion air is blown from below.
Adjusting the airflow fluidises the sand particles. Cy-
clones are placed within the freeboard to re-circulate the
sand to the bed. The fluidised bed reactor facilitates the
dispersion of incoming fuel, where it is quickly heated to
ignition temperature, and provides sufficient residence
time in the reactor for complete combustion. Fluidised
beds are compact and have high heat-storage and heat-
transfer rates and thus allow faster ignition of low
combustible waste. Because of high heat-transfer rates,
fluidised beds are good for heat recovery purposes
(Williams, 1999).
Annamalai et al. (1985) investigated the direct com-
bustion of poultry litter in a fluidised bed combustor.
Their investigation concluded that:
• Nearly perfect fluidisation was achieved.
• Manure could be ignited at approx. 580 C. However,
complications arose due to the high moisture content
of the manure, especially in the feeder system. The
fuel, therefore, was dried before combustion to a
moisture content of 11%.
• With heaters at zero setting, combustion was self-
containing at fuel feed ratios above 2 g/s. For feed
rates below 2 g/s, electrical heaters were necessary
to maintain the desired bed temperature.
34 B.P. Kelleher et al. / Bioresource Technology 83 (2002) 27–36
Fig. 3. Typical bubbling bed fluidised bed incinerator, Williams (1999).
• Oxidation efficiency increased when excess air was
varied from )20% to 10%. Above 10% excess air,
the efficiency decreased. The concentration of carbon
monoxide (CO) was insensitive to excess air increases
after 10%.
• Carbon dioxide (CO2 ) concentration and oxidation
efficiency increased when bed temperature was varied
from 615 to 650 C, while above 650 C, the CO2 con-
centration leveled off.
• If the level of CO was within acceptable limits, then
approx. 10% excess air and a temperature of 650 C
provided optimum conditions for the combustion of
manure by a fluidised bed unit.
Similar tests are reported by Abelha et al. (2002). With a
view to using poultry litter as an energy resource (com-
bined heat and power), combustion studies of poultry
litter on its own or mixed 1:1 with peat were carried out in
an atmospheric bubbling fluidised bed. The high moisture
content of chicken litter provided uncertainty as to
whether combustion could be sustained on 100% chicken
litter therefore, a mixture with peat was considered to
help improve combustion. The study found that as long
as the moisture content of chicken litter is kept below
25%, the combustion will not need the addition of peat.
The combustor was operated over a temperature range of
700–1000 C. The main parameters investigated were: (i)
moisture content, (ii) air staging, and (iii) variations in
excess air levels along the freeboard.
The main conclusions were: (1) combustion was in-
fluenced very much by conditions of fuel supply, (2)
steady fuel supply was strongly dependent on the
moisture content of the chicken litter, (3) temperature
appeared to influence the reduction of levels of un-
burned carbon and hydrocarbons released from resi-
dues, (4) air staging in the freeboard improved
combustion efficiency by enhancing the combustion of
volatiles released from residues in the riser and (5) NOx
emissions were influenced by air staging in the free-
board.
Particles collected from the bed and the two cyclones
were analysed to determine levels of heavy metals. The
presence of relatively high K levels due to straw used in
the poultry litter and enrichment of K in ashes collected
from cyclones was observed. Leachability tests were
carried out with the ashes collected to verify whether or
not they could safely be used in agricultural lands. The
results showed little tendency to leach.
These studies illustrate that fluidised bed technology
can be used for the direct combustion of poultry litter.
The minimisation of moisture content at low cost is
obviously desirable and worthy of investigation for all
combustion techniques. The manipulation of diet to
lower the moisture content of poultry litter may be an
approach worth considering. One such investigation was
carried out by Svihus et al. (1995). High moisture barley,
which is sometimes included in the feed given to broiler
 B.P. Kelleher et al. / Bioresource Technology 83 (2002) 27–36
chickens in Norway, was stored under different condi-
tions to study the effect on the digestive tract and,
consequently, the moisture content of the poultry ma-
nure. The barley was preserved anaerobically by ensiling
using different additives, aerobically with propionic
acid, or by drying. The contents of true protein, total
amino acids, total b-glucans and the moisture content
were reduced when barley was stored in the moist stage.
However, anaerobic storage, which produced lactic acid
and ethanol fermentation, caused the strongest reduc-
tion of these variables. Importantly, from a combustion
and composting point of view, feeding high-moisture
barley, obtained through high moisture storage, resulted
in less sticky droppings so the cleanness of the cages and
feathers was significantly improved. Dietary manipula-
tion, as long as it does not adversely affect other phys-
iological parameters, is worthy of investigation as a
method to reduce the moisture content of poultry ma-
nure.
Sondreal et al. (2001) concluded that the choice of
fuel and generating technology for new power plants,
including the combustion of biomass, is influenced by an
increasingly complex combination of interrelated factors
which include: (1) current and future governmental
policies on restructuring and deregulation of utilities,
and environmental incentives like carbon emission
taxes; (2) economic factors such as proximity to load
centres, electricity, plant capital investment, fuel cost
and fuel price stability; and (3) existing technology, in-
cluding environmental controls, for generation of power
and associated benefits and risks involved in its de-
ployment, all of which is dependent on the fuel prop-
erties.
4. Conclusions
Composting of poultry litter has been shown to be
successful and the end material can be sold commer-
cially as an organic fertiliser. The main disadvantage
that needs to be addressed is the loss of nitrogen, re-
sulting in a material of less commercial and practical
value. This nitrogen loss contributes to an undesirable
volatilisation of ammonia to the atmosphere or nitrate
to water bodies.
Anaerobic digestion of poultry manure has also been
shown to be a viable disposal option. Operating condi-
tions are important, however, as excessive levels of
ammonia and/or high pH or temperature levels can in-
hibit methane production. The addition of additives
such as phospherite and the incorporation of adsorbents
or surfactants has resulted in encouraging results, al-
though a cheaper method to enhance digestion is nee-
ded. The other main consideration is, of course,
economics. For anaerobic digestion of poultry waste to
be financially viable, a disposal fee to farmers and/or the
35
sale of the digested solid effluent as an organic fertiliser
to retail markets is important.
The moving grate combustion facilities used by Fi-
browatt in the UK have proven the technological via-
bility of the process and have pointed the way forward
for the use of poultry litter as a fuel. Fluidised bed
technology can facilitate the use of poultry litter close to
where it is produced, either on its own or mixed with
other domestic or industrial waste, to produce heat and
power. The use of poultry litter as a fuel has the added
benefit that only trace concentrations of elements like
nitrogen or sulphur are present in the gaseous products
of combustion thus leading to a dilution of emissions of
pollutants such as NOx and SO2 . Other advantages as-
sociated with fluidised bed technology are its ability to
accept fuels with a relatively high ash and moisture
content, the low cost associated with fuel preparation,
and operational flexibility with regard to ash collection.
Rather than being a problem of waste, poultry litter
can and should be a source of energy and nutrients. Fuel
cost, efficiency, capital cost and environmental and
regulatory policies will be the principle limiting factors
when it comes to making future decisions on disposal
techniques. There is also an onus on policy makers to
prosecute persistent polluters thus compelling the pro-
ducers of waste to consider alternative, cleaner disposal
options.
Acknowledgements
This work would not have been possible without the
help of the Kantoher Poultry Producer’s Association
(KPPA) and in particular Jack O’Connor. Financial
support was provided by the KPPA and the Environ-
mental Protection Agency of Ireland (under the Na-
tional Development Plan).
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