Building a Moon Base: Part 1 – Challenges and Hazards

Article written: 7 Feb , 2008

Updated: 26 Apr , 2016
by Ian O'Neill

So, we want to go to the Moon. Why? Because the Moon is an ideal “staging post” for us to
accumulate materials and manpower outside of the Earth’s deep gravitational well. From the
Moon we can send missions into deep space and ferry colonists to Mars. Tourists may also be
interested in a short visit. Mining companies will no doubt want to set up camp there. The
pursuit of science is also a major draw. For what ever reason, to maintain a presence on this
small dusty satellite, we will need to build a Moon base. Be it for the short-term or long-term,
man will need to colonize the Moon. But where would we live? How could we survive on this
hostile landscape? This is where structural engineers will step in, to design, and build, the
most extreme habitats ever conceived…

Manned missions to Mars take up a lot of the limelight insofar as colonization efforts are
concerned, so it’s about time some focus is aimed at the ongoing and established concepts for
colonization of the Moon. We currently have a means of getting there (after all, it is nearly 40
years ago since Apollo 11) and our technology is sufficiently advanced to sustain life in
space, the next step is to begin building… In this first installment of “Building a Moon Base”,
we look at the immediate issues facing engineers when planning habitats on a lunar
landscape.

“Building a Moon Base” is based on research by Haym Benaroya and Leonhard Bernold
(“Engineering of lunar bases”)

The debate still rages as to whether man should settle on the Moon or Mars first. Mars is often
considered to be the ultimate challenge for mankind: to live on a planet other than Earth. But
looking down on us during cloudless nights is the bright and attainable Moon. From here we
can see the details of the lunar landscape with the naked eye, it is so close astronomically
when compared with the planets, that many believe that the Moon should be our first port of
call before we begin the six month (at best) voyage to the Red Planet. It also helps as we’ve
already been there…

Opinion has shifted somewhat in recent years from the “Mars Direct” plan (in the mid-1990s)
to the “Moon First” idea, and this shift has recently been highlighted by US President George
W. Bush when in 2004 he set out plans for re-establishing a presence on the Moon before we
can begin planning for Mars. It makes sense; many human physiological issues remain to be
identified, plus the technology for colonization can only be tested to its full extent when…
well… colonizing.

Understanding how the human body will adapt to life in low-G and how new technologies
will perform in a location close enough to home will be not only be assuring to lunar colonists
and astronauts, it will also be sensible. Exploring space is dangerous enough, minimizing the
risk of mission failure will be critical to the future of manned exploration of the Solar System.

So where do you start when designing a moon base? High up on the structural engineers “to
do” list would be the damage building materials may face when exposed to a vacuum.
Damage from severe temperature variations, high velocity micrometeorite impacts, high
outward forces from pressurized habitats, material brittleness at very low temperatures and
cumulative abrasion by high energy cosmic rays and solar wind particles will all factor highly
in the planning phase. Once all the hazards are outlined, work can begin on the structures
themselves.

The Moon exerts a gravitational pull 1/6th that of the Earth, so engineers will be allowed to
build less gravity-restricted structures. Also, local materials should be used where and when
possible. The launch costs from Earth for building supplies would be astronomical, so
building materials should be mined rather than imported. Lunar regolith (fine grains of
pulverized Moon rock) for example can be used to cover parts of habitats to protect settlers
from cancer-causing cosmic rays and provide insulation. According to studies, a regolith
thickness of least 2.5 meters is required to protect the human body to a “safe” background
level of radiation. High energy efficiency will also be required, so the designs must
incorporate highly insulating materials to insure minimum loss of heat. Additional protection
from meteorite impacts must be considered as the Moon has a near-zero atmosphere necessary
to burn up incoming space debris. Perhaps underground dwellings would be a good idea?

The actual construction of a base will be very difficult in itself. Obviously, the low-G
environment poses some difficulty to construction workers to get around, but the lack of an
atmosphere would prove very damaging. Without the buffering of air around drilling tools,
dynamic friction will be amplified during drilling tasks, generating huge amounts of heat.
Drill bits and rock will fuse, hindering progress. Should demolition tasks need to be carried
out, explosions in a vacuum would create countless high velocity missiles tearing through
anything in their path, with no atmosphere to slow them down. (You wouldn’t want to be
eating dinner in an inflatable habitat during mining activities should a rock fragment be flying
your way…) Also, the ejected dust would obscure everything and settle, statically, on
machinery and contaminate everything. Decontamination via air locks will not be efficient
enough to remove all the dust from spacesuits, Moon dust would be ingested and breathed in
– a health risk we will not fully comprehend until we are there.

 Building a Moon Base: Part 1 – Challenges and Hazards

 Building a Moon Base: Part 2 – Habitat Concepts
 Building a Moon Base: Part 3 – Structural Design
 Building Moon Base: Part 4 – Infrastructure and Transportation

“Building a Moon Base” is based on research by Haym Benaroya and Leonhard

Bernold (“Engineering of lunar bases“)

See also:

 Lunar Base Quarterly (LBQ)

 Lunarpedia.org
 Moon Society

Building a Moon Base: Part 2 – Habitat Concepts

Article written: 9 Feb , 2008

Updated: 26 Dec , 2015
by Ian O'Neill

Plans are afoot to build a manned base on the Moon. As you probably would have guessed,
there are quite a few hazards and dangers with sending humankind back to establish lunar
“real estate”. However, once our intrepid lunar colonists begin to build, the hazards will
become less and development will accelerate. This is all very well, but how will we gain that
first foothold in the lunar regolith? What will be the best form of habitat structure that can be
built to best suit our needs? These questions have some obvious and not-so-obvious answers
from the structural engineers already publishing their ideas and building prototypes…

In Part 1 of this mini series on “Building a Moon Base”, some of the dangers facing
astronauts and future colonists were outlined. Moon dust could (in all probability) be a health
risk, micrometeorites and other speeding projectiles could burst pressurized structures, highly
energetic particles from the Sun could irradiate unprotected settlements, damage to
machinery could be caused by the vacuum… generally a mixed bag of bad news. But if
anything else, we humans have the ability to beat the odds and succeed (if politics and
finances allow of course!). This second installment deals with the habitat structural concepts
that are being planned to best serve the first, interim and permanent settlements on the Moon
when we overcome all the odds.

“Building a Moon Base” is based on research by Haym Benaroya and Leonhard

Bernold (“Engineering of lunar bases“)

Many types of structure have been proposed for lunar colonies. However, the main focus for
mission planners center on cost and efficiency. Structures fabricated on Earth, while viable,
would have to be very lightweight to allow for easy launch out of the Earth’s deep
gravitational well. It is generally envisaged that the first bases to be established on the lunar
surface will be built on Earth, but once a base of operations is set up, with a contingent of
human (and perhaps robot) workers/settlers, local materials should be mined and habitats
fabricated in-situ (i.e. built on the Moon). Some of the structures currently being considered
are detailed below.

Inflatable designs

Inflatable habitats have always been a favorite, optimizing living space whilst using
lightweight materials. As the Moon has no atmosphere (apart from some very tenuous gases
being “outgassed” from its surface), any habitat would need to be highly pressurized to
simulate the terrestrial atmosphere (to approximately 1 atmosphere or 101,325 Pa) and
atmospheric gas quantities. Due to the high forces acting outwards (by the maintained gas
pressure), structural integrity of an inflatable can be assured. Assuming the membrane of the
inflatable is strong enough, risk of depressurization should be low.

There is however a massive problem with inflatables. In an environment as vacuum-like as

the Moon’s, there is little protection from micrometeorites (small, natural space rocks or
manmade space debris). Catastrophic depressurization could occur if a high velocity projectile
causes a weakness in the membrane. There are some solutions, such as covering the inflatable
habitats with a layer of protective regolith, and extensive fail-safes will need to be put in
place.

One design (pictured left) uses inflatable “pillows” to create a cuboid shape (rather than the
more natural spherical shape). Many of these pillows can be aligned and added on to create a
growing settlement. They would maintain their shape by using high-tensile beams to battle
against the bellowing membrane material. Protection from micrometeorites and solar radiation
would be provided by regolith.

Erectables
Classic erectables have been extensively tested and are an established form of construction.
With a focus on ease of assembly, one plan involves sending components into a low Earth
orbit. A frame can be easily erected and act as a tetrahedral, hexahedral or octahedral shape
by which to base the design of a simple habitat module. Once complete, the module could be
shipped to the Moon where it will be controlled into a soft landing. This method uses existing
technology and may be one of the more feasible concepts of beginning a Moon base. A basic
structure could also be constructed on the lunar surface in a similar fashion.

Local materials
Ultimately, it is hoped that a settlement on the Moon will have an infrastructure capable of
mining local materials, fabricating basic quantities and constructing structures with little or no
input from Earth. This degree of autonomy would be required if a thriving Moon base is to
succeed.

However, to maintain airtightness within the habitats, a new form of concrete would need to
be manufactured. All components for a lunar concrete mix can be found on the Moon,
although water (and therefore hydrogen) will be at a premium. As the Moon is sulphur-rich, a
different type of concrete (minus the need for water) may be created to aid with the
construction of arced and domed habitats. Some “geotextiles” may also be made via some
advanced refining, creating filmy materials to seal habitat interiors.

Building using locally mined materials will most likely be one of the more advanced methods
of construction on the Moon, so in the first stages at least, settlers will be dependent on the
Earth for support.

Lava tubes
Ancient lava tubes under the lunar surface exist and may be utilized by colonists. Using
natural cavern systems will have many benefits, principally that minimal construction would
be required. Many advocates for this plan point out there are too many risks associated with
above surface structures, why not use natural shelter instead? Lava tubes may be
interconnected, allowing sizeable settlements, also they may be easily sealed, allowing for
pressurized habitats. Lunar colonists will also be sufficiently protected from micrometeorites
and solar radiation.

Rovers

To bridge the gap between an immobile base and a highly mobile rover, the first base may
consist of settlers living and traveling in a roving Moon base. In fact, many designers suggest
this solution may be a long-term answer to the future of a colony on the Moon. Unlike the
current lunar “Moon Buggy” (pictured), future rovers would be large, accommodating several
people within a pressurized cabin. Using rovers as a base may negatively affect processes
only static, permanent bases can achieve (i.e. farming activities), but a roving base would
allow settlers the freedom to move when and where required around the lunar landscape.
  Building a Moon Base: Part 1 – Challenges and Hazards
 Building a Moon Base: Part 2 – Habitat Concepts
 Building a Moon Base: Part 3 – Structural Design
 Building a Moon Base: Part 4 – Infrastructure and Transportation

“Building a Moon Base” is based on research by Haym Benaroya and Leonhard

Bernold (“Engineering of lunar bases“)

Building a Moon Base: Part 3 – Structural Design

Article written: 20 Feb , 2008

Updated: 26 Dec , 2015
by Ian O'Neill

Building the first Moon base will be the biggest challenge mankind has ever embarked on.
We can already speculate about the hazards, natural and manmade, associated with a human
presence on the lunar surface. In response, we already have some habitat structures in mind –
ranging from inflatable structures to underground burrows inside ancient lava vents. Now it is
about time we seriously start designing our first habitat structure, protecting us from
micrometeorites, sustaining terrestrial pressures and using locally mined materials where we
can…

In Part 1 of this “Building a Moon Base” series, we looked at some of the more obvious
hazards associated with building a base on another planet. In Part 2, we explored some of the
current design concepts for the first manned habitat on the Moon. The designs ranged from
inflatable structures, habitats that could be constructed in Earth orbit and floated to the lunar
surface, to bases hollowed out of ancient lava tubes under the surface. All concepts have their
advantages, but the primary function must be to maintain air pressure and reduce the risk of
catastrophic damage should the worst happen. This third installment of the series deals with
the basic design of a possible lunar base which optimizes space, makes maximum use of
locally mined materials and provides protection from the constant threat of
micrometeorites…

“Building a Moon Base” is based on research by Haym Benaroya and Leonhard

Bernold (“Engineering of lunar bases“)

The key factors influencing structural designs of habitats on the Moon are:

 One-sixth terrestrial gravity.

 High internal air pressure (to maintain human-breathable atmosphere).
 Radiation shielding (from the Sun and other cosmic rays).
 Micrometeorite shielding.
 Hard vacuum effects on building materials (i.e. out gassing).
 Lunar dust contamination.
 Severe temperature gradients.
In addition to addressing these issues, the lunar structures must be easy to maintain,
inexpensive, easy to construct and compatible with other lunar habitats/modules/vehicles. To
achieve inexpensive construction, as much local material must be used as possible. The raw
material for inexpensive construction could be the plentiful quantities of regolith readily
accessible on the lunar surface.

As it turns out, lunar regolith has many useful properties for construction on the Moon. To
complement lunar concrete (as introduced earlier in Part 2), basic building structures may be
formed from cast regolith. Cast regolith would be very similar to terrestrial cast basalt.
Created by melting regolith in a mold and allowing it to cool slowly would allow a crystalline
structure to form, resulting in highly compressive and moderately tensile building
components. The high vacuum on the Moon would greatly improve the manufacturing
process of the material. We also have experience here on Earth in how to create cast basalt, so
this isn’t a new and untested method. Basic habitat shapes could be manufactured with little
preparation of the raw materials. Elements like beams, columns, slabs, shells, arch segments,
blocks and cylinders could be fabricated, each element having ten times the compressive and
tensile strength of concrete.

There are many advantages to using cast regolith. Primarily, it is very tough and resistant to
erosion by lunar dust. It could be the ideal material to pave lunar rocket launch sites and
construct debris shields surrounding landing pads. It could also make ideal shielding against
micrometeorites and radiation.

OK, now we have basic building supplies, from local material, requiring minimum
preparation. It is not too hard to imagine that the process of fabrication cast regolith could be
automated. Prior to a human even setting foot on the Moon, a basic, pressurized habitat shell
could be created, waiting for occupation.

But how big should the habitat be? This is a very tough question to answer, but the upshot is
that if any lunar habitat will be occupied for long periods, it will have to be comfortable. In
fact, there are NASA guidelines stating that, for missions of longer than four months, the
minimum volume required by each individual should be at least 20m3 (from NASA Man
Systems Integration
Standards, NASA STD3000, in case you were wondering). Compare the needs of long-term
habitation on the Moon with the short-term Gemini missions in the mid-1960’s (pictured).
The habitable volume per crewmember in Gemini was a cosy 0.57m3… fortunately these
early forays into space were short. Despite NASA regulations, the recommended volume per
crewmember is 120m3, approximately the same as the living space on the International Space
Station. A similar space will be required inside future habitats on the Moon for crew
wellbeing and mission success.
From these guidelines, habitat designers can work on how best to create this living volume.
Obviously, floor space, habitat height and functionality will need to be optimized, plus space
for equipment, life support and storage will need to be factored in. In a basic habitat design by
F. Ruess, J. Schänzlin and H. Benaroya from a publication entitled “Structural design of a
lunar habitat” (Journal of Aerospace Engineering, 2006), a semi-circular, “hangar” shape is
considered (pictured).

The shape of a load-bearing arch is a close ally for structural engineers, and arches are
expected to be a major component for habitat design as structural stresses can be evenly
distributed. Of course, architectural decisions such as the stability of the underlying material
and slope angle would have to be made whilst building the habitat foundations, but this design
is expected to address many of the issues associated with lunar construction.

The biggest stress on the “hangar” design will come from internal pressure acting outward,
and not from gravity acting downward. As the habitat interior will need to be held at
terrestrial pressures, the pressure gradient from interior to the vacuum of the exterior would
exert a massive strain on the construction. This is where the arch of the hangar becomes
essential, there are no corners, and therefore no weak spots can degrade integrity.

Many more factors are considered, involving some complex stress and strain calculations, but
the above description gives a taste as to what structural engineers must consider. By
constructing a rigid habitat from cast regolith, the building blocks for a stable construction can
be built. For added protection from solar radiation and micrometeorites, these arched habitats
could be built side-by-side, interconnecting. Once a series of chambers have been built, loose
regolith could be laid on top. The thickness of the cast regolith will also be optimized so the
density of the fabricated material can provide extra protection. Perhaps large slabs of cast
regolith could be layered on top.
Once the basic habitat modules are constructed, the layout of the settlement can begin. Lunar
“city planning” will be another complex task and many module configurations must be
considered. Five main module configurations are highlighted: Linear, Courtyard, Radial,
Branching and Cluster.

The infrastructure of the future lunar settlement depends on many factors, however, and will
be continued in the next instalment.

 Building a Moon Base: Part 1 – Challenges and Hazards

 Building a Moon Base: Part 2 – Habitat Concepts
 Building a Moon Base: Part 3 – Structural Design
 Building a Moon Base: Part 4 – Infrastructure and Transportation

“Building a Base Moon” is based on research by Haym Benaroya and Leonhard

Bernold (“Engineering of lunar bases“)

Article based on published work by Haym Benaroya and Leonhard Bernold: “Engineering of
lunar bases”

Building a Moon Base: Part 4 – Infrastructure and

Transportation

Article written: 22 Mar , 2008

Updated: 26 Apr , 2016
by Ian O'Neill

In this exciting but challenging period of space exploration, the time is fast approaching for
serious design concepts for the first habitats that will be built on the lunar landscape. In
previous articles, we have examined the hazards associated with such an endeavour, we have
looked at the structures available to us, we have even detailed a particular hangar-like
structure that might use locally mined materials. Now, we look into the possible infrastructure
elements that will be needed to support a viable colony on the Moon. Florian Ruess, a
structural engineer who is working on the future of habitats in extreme environments, also
took some time with the Universe Today to give his opinions on mankind’s future on lunar
soil…

Imagine trying to build a structure on the surface of the Moon. Two of the biggest obstacles
the first lunar settlers will come across are the very low gravity and the fine dust causing all
sorts of construction issues. Although it seems likely that the first habitats will be built by
automated processes before mankind even sets foot on the moon, fabrication of a settlement
infrastructure will be of a primary concern to engineers so construction can be made as
efficient as possible.
Infrastructure will be one of the most important factors concerning mission planners. How
will building materials be fabricated? How will material be supplied to construction workers?
How will precious water and food be supplied to the fledgling lunar colony? Can supply
vehicles go from A to B with little effort?

Historic examples of the effectiveness of an efficient transportation infrastructure can be seen

in the coalescence of cities around rivers (traditionally the quickest way to transport people
and material around a country). Canals were instrumental in bringing cities to life during the
Industrial Revolution in the UK in the late 18th century. As railway lines linked the East and
West of North America in the last half of the 19th century, acceleration in population growth
was experienced by people uprooting and “homesteading” the new, accessible farm lands.
Over the last 50 years, the “Southern California freeway effect” is responsible for the
proliferation of gas stations, restaurants, shops, followed by residential areas for workers –
eventually whole towns and cities are based around the ease of access for transportation.

Future manned colonization of the Moon and Mars will most likely be based on a similar
principal; the success of a lunar settlement will heavily depend on the efficiency of the
transport structure.

It seems likely that most transportation around the Moon will depend on wheeled methods,
following from terrestrial vehicles and tried and tested “Moon buggies” from the Apollo
missions in the 1960’s and 70’s. There are some significant drawbacks however. Addressing
this issue, Florian Ruess, structural engineer and collaborator with Haym Benaroya (whose
publication this article is based) points out some problems with this mode of transport:

“For any mission there will always be the need for individual transportation and the obvious
solution is some wheeled vehicle. But there are a couple of serious issues with this solution:
  Reduced traction. 1/6 gravity and the lunar soil make traction a problem just
like [the Mars Exploration Rovers] Spirit and Opportunity on Mars one can
get stuck easily or need to much power to get around.
 Dust. Apollo experience shows that a lot of dust is levitated by wheeled
vehicles. This dust is hazardous to machines and humans when breathed in.”

– Florian Ruess (private communication)

So travelling around in a modified “dune buggy” might not be the answer for an established
Moon base, some form of road infrastructure would be needed if wheeled transportation is
used.

Disturbing dust on the lunar surface is far from being a minor problem. From NASA’s
experience with the Apollo missions, by far the biggest contributor to dust generation was the
take off and landing of lunar modules. 50% of the regolith is smaller than fine sand and
approximately 20% is smaller than the “dusty” 0.02mm that preserved the Neil Armstrong’s
first boot prints. It is this very fine component of the regolith that can cause a host of
mechanical and health problems:

1. Vision impairment
2. Incorrect instrument readings
3. Dust coating
4. Loss of traction
5. Clogging of mechanisms
6. Abrasion
7. Thermal control problems
8. Seal failures
9. Inhalation

It therefore seems obvious that dust creation should be kept to the bare minimum as this factor
could be a severe hindrance to the infrastructure of the settlement.

Roads are would be the perfect answer to the new lunar colony. They would provide wheeled
vehicles with the much needed traction (thus having a knock-on effect with the fuel efficiency
of the vehicle) and may significantly reduce the amount of dust suspension, especially if the
road surface is raised above the surrounding regolith. Roads, however, have their drawbacks.
They are enormously costly and may be very difficult to build. Fusing regolith to form a
tough surface may be an answer, but as pointed out by Ruess, “…this requires enormous
energies, which cannot be provided by solar power alone.” So an alternate form of energy
would be required to perform such a construction.

Although road construction would be highly desirable, it may not be possible, at least in the
early stages of lunar settlement development. One emerging development in alternative space
transportation is the vertical take-off and landing method, but as previously stated, rocket-
powered take-off and landing produces vast amounts of dust. But should there be multiple
bases on the Moon, this might be a possibility, “…a lot of people recommend different
solutions for routes that will be used frequently like getting from the landing pad to the
settlement or from one settlement to the next,” Ruess adds.

Another solution is an established form of transportation. Totally avoiding contact with the
surface, thus cutting down on dust and avoiding obstacles, a lunar cable car might be a viable
possibility. It seems likely that such a cable car transportation network would be highly
effective. “Very large spans will be possible on the Moon and therefore infrastructure cost not
exorbitant,” Ruess points out. This possibility is being seriously considered by lunar
settlement planners.

Looking back on the previous articles in the series, Florian Ruess comments on whether lunar
bases can be mobile and points out some of the severe difficulties facing settlement planners
if locally mined materials are to be used:

“I am not a big fan of mobile bases. Such a system that includes power generation,
communications and especially long-term meteoroid and radiation protection does not seem
feasible to me. But the wheeled vehicles could be pressurized designs capable of serving
several-day-long science missions. This would be a good solution to expand the capabilities
of a permanent base.

“Local materials are a crucial yet difficult issue. My research so far has shown that only after
a certain presence has been established and experience with lunar issues and materials has
been gained we would be in a position to dare and build habitats from local materials.
Certainly not before man sets foot on the Moon. And please forget about the much-cited lunar
concrete! There are so many showstoppers for this imaginary material that I don’t even want
to start mentioning them. The only early local material application I see is meteoroid and
radiation protection using regolith as shielding material.”

 Building a Moon Base: Part 1 – Challenges and Hazards

 Building a Moon Base: Part 2 – Habitat Concepts
 Building a Moon Base: Part 3 – Structural Design
 Building a Moon Base: Part 4 – Infrastructure and Transportation

“Building a Moon Base” is based on research by Haym Benaroya and Leonhard

Bernold (“Engineering of lunar bases“)

Plus an exclusive interview with Florian Ruess, extreme habitat structural engineer and
founder of Habitats for Extreme Environments – HE2

-Florian Ruess, private communication.

Many thanks to Florian Ruess for his time in contributing to this article. For further
information about his work and extreme environment habitat designs, visit his website at: HE-
squared.com.

For more information about the future of lunar settlement, check out the Moon Society and
the collaborative resource, Lunarpedia.