Ethylene Production via Steam Pyrolysis

CHAPTER 1
1.0 INTRODUCTION
1.1 Relevance of work
Ethylene is one of the most important and largest volume petrochemicals in the world
today. It is used extensively as a chemical building block for the petrochemical industry.
The importance of ethylene results from the double bond in its molecular structure that
makes it reactive. Ethylene can be converted industrially into a variety of intermediate and
end products [41]. The major use of ethylene is conversion to low and high-density
polyethylene. Other significant uses of ethylene include chlorination to ethylene dichloride,
used in the manufacture of the polyvinyl chloride (PVC), oxidation to the ethylene oxide,
an intermediate in the manufacture of polyester fibres and films, and the conversion to ethyl
benzene, an intermediate in the manufacture of polystyrene [23].
Ethylene has become an important industrial intermediate and various technologies have
been utilized in ethylene production. Recently, ethylene has taken the place of acetylene in
virtually all large-scale chemical synthesis. However, acetylene itself is a by-product of
modern ethylene production [50].
More than 97% of ethylene around the world is produced by pyrolysis of hydrocarbons,
which is the thermal cracking of petrochemicals in the presence of steam. This process can
be described as the heating of a mixture of steam and hydrocarbon to the necessary
cracking temperature depending on the hydrocarbon used. This mixture is then fed to a
fired reactor or furnace and heated. As a result, the original saturated hydrocarbon “cracks”
into smaller unsaturated molecules. This process is extremely endothermic, and the product
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must be cooled back to the original feed temperature upon leaving the reactor in order to
minimize secondary reactions. [2]
Chemical companies have a variety of options for feedstock as well as processes to produce
ethylene. Economics and environmental issues are the dominant factors considered in the
choice of feedstock and processes of ethylene production.
The focus in this report will be on the steam pyrolysis of hydrocarbons mainly ethane.
There are several reasons for this choice which include the cost of production, availability
of raw materials and the viability of process.
1.2 Objectives
The main objective of this project is to develop a simplified plant design for the production
of ethylene and acetylene which includes a thermal cracking section, quenching section, gas
compression/separation, ethylene purification, and an integrated refrigeration section.
The design is aimed at estimating the production of ethylene and acetylene using ethane as
a feedstock and also to determine the yield of ethylene and acetylene using the steam
pyrolysis process. The design is also aimed at determining the feasibility of the steam
pyrolysis process on an industrial scale.
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CHAPTER 2
2.0 LITERATURE REVIEW
2.1 Chemistry of ethylene and acetylene
2.1.1 Ethylene
Ethylene (IUPAC name: ethene) is a gaseous organic compound with the formula C2H4. It
is the simplest alkene (older name: olefin from its oil-forming property). Ethylene has four
hydrogen atoms bound to a pair of carbon atoms that are connected by a double bond and
hence is classified as an unsaturated hydrocarbon. All six atoms that comprise ethylene are
coplanar. The H-C-H angle is 119°, close to the 120° for ideal sp² hybridized carbon. The
molecule is also relatively rigid: rotation about the C-C bond is a high energy process that
requires breaking the π-bond. The π-bond in the ethylene molecule is responsible for its
useful reactivity. [12]
Ethylene has a boiling point temperature of -103.7°C, a melting point temperature of -
169.2°C, and a flash point temperature of -136.1°C. Physical properties of ethylene include:
 It is colourless
 It is flammable
 It has a slightly sweet smell at normal condition, that is ambient temperature and
one atmosphere
2.1.2 Acetylene
Acetylene (IUPAC name: ethyne) with the chemical symbol C2H2 is a hydrocarbon
consisting of two hydrogen atoms and two carbon atoms. As an alkyne, acetylene
is unsaturated because its two carbon atoms are bonded together in a triple bond. The
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carbon-carbon triple bond places all four atoms in the same straight line, with CCH bond
angles of 180°. [16]
Acetylene is an extremely reactive hydrocarbon. It is moderately soluble in water or alcohol
and markedly soluble in acetone. Acetylene has a melting point temperature of -81.5°C and
a boiling point temperature of -84°C. Physical properties include:
 It is a combustible gas
 It has a distinctive odour
 Acetylene is colourless
Once the gas is compressed, liquefied, mixed or heated with air, it becomes very explosive.
2.1.3 Uses of ethylene and acetylene
The major use of ethylene is conversion to low and high-density polyethylenes, which are
used in such applications such as construction, communications, packaging, and
manufacturing of industrial and domestic products.
Other significant uses of ethylene include chlorination to ethylene dichloride, used in the
manufacture of the polyvinyl chloride (PVC), oxidation to the ethylene oxide, an
intermediate in the manufacture of polyester fibers and films, and the conversion to
ethylbenzene, an intermediate in the manufacture of polystyrene [16]. In addition, ethylene
is also a major raw material to produce plastics, textiles, paper, solvents, dyes, food
additives, pesticides, and pharmaceuticals. [12]
Acetylene is used for the production of oxy-acetylene flame. The temperature of the flame
is above 3000oC. It is employed for cutting and welding of metals. Another common use of
acetylene is as a raw material for the production of various organic chemicals including
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1,4-butanediol, which is widely used in the preparation of polyurethane and polyester
plastics. Acetylene is also used for artificial ripening of fruits.
2.2 Chemistry of the Ethylene Process
Ethylene, because of its double bond, is a highly reactive compound, which is converted to
multi-intermediates and end-products on a large scale industrially. The thermal cracking
process is the most interesting process to produce ethylene commercially. In general the
starting raw material for ethylene production by thermal cracking can be any kind of
hydrocarbon. In reality, the choice of starting material is narrowed by economical
considerations. [26]
As the molecular weight of the feedstock increases, the product complexity increases.
Because many reactions occur during thermal cracking, it is complicated to determine the
rate of the cracking and predict the distribution of the products. Yet, investigations have
confirmed that the primary reaction, which splits the original hydrocarbon, is unimolecular
and that conversion rates follow the first order kinetics for a wide range of molecular
weight and up to high conversion of the original reactant, if there is no distinct equilibrium
barrier [17].
2.3 Market survey
2.3.1 Global market
In the past ten years, ethylene demand and price have fluctuated based upon the economical
growth in the United Stated and the rest of the industrial world. [7]
Although many economic uncertainties surround the petrochemical industry, ethylene
production and consumption should grow because of continuing replacement of natural and
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inorganic materials with organic synthetics and the further development of radically new
synthesis materials [26].
Our target market is producers of polyethylene products, PVC, and the likes. Some of the
current global market prices of ethylene are as follows: $900/tonne in Asia, €970/tonne and
€840/tonne in Europe. [9]
2.3.2 Local market
A research on the local market for ethylene did not produce significant values. However
there are industries in Ghana which can use ethylene and acetylene as raw materials or
intermediates. Our target market is the food industries, plastics industries, paints, ripening
of fruits, packaging, and for use in welding. Examples of such industries are Qualiplast,
Duraplast, Interplast, Blue Skies Ghana, and Ezzy Paints.
2.4 Feedstock
A variety of feedstock can be used in a steam pyrolysis process. The feedstock for an
ethylene plant could be methane, ethane, propane and heavier paraffin. With the
development of cracking technology, it can also be cracked from crude oil fractions:
naphtha, kerosene and gas oil. Sometimes, raffinates from aromatics extraction facilities
can also be used as feedstock. The choice of feedstock is a compromise of availability,
price and yield. In selecting a process for ethylene production, the most important factor is
the hydrocarbon feedstock. Although this is controlled by conditions like quantity, quality,
and economics, studies have shown that as the molecular weight of the feed hydrocarbon
increases, ethylene yield decreases.
2.4.1 Methane (CH4)
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Methane is the first member of the alkane series and is the main component of natural gas.
It is also a by-product in all gas streams from processing crude oils. It is a colourless,
odourless gas that is lighter than air. Methane is mainly used as a clean fuel gas. It is also
an important source for carbon black. Methane may be liquefied under very high pressures
and low temperatures. Liquefaction of natural gas (methane), allows its transportation to
long distances through cryogenic tankers. [17]. Methane, though an important and abundant
fuel, has not been an attractive raw material for ethylene production, because it is thermally
stable and has no carbon-carbon bonds. The carbon-hydrogen bond requires more energy to
break than the carbon-carbon bond. The C-H bond energy is 93.3 Kcal, whereas C-C
energy bond is 71.0 Kcal [6]. The net reaction for methane dehydrogenation is
2CH4 C2H4 + 2H2 …………………………… (1)
2.4.2. Ethane (CH3-CH3)
It is the second member of the alkanes and is mainly recovered from natural gas liquids.
Ethane, like methane, is a colourless gas that is insoluble in water. After methane, ethane
has the second highest composition in natural gas. Ethane is separated most efficiently from
methane by liquefying it at cryogenic temperatures. Various refrigeration strategies exist,
but the most economical process presently in wide use employs turbo-expansion, and can
recover over 90% of the ethane in natural gas. [24] The principal use of ethane is in
chemical industry, mainly, in the production of ethylene by steam cracking. Ethane is
favoured for ethylene production because the steam cracking of ethane is fairly selective for
ethylene. Ethane may be cracked alone or as a mixture with propane. [2]
The net dehydrogenation reaction of ethane is
C2H6 C2H4 + H2 …………………………… (2)

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2.4.3 Propane C3H8
Propane is normally a gas, but it is compressible to a liquid that is transportable.
It is derived from other petroleum products during oil or natural gas processing. Propane,
also known as liquefied petroleum gas (LPG), can be a mixture of propane with small
amounts of propylene, butane and butylenes. Propane is a by-product of natural gas and
petroleum refining. Propane is used as a feedstock for ethylene production. The production
of ethylene from propane is similar to the process of ethylene production from ethane. [2]
In the dehydrogenation of propane four initial reaction steps are conceivable when
producing ethylene and propylene; however, according to Sherwood [24, 25] and Martin
[19] the first two reactions are primary. The reactions are
C3H8 C2H4 + CH4 …………………………………. (3)
C3H8 C2H6 + H2 …………………………………... (4)
2C3H8 C2H8 + 2CH4 ………………………………. (5)
2C3H8 C2H6 + C3H6 + CH4 ……………………….. (6)
2.4.4 Naphtha
Naphtha, an important feedstock for ethylene production, is a collective of liquid
hydrocarbon intermediate oil refining products. It is a mixture of hydrocarbons in the
boiling point range of 30-200 ºC. For the naphtha cracker process, typical feedstock are
light naphthas (boiling range of 30-90 ºC), full range naphthas (30-200 ºC), and special cuts
(C6-C8 raffinates) [29]. Naphtha is obtained in petroleum refineries as one of the
intermediate products from the distillation of crude oil. The processing of light naphtha to
ethylene is similar to the ethane and propane processes.
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2.4.5 Kerosene
This is a distillate fraction heavier than naphtha, and is normally a product from distilling
crude oils under atmospheric pressures. It may also be obtained as a product from thermal
and catalytic cracking or hydrocracking units. Kerosene is usually a clear colourless liquid
which does not stop flowing except at very low temperature (normally below -30°C).
However, kerosene containing high olefin and nitrogen contents may develop some colour
(pale yellow) after being produced. Currently, kerosene is mainly used to produce jet fuels,
after it is treated to adjust its burning quality and freezing point. Before the widespread use
of electricity, kerosene was extensively used to fuel lamps, and is still used for this purpose
in remote areas. It is also used as a fuel for heating purposes. [17]
2.4.6 Gas oil
Gas oil is a heavier petroleum fraction than kerosene. It can be obtained from the
atmospheric distillation of crude oils (atmospheric gas oil, AGO), from vacuum distillation
of topped crudes (vacuum gas oil, VGO), or from cracking and hydrocracking units.
Atmospheric gas oil has a relatively lower density and sulphur content than vacuum gas oil
produced from the same crude. The aromatic content of gas oils varies appreciably,
depending mainly on the crude type and the process to which it has been subjected. A
major use of gas oil is as a fuel for diesel engines. Another important use is as a feedstock
to cracking and hydrocracking units. Gases produced from these units are suitable sources
for light olefins and LPG. [17]
2.4.7 Natural Gas
As a feedstock, natural gas yields ethylene from its ethane or propane content and forms the
basis of a massive chemical industry. Large reserves exist in many regions of the world.
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Much of the natural gas appears in regions that are remote from markets or pipe lines, and it
is called “stranded” gas, which is a natural gas field that has been discovered, but remains
unusable for either physical or economic reasons. Most of this gas is flared, re-circulated
back into oil reservoirs, or not produced. In addition, natural gas has a major disadvantage
in transportation. Because of the low density of natural gas, pipeline construction is very
expensive. [2]
2.4.8 Choice of feedstock
The choice of feed stock is an important economic decision as it influences other costs as
well. For the reasons following, the choice of feedstock for our steam pyrolysis is ethane.
Subject to availability, ethane is the best feedstock, as it has higher yield and selectivity of
ethylene than heavier feed stocks and its processing is relatively simple, involving lower
capital costs. Another reason for choosing ethane as feedstock is, ethylene plants based on
light hydrocarbons are much simpler and cheaper to build and operate than plants designed
to use heavy feedstock. The plant has to employ much greater control over the composition
of the final product once the heavier feedstocks are cracked and more variety of
components comes. The choice for a particular feedstock, together with processing
conditions (heat, pressure, steam dilution rate) will determine the yield of ethylene,
propylene and other co-products in steam cracking. Manufacturing plants fed with ethane
and propane can be constructed at much lower investment costs than naphtha crackers.
Table 2.1 shows how product yield varies with feedstock type. If ethane is used as
feedstock, almost no propylene, butadiene and aromatics are formed as by-products.
Our key suppliers of ethane would include Texas Gas Service, Alliance Pipeline, BP
Amoco Co., Chevron Texaco, Duke Energy Co., and Shell Oil.
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Table 2.1 Approximate material balance of pyrolysis with different feed stock
Products,% mass Gaseous feed Liquid feed
Ethane Propane butanes naphtha gas-oil
H2 and methane 13.0 28.0 24.0 26.0 23.0
Ethylene 80.0 45.0 37.0 30.0 25.0
Propylene 1.1 14.0 16.4 14.1 14.4
Butadiene 1.4 2.0 2.0 4.5 5.0
Butene mixture 1.6 1.0 6.4 8.0 6.0
C5+ 1.6 9.0 12.6 18.5 32.0
Ratio propylene/ethylene 0.003 0.3 0.5 0.4 0.6
Propylene content into C3 86.7 58.3 99.0 98.3 96.7
fraction
2.5 General Processes for Ethylene Production
Commercially ethylene is obtained by (1) thermal cracking of hydrocarbons such as ethane,
propane, butane, naphtha, kerosene, gas oil, crude oil, etc, (2) autothermic cracking (partial
oxidation) of the above hydrocarbons, (3) recovery from refinery off-gas, (4) recovery from
coke-oven gas, and (5) catalytic dehydration of ethyl alcohol or ethyl ether. Occasionally,
raffinates from aromatics extraction facilities are used as a supplementary raw material. Of
the five methods above, small quantities of ethylene are recovered from coke oven gas and
gases produced from crude oil directly [5] but this route to ethylene has for a variety of
technical and economic reasons, so far not gained commercial significance.
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The first step in ethylene production is thermal cracking of the hydrocarbon feedstock.
Thermal cracking of natural gas liquids (NGL) or crude oil fractions in the presence of
steam is still the dominant method for the production of ethylene. This thermal
decomposition results from adding heat to the feed to break its chemical bonds. The steam
does not enter directly into the reaction, but it enhances the product selectivity and reduces
coking in the furnace coils. The product of this thermal cracking process is a mixture of
hydrocarbons, which extends from hydrogen and methane to gasoline and gas oil [28].
Most current ethylene processes are basically similar to each other. Ethylene plants use
similar separation units.
In the following sections, each step of ethylene production will be discussed.
2.5.1 Thermal Cracking Section
The first section of ethylene production process is thermal cracking. Thermal cracking is
the heart of an ethylene plant. This section produces all the products of the plant, while
other sections serve to separate and purify the products. Additionally, this section has the
greatest effect upon the economics of the process. Various types of pyrolysis reactors have
been proposed and commercialized for the thermal cracker. These pyrolysis reactors
include (1) direct heating (2) indirect heating (3) autothermic cracking and others.
The direct heating process using fired tubular heater is the most common cracker in an
ethylene plant. In this process a variety of the hydrocarbon feedstock can be used ranging
from ethane to gas oil. Steam is added to the hydrocarbon feed for several reasons: (1)
reduce the partial pressure of hydrocarbon, (2) lower the residence time of the hydrocarbon,
and (3) decrease the rate of coke formation within the tubes by reaction of steam with
carbon to form carbon monoxide and hydrogen.
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Thermal cracking of hydrocarbons by indirect heating include the pebble bed reactors, the
fluidized bed reactors, and regenerative furnace. Even though construction costs seem to be
more expensive and the operation to be more complex, ethylene yield by indirect heating is
higher than that obtained in the fired tubular heaters. One of the advantages of the indirect
heating reactors is that crude oil and heavy fuel oil can be used as feedstock because the
coke by-product can be removed continuously or intermittently in the process [6].
The pyrolysis gas leaving the cracker usually has a temperature in the range of 375°C to
500°C in the case of naphtha pyrolysis and typically from 500°C to 600°C in the case of
gas oil pyrolysis. The outlet temperature depends upon the amount of the carbon deposits in
the transfer line exchanger [26]. Quenching of the conversion product or rapid temperature
reduction is important to prevent the decrease of ethylene yields caused by secondary
reactions. This is carried out either by transfer line exchangers or by injecting water and oil.
2.5.2 Gas Compression and Treatment Section
In addition to the thermal cracking section, the sections for removal of acid gases, drying of
the cracked gases, removal of acetylenic compounds, and purification of ethylene are also
very important, because an efficient ethylene plant is the result of the integration of these
process sections and because, in respect to cost, the thermal cracking section is only about
20-30% of the whole plant. In addition, the goal is to produce ethylene with high purity
above 99.9%.
Most ethylene processes call for compression of the pyrolysis gas leaving the quench tower.
Consequently, the cooled cracked gas leaving the water tower is compressed in four to five
stages. Plants based upon gaseous feedstock generally employ four stages, while many
naphtha-and gas oil-based plants employ five stages of pyrolysis gas compression. Between
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compression stages, the cracked gas is usually cooled in water-cooled exchangers. Water
and hydrocarbons condensed between stages are separated from the pyrolysis gas in inter-
stage separators.
Hydrogen sulphide and carbon dioxide are removed from pyrolysis gas between the third
stage and fourth stage of the compression system. This location is optimum because the
actual gas volume has been reduced significantly in the first three stages of compression
while acidic components are still present in the gas stream [26]. Acid gas produced in
thermal cracking must be removed before the first major fractionation step. In removing
acid gases such as carbon dioxide and hydrogen sulphide, non-regenerative caustic washing
followed by water washing is employed in the most of the existing plants and proves to be
most economic. The pyrolysis gas leaving the caustic scrubber contains less than 1 ppm of
acid gases and hence assures that the final products of the plant will meet specification in
this respect.
Compressed cracked gas usually is dried to reduce the moisture content to 1 ppm or less
and avoid problems with freezing and hydrate formation in downstream low temperature
equipment. In drying the cracked gases, alumina, silica gel, and molecular sieves are used
commercially. Among them, molecular sieves seem to have an economic advantage over
conventional desiccants because of their higher desiccant activities and lower regeneration
temperatures [17]. Recovery of acetylene and removal of acetylenic materials from the
process gas is very important in manufacturing polymer-grade ethylene.
2.5.3 Recovery and Purification Section
After the cracked gases have been quenched, compressed, freed of the acid gases, and
dried, they generally contain hydrogen and light hydrocarbons in the C1-C6 range.
Depending upon the cracking method employed, carbon monoxide and nitrogen also may
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be present. Low temperature straight fractionation, absorption, and selective adsorption are
three different methods to recover and purify ethylene. The aim of this section is to separate
ethylene and acetylene from hydrogen and methane fractions, ethane and propane fractions,
and heavier hydrocarbons. Commercial separation processes operate at four ranges of
pressure: 450-600 psia, 100-150 psia, 70-90 psia, and 30-40 psia. The most popular is the
450-600 psia because it offers an attractive combination of purity, recovery, efficiency, and
investment for large ethylene plants. [41]
In ethylene purification section, demethanized process streams are introduced to the de-
ethanizer in most cases. The de-ethanizer is a simple tower refrigerated by propane or
propylene to make reflux. The net overhead from the de-ethanizer flows to an ethylene-
ethane separator. This is the second most costly separation step in an ethylene plant because
the volatility is low and a large amount of reflux is required.
2.5.4 The Refrigeration Section
The separation of pyrolysis gas through condensation and fractionation at cryogenic
temperatures requires external refrigeration and is an important part of the ethylene system.
An ethylene refrigerator has two or three stages for a total of between five and seven stages
for the entire refrigeration cascade. Reflux ratios in the columns are selected carefully to
avoid large refrigeration consumption [47].
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CHAPTER 3
3.0 PROCESS SELECTION AND DESCRIPTION
The different processes in ethylene production include steam pyrolysis, catalytic pyrolysis,
recovery from fluid catalytic cracking off gas, autothermic and fluidized-bed cracking, and
membrane reactor.
3.1 Steam pyrolysis
The most commonly used process is steam pyrolysis of hydrocarbons. The feedstock,
mixed with dilution steam, enters the cracking section and is pyrolysised by heat into small
components. The pyrolysis gas enters the quench section and is cooled there to some
controlled temperature. Water enters the water quench tower, a part of quench section,
cooling down the high temperature pyrolysis gas and becoming steam. That steam, called
dilution steam, mixes with the feedstock before entering the pyrolysis section to decrease
the partial pressure of the cracked gases and slow coke formation. Finally, the pyrolysis
gas goes into the separation section to be separated into a variety of desired final products.
[33]
Steam
CRACKING QUENCH SEPARATION Final

SECTION SECTION SECTION
Feedstock Pyrolysis product
gas
Water
Figure 3.1 A simplified ethylene plant diagram sheet. [33]
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3.2 Catalytic pyrolysis
A catalytic pyrolysis process for production of ethylene from heavy hydrocarbons,
comprises heavy hydrocarbons that are contacted with a pillared inter layered clay
molecular sieve or other high silica zeolite containing catalysts in a riser or down flow
transfer line reactor in the presence of steam. It is catalytically pyrolysed at a temperature
of 650° C to 750° C and a pressure of 0.15 to 0.4 MPa for a contact time of 0.2 to 5
seconds. The weight ratio of catalyst to feedstock ranges from 15:1 to 40:1 and the weight
ratio of steam to feedstock is about 0.3:1 to 1:1.
Catalytic pyrolysis combines catalytic cracking and steam pyrolysis and has the advantages
of both catalytic cracking and steam pyrolysis. It can raise the yields of light olefins,
expand the flexibility of products distribution, and simultaneously lower reaction
temperature and decrease energy consumption for the whole system; so it has broad
application prospect. The raw material is usually crude oil.
Considering that the feed that is used in catalytic pyrolysis is crude oil, this process is not
exactly feasible in Ghana for the production of ethylene and acetylene. This is due to the
shortage in supply of Ghana‟s crude oil. Furthermore, the crude oil which is imported
mainly from Nigeria and Equatorial Guinea is chiefly refined to produced petroleum,
diesel, kerosene, etc. which is highly useful on the market. Furthermore, this process
requires the use of catalysts in large quantities, and which would require frequent plant shut
down in case of short catalyst life.
3.3 Autothermic and fluidized bed cracking
Most of the autothermic cracking processes produce acetylene as a main product and
ethylene as a by-product. Most of these processes operate at atmospheric pressure, and
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hydrocarbon feedstock, air, or oxygen and fuels are preheated to about 593ºC to reduce the
oxygen consumption and increase the yield. The process of ethylene production by
autothermic cracking is based upon the thermal cracking of crude oil using fluidized beds.
[2]
Fluidized bed reactors are relatively new tools in the chemical engineering field developed
for the oil and petrochemical industries. Here catalysts are used to reduce petroleum to
simpler compounds through cracking. Today fluidized bed reactors are still used to produce
gasoline and other fuels, along with many other chemicals. Many industrially produced
polymers are made using FBR technology, such as rubber, vinyl chloride, polyethylene,
and styrene. A major advantage of this process is the ability to operate the reactor in a
continuous state. However because of the expansion of the materials in the reactor, a larger
vessel is often required, which increases the cost of production. Again, the fluid-like
behaviour of fine solid particles within the bed eventually results in the wear and tear of the
reactor vessel. This requires expensive maintenance which adds to the cost of production.
3.4 Membrane reactor
Membrane reactors may be used in either batch or continuous mode, and allow the easy
separation of the enzyme from the product. Due to the ease with which membrane reactor
systems may be established, they are often used for production on a small scale (g to kg),
especially where a multi-enzyme pathway or co-enzyme regeneration is needed.
Membrane reactors combine reaction with separation to increase conversion. One of the
products of a given reaction is removed from the reactor through the membrane, forcing the
equilibrium of the reaction "to the right" (according to Le Chatelier's Principle), so that
more of that product is produced. Membrane reactors are most commonly used when a
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reaction involves some form of catalyst. [8] There are two main types of these membrane
reactors (1) the inert membrane reactor and (2) the catalytic membrane reactor.
The inert membrane reactor allows catalyst pellets to flow with the reactants on the feed
side (usually the inside of the membrane). In this kind of membrane reactor, the membrane
does not participate in the reaction directly; it simply acts as a barrier to the reactants and
some products. [14]
Catalytic Ceramic Membrane is a system for the dehydrogenation of ethane to produce
ethylene and hydrogen through the use of a catalytic ceramic membrane having selective
permeability, thus permitting the separation of hydrogen from the reaction zone which
causes further dehydrogenation of ethane. The catalytic ceramic membrane tube is enclosed
within an alloy tube of suitable composition to permit heating to the temperature range of
300° to 650° C. The reactor is connected to a recovery system which permits separation of
pure ethylene and unconverted ethane. A steady stream of H2O or argon continuously
sweeps away the H2 coming out through the selective membrane, thereby further
facilitating the conversion process. [14]
The membrane reactor‟s major advantage is its combination of reaction and separation to
produce a good amount of conversion and yield. However, the membranes (ceramic and
metallic) are poor in mechanical strength and need to be replaced at regular intervals.
Another major disadvantage is the cost of the membranes and its low resistance to harsh
environments. Also, the membrane reactors are usually used for production on small scale
(g to kg). [11] Considering the amount of ethylene and acetylene we want to produce,
which runs into thousands of tonnes, this process is not recommended.
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3.5 Fluidized catalytic cracking
Fluidized catalytic cracking (FCC) is an important process in oil refineries. It upgrades
heavy hydrocarbons to lighter more valuable products by cracking, and is the major
producer of gasoline in refineries. FCC Units present challenging multivariable control
problems.
The heavy molecule cracking process occurs in a riser tubular reactor, at high temperatures,
building up fuel gas, LPG, cracked naphtha (gasoline), light cycle oil, decanted oil, and
coke. The coke deposits on the spent catalyst surface, causing its deactivation. The catalytic
activity is re-established by coke combustion in a fluidized bed reactor, dominated
regenerator. The system riser-regenerator is called the converter. Steam lifts the heated
regenerated catalyst to be combined with the oil in the riser so that the oil-catalyst mixture
rises in an ascending dispersed stream to the separator. The control valve manipulates the
quantity of hot regenerated catalyst from the standpipe to the "riser" in order to maintain a
predetermined outlet riser temperature. On the top of the separator, the catalyst particles are
separated from vapour products by cyclones. The stream transfers the reaction products
overhead to the products recovery section. The standpipe transfers spent catalyst
continuously from the separator to the regenerator by a control valve.
3.6 Choice of Process
Based on the comparisons above, steam pyrolysis shall be used in this project. Steam
pyrolysis is one of the most important processes of petrochemistry. The main advantage of
this process compared with other processes is that it is quite flexible in terms of feed stock.
In addition steam pyrolysis is the best economical solution to produce ethylene and
acetylene, because other methods are more expensive.
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3.7 Process description (steam pyrolysis)
The fresh feed of ethane is combined with the recycled ethane from the ethylene column
and charged to the pyrolysis furnace. Dilution steam is added to ethane before it enters the
cracking furnace, to reduce the partial pressure of ethane and lower the residence time of
ethane in the high temperature zone, which decrease the rate of coke formation within the
tubes. The mixture of ethane and steam is preheated in the convection section of the
furnace, and the ethane cracks in vertical tubes within a residence time of 0.1 to 0.5 s. The
cracked gas leaves the furnace at 800 °C and 8.0×107kPa and is quickly cooled to 340 °C in
the transfer line exchangers to preserve gas composition. It generates 370°C steam at a
pressure of 16690kPa. The gas is then further quenched in quench towers by direct contact
with water where the gases leave as overhead to the compressor and the quench water is
separated and recycled.
The cracked gases are then compressed in four stages. Acid gases such as carbon dioxide,
are removed after the third stage of compression. The effluent gas leaves the compression
section at 42°C and 3500kPa from which it is dried and cooled in a series of heat
exchangers. It is then passed to a de-methanizer where methane and hydrogen is separated
as overhead. The net bottom stream of the demethanizer is charged to the de-ethanizer.
The overhead vapour from the de-ethanizer is partially condensed by heat exchange and
propylene refrigerant. The bottom stream leaving the de-ethanizer contains C3+
hydrocarbons (mostly propane) that are stored in C3+ storage tanks. The net overhead from
the de-ethanizer is the ethylene-ethane stream with traces of acetylene. This stream is then
fed to the C2–splitter to separate ethylene and acetylene from ethane. The ethane leaves as
bottoms product and is recycled back to the furnace. The overhead vapour (ethylene-
acetylene mixture) is forwarded to an acetylene absorber where acetone is used as the
21
extracting solvent. The gas is then finally sent to the ethylene column where high purity
polymer grade ethylene is recovered as product. The bottoms product containing mainly
acetylene is sent to the acetylene stripper where acetylene is recovered by further
separation.
3.8 Capacity
Our plant is likely to have a capacity of 100,000 tonnes per year of ethylene and about 550
tonnes per year of acetylene. This is because we are operating in a continuous process. Our
main product is ethylene. Acetylene is only a by-product, which is recovered in our quest to
produce 99.95% polymer-grade ethylene to meet market demands. The percentage yield for
acetylene is about 0.2% when using ethane.
22
CHAPTER 4
4.0 MATERIAL AND ENERGY BALANCES
The general material balance equation is
( Material out) = ( Material in ) + ( Material generation ) – (Material consumption )-
( Material accumulation)
Assumptions:
1. Steady state, no accumulation
2. All masses are calculated on hourly basis
The quantity of ethylene produced per annum = 13888.89kg = 100000tonnes
Plant attainment is 300 days to allow for downtime for maintenances.
The calculations that resulted in the charts shown in this chapter are represented in the
appendix A
23
4.1 SUMMARY OF MATERIAL BALANCES
4.1.1 FURNACE
Fresh ethane Flue gases

Component mass Mass, Component mass Mass,
flowrate % flowrate %
(kg/hr) (kg/hr)
Ethane 29189.55 100 CO2 44 13.3
TOTAL 29189.55 100 O2 9.6 2.9
Temperature: 70°C N2 242.2 73
H2O(v) 36 10.8
TOTAL 331.85 100
Temperature: 250°C
Material Steam 1
Component mass mass, Pyrolysis furnace
flowrate %
(kg/hr)
H2O 5259.6 100 Material stream 2
TOTAL 5259.6 100 Component mass mass (%)
Temperature: 180 °C flowrate
(kg/hr)
Methane 1062.4992 3.08
Ethane 10216.35 29.59
Propane 2643.5992 7.66
H2O 5201.3132 15.06
Fuel/air Hydrogen 1018.2284 2.95
Component mass Mass, Acetylene 82.2172 0.24
flowrate % Ethylene 14166.656 41.03
(kg/hr) CO2 139.1368 0.40
Methane 1544 5.48 TOTAL 34530.00 100.00
Air 25890.0922 94.52 Temperature: 840.8 °C
TOTAL 27390.5322 100 Pressure : 107kPa
Temperature: 25 °C
Pressure: 101.325kPa
24
4.1.2 TRANSFER LINE EXCHANGER
Material stream 2
Component mass mass (%)
flowrate Cooling water 1
(kg/hr)
Methane 1062.4992 3.08 Component Mass Mass %
Ethane 10216.35 29.59 flowrate
Propane 2643.5992 7.66 (Kg/hr)
H2O 5201.3132 15.06 H2O 10620 100
Hydrogen 1018.2284 2.95 TOTAL 10620 100
Acetylene 82.2172 0.24 Temperature: 25°C
Ethylene 14166.656 41.03 Pressure: 4177 kPa
CO2 139.1368 0.40
TOTAL 34530.00 100.00
Temperature: 840.8 °C
Pressure : 101kPa
Transfer-line exchanger
Material stream 3
Steam at 500 C
Component mass mass
Component Mass Mass % flowrate (%)
flowrate (kg/hr)
(Kg/hr) Methane 1062.4992 3.08
H2O 10620 100 Ethane 10216.35 29.59
TOTAL 10620 100 Propane 2643.5992 7.66
Temperature: 500°C H2O 5201.3132 15.06
Pressure: 16690 kPa Hydrogen 1018.2284 2.95
Acetylene 82.2172 0.24
Ethylene 14166.656 41.03
CO2 139.1368 0.40
TOTAL 34530.00 100.00
Temperature: 350 °C
Pressure : 150kPa
25
4.1.3 QUENCH TOWER
Material stream 3
Component mass mass
flowrate (%) Cooling water 2
(kg/hr) Component Mass Mass %
Methane 1062.4992 3.08 flowrate
Ethane 10216.35 29.59 (Kg/hr)
Propane 2643.5992 7.66 H2O 26864.82 1.0
H2O 5201.3132 15.06 TOTAL 26864.82 1.0
Hydrogen 1018.2284 2.95 Temperature: 30°C
Acetylene 82.2172 0.24 Pressure: 4177 kPa
Ethylene 14166.656 41.03
CO2 139.1368 0.40
TOTAL 34530.00 100.00
Temperature: 350 °C
Pressure : 150 kPa
Quench tower
Material stream 4
Water out
Component mass mass
flowrate fraction Component mass mass
(kg/hr) (%) flowrate fraction
Methane 1062.4992 3.62 (kg/hr)
H2O 141737.094 100
Ethane 10216.35 34.83
Propane 2643.5992 9.01 TOTAL 141737.094 100
H2O 5.25402 0.02 Temperature: 80 °C
Pressure : 6987 kPa
Hydrogen 1018.2284 3.47
Ethylene 14166.656 48.29
CO2 139.1368 0.47
TOTAL 29333.940 100
8
Temperature: 34 °C
Pressure : 1930 kPa
26
4.1.4 CAUSTIC TOWER
Material stream 5
Component mass mass
flowrate fraction
(kg/hr) (%)
Methane 1062.4992 3.62 Caustic solution
Ethane 10216.35 34.83
Propane 2643.5992 9.01 Component Mass Mass
H2O 5.25402 0.02 flowrate fraction
(Kg/hr)
Hydrogen 1018.2284 3.47
NaOH(aq) 45068.4 100
TOTAL 45068.4 100
Ethylene 14166.656 48.29
Temperature: 30°C
CO2 139.1368 0.47 Pressure: 101.325 kPa
TOTAL 29333.9408 100
Temperature: 35 °C
Pressure : 3500 kPa
Caustic tower
Material stream 6
Component mass Mass, %
Spent caustic solution flowrate
(kg/hr)
Compon Mass Mass % Methane 1062.4992 3.64
ent flowrate Ethane 10216.35 34.99
(Kg/hr) Propane 2643.5992 9.06
Na2CO3 9631.954 20 H2O 5.25402 0.02
H2O 38520.498 80
Hydrogen 1018.2284 3.49
TOTAL 48152.452 100
Temperature: 40°C Acetylene 82.2172 0.28
Pressure: 101.325 kPa Ethylene 14166.656 48.52
CO2 trace 0.00
TOTAL 29194.70971 100
Temperature: 38 °C
Pressure : 3500 kPa
27
4.1.5 SPRAY TOWER
Material stream 7
Component mass mass
flowrate (%)
(kg/hr)
Methane 1062.4992 3.64
Ethane 10216.35 34.99 Cooling water 3
Propane 2643.5992 9.06
Component mass mass %
H2O 5.25402 0.02
flowrate
Hydrogen 1018.2284 3.49 (kg/hr)
Acetylene 82.2172 0.28 H2O 87.9234 100
Ethylene 14166.656 48.52 TOTAL 87.9234 100
CO2 trace 0.00 Temperature: 21.5 °C
TOTAL 29194.70971 100 Pressure : 101 kPa
Temperature: 40 °C
Pressure : 3500 kPa
Spray tower
Water out Material stream 8
Component mass mass % Component mass mass

flowrate flowrate (%)
(kg/hr) (kg/hr)
H2O 87.9234 100 Methane 1062.4992 3.64
87.9234 100 Ethane 10216.35 34.99
TOTAL
Temperature: 80 °C Propane 2643.5992 9.06
Pressure : 101kPa Hydrogen 1018.2284 3.49
Ethylene 14166.656 48.52
CO2 trace 0.00
TOTAL 29194.70971 100
Temperature: 40°C
Pressure : 3500 kPa
28
4.1.6 DEMETHANIZER
Material stream 9
flowrate Material stream 10
(kg/hr) Component mass mass
Methane 1062.4992 3.97 flowrate %
Ethane 10216.35 34.28 (kg/hr)
Propane 2643.5992 9.06 Methane 1062.4992 48
Hydrogen 1018.2284 3.60 Hydrogen 1018.2284 46
Acetylene 82.2172 0.27 Ethylene 141.29108 6
Ethylene 14166.656 49.00 TOTAL 2267.6624 100
TOTAL 28910.6902 100 Temperature: -127 °C
Temperature: -120.0 °C Pressure : 3200 kPa
Pressure : 2000 kPa
Demethanizer
Material stream 11
flowrate
(kg/hr)
Methane 11.448 0.04
Ethane 9909.4343 37.20
Propane 2621.0494 9.84
Ethylene 14024.7251 52.63
TOTAL 26643.4 100
Pressure : 2600 kPa
29
4.1.7 DE-ETHANIZER
Material stream 11
Component mass mass % Material stream 12
flowrate Component mass mass
(kg/hr) flowrate %
Methane 11.448 0.04 (kg/hr)
Ethane 9909.4343 37.20 Methane 5.048 0.02
Propane 2621.0494 9.84 Ethane 9909.435 41.4
Acetylene 76.7424 0.29 Acetylene 76.7416 0.32
Ethylene 14024.7251 52.63 Ethylene 13954.6 58.28
TOTAL 26643.4 100 TOTAL 23945.82 100
Temperature: 6.05 °C Temperature: -34.95 °C
Pressure : 3006 kPa Pressure : 3000 kPa
De-ethanizer
Propane product
flowrate
(kg/hr)
Ethylene 110.31 0.04
Propane 2623.79 0.96
TOTAL 2734.1 100
Pressure : 3000 kPa
30
4.1.8 C2 SPLITTER
Material stream 12
Component mass Mass % Material stream 13
flowrate
(kg/hr) Component mass mass %
Methane 5.048 0.02 flowrate
Ethane 9909.435 41.4 (kg/hr)
Acetylene 76.7416 0.32 Ethylene 13919.217 0.55
Ethylene 13954.6 58.28 Acetylene 76.7416 99.45
TOTAL 23945.82 100 TOTAL 13995.96 100
Temperature: -34.95 °C Temperature: -10.7 °C
Pressure : 3080 kPa Pressure : 3200 kPa
C2 splitter
Material stream 14
flowrate
(kg/hr)
Methane 10.6528 99.53
Ethane 9909.435 0.11
Ethylene 35.385 0.36
TOTAL 9955.47 100
Temperature: -7.901 °C
Pressure : 2000kPa
31
4.1.9 ACETYLENE ABSORBER
Material stream 14
Material stream 17
flowrate
flowrate
(kg/hr)
(kg/hr)
Ethylene 13919.217 99.45
Acetone 127.201 100
Acetylene 76.7416 0.54 TOTAL 127.201 100
TOTAL 13995.96 100 Temperature: 35 °C
Temperature: -10 °C Pressure: 101.325 kPa
Pressure : 3200 kPa
Acetylene absorber
Material stream 16
Material stream 15
Component mass mass % flowrate
flowrate (kg/hr)
(kg/hr) Acetylene 75.2066 37.16
Acetylene 1.5977 0.011 Acetone 127.201 62.84
Ethylene 13900 99.98 TOTAL 202.4076 100
TOTAL 13901.535 100 Temperature: 30 °C
Temperature: 20 °C Pressure : 1000 kPa
Pressure: 1722.44kPa
32
4.1.10 ACETYLENE STRIPPER
Material stream 16
flowrate
(kg/hr)
Acetylene 75.2066 37.16
Acetone 127.201 62.84
TOTAL 202.4076 100
Pressure : 2138 kPa
Acetylene stripper
Material stream 17 Material stream 18

Component mass mass % Component mass mass %
flowrate flowrate
(kg/hr) (kg/hr)
Acetone 127.201 100 Acetylene 79.8872 100
Acetylene Acetone
TOTAL 127.201 100 TOTAL 79.8872 100
Temperature: 31.30 °C Temperature: 34.09 °C
Pressure: 40.09 kPa Pressure : 6000 kPa
33
4.1.11 ETHYLENE COLUMN
Material stream 15
flowrate
(kg/hr)
Ethylene 13900 99.98
TOTAL 13901.535 100
Temperature: 20 °C
Ethylene Column
Material stream 20 Material stream 19

Component mass mass % Component mass mass %
flowrate flowrate
(kg/hr) (kg/hr)
Ethylene 13888.89 99.9 Acetylene 1.5842 12.49
Acetylene 0.0135 0.1 Ethylene 11.1 87.51
TOTAL 13888.9 100 TOTAL 12.68 100
Temperature: -10 °C Temperature: -30 °C
Pressure: 2500 kPa Pressure : 2500 kPa
34
4.2 ENERGY BALANCES
4.2.1 FURNACE
Fresh ethane (stream 1)

Component Enthalpy
(kJ)
Ethane 2445111.3
TOTAL 2445111.3
Temperature: 70 °C
Pyrolysis furnace
Component Enthalpy
(kJ)
Steam (stream 2) Methane 3101484.4
Component enthalpy Ethane 26843935.6
(kJ) Propane 6885500.9
H2O 1551719.1 H2O 8968631.9
TOTAL 1551719 Hydrogen 11856702.8
Temperature: 180 °C Acetylene 154495.7
Ethylene 31518168.1
CO2 140909.5
TOTAL 89469828.9
35
4.2.2 QUENCH TOWER
Component Enthaply
Cooling water (stream 9)
(kJ)
Methane -196337745.9 Component Enthalpy
Ethane 82223346.4
Propane 6876775.4 H2O 187605993
H2O 1589144.4 TOTAL 187605993
Hydrogen 221078167.1 Temperature: 30°C
Acetylene 13753328.5 Pressure: 4.177 kPa
Ethylene 9533474.4
CO2 75212.34
TOTAL 138791702.6
Quench tower
Componen Enthalpy Material stream 8

t (kJ)
Methane -44726466.4 Component Enthalpy
Ethane 82218800.9
Propane 6877143 H2O 18176207.5
H2O 6977.6 TOTAL 18176207.5
Hydrogen 22107265.9 Temperature: 80 °C
Acetylene 654218 Pressure : 6987 kPa
Ethylene 96107084
CO2 4167.8
TOTAL 138791702.6
36
4.2.3 CAUSTIC TOWER
Component Enthalpy Caustic soda

(kJ)
Methane -44726466.4 Component Enthalpy (kJ)
Ethane 82218800.9
Propane 6877143 NaOH 159261400
H2O 6977.6 TOTAL 159261400
Temperature: 30°C
Hydrogen 22107265.9 Pressure: 4.177 kPa
Acetylene 654218
Ethylene 96107084
CO2 4167.8
TOTAL 138791702.6
Caustic tower
Component Enthalpy
(kJ)
Methane -350957.8
Ethane -6953247.8 Spent caustic solution
Propane 96371.2
Component Enthalpy
H2O 711.3 (kJ)
Hydrogen 20846495.5 Na2CO3(aq) 166306735.6
Acetylene -66039.6 TOTAL 166306735.6
Ethylene 597934.1 Temperature: 40°C
CO2 5414.2
TOTAL 13578747
37
4.2.4 DEMETHANIZER
Component Enthalpy
(kJ)
Methane -1058204.1
Ethane 5382174.6
Propane -863333.2
Hydrogen -6524474.9
Acetylene -5711589.7
Ethylene 8242969.9
TOTAL
Demethanizer
Component Enthalpy Component Enthalpy

(kJ) (kJ)
Methane 1094052.6 Ethane -704981.6
Hydrogen -1009895.2 Methane 420434.0
TOTAL 84157.4 Propane -130952.4
Acetylene -7726.2
Ethylene 8086124.9
TOTAL 7662898.7
38
4.2.5 DE-ETHANIZER
Component Enthalpy
(kJ)
Methane 4650.7
Ethane -706674.8
Propane -131409.9
Acetylene -6957.5
Ethylene -1145519.4
TOTAL -1985910.9
De-ethanizer
Component Enthalpy
(kJ)
Component Enthalpy
Methane 10154.4
(kJ)
Ethane -1980235.4
Propane 110680.1
Acetylene -19722.6
Ethylene 5306.8
Ethylene -3058549.5
-5048353.1 TOTAL 115986.9
TOTAL
39
4.2.6 C2 SPLITTER
Component Enthalpy
(kJ)
Methane -4909.6
Ethane -2026150.9
Acetylene 36772.2
Ethylene -2986782.9
TOTAL -4981071.2
C2 splitter
Component Enthalpy Component Enthalpy

(kJ) (kJ)
Acetylene 30135.8 Methane -2323.5
Ethylene -2318046.8 Ethane 3174817.8
TOTAL -2287911 TOTAL 3172494.3
40
4.2.7 ETHYLENE COLUMN
Component Enthalpy
(kJ)
Acetylene -36.7686
Ethylene -317733.97
TOTAL -317770.7386
Ethylene column
Component Enthalpy Component Enthalpy (kJ)

(kJ)
Ethylene -430.4059
Acetylene -155.096 Acetylene -76.4246
TOTAL -585.5019
Ethylene -2836982.474
TOTAL -2837058.903
41
CHAPTER 5
5.0 EQUIPMENT SPECIFICATIONS
Specifications for all processing equipment based on the operating conditions and flow
rates of the input and output streams among others form a major part in plant design.
The major considerations under equipment specification are:
1. Identification of the equipment
2. Function of the equipment
3. Basic design data
4. Material of construction
Information and data used are from Stanley M. Walas (1999), R K Sinnott (1999), Perry
and Green (1999). [49, 43]
5.1 Equipment list
5.1.1 Pyrolysis furnace
Duty: To crack the ethane feedstock into smaller hydrocarbons under carefully controlled
temperature to yield the optimum amount of ethylene and acetylene.
Type or description: cylindrical
Height: 15.16m
Operating temperature: 1200°C
Heat duty: 23476.165KW
Material of construction: Stainless steel (SS 310) and Refractory brick
42
5.1.2 Heat exchanger
Duty: Immediately quenches the cracked gases to a lower temperature to stop further
undesired reactions and coke formation
Type or description: Transfer-line exchanger
Temperature: 700°C
Quantity: 1
Material of construction: stainless steel
5.1.3 Quench tower
Duty: to further cool cracked gas and condense water vapour present by direct contact with
water
Type or description: packed tower
Operating temperature: 350°C to 34°C
Pressure: 150kPa
Height: 18m
Material of construction: austenitic stainless steel type 304
5.1.4 Gas compressor
Duty: increases the pressure of the gas to liquefy it for the distillation and separation
processes.
Type: centrifugal compressor
Output pressure: 3500kPa
43
Number: 4-stage
Material of construction: Carbon steel
5.1.5 Caustic tower
Duty: To remove the acid gases CO2, from the ethylene gas stream
Type: packed tower
Height of tower: 6.846m
Tower diameter: 1.9155m
Vessel volume: 19.729m3
Material of construction: carbon steel
5.1.6 Spray tower
Duty: To dry the gas stream of water (vapour) before cooling it for distillation.
Type: spray tower
5.1.7 Chilling train.
Duty: the gas is cooled and in turn is liquefied for distillation
Type: series of heat exchangers
Number: 3
Operating temperature: -120°C

44
5.1.8 De-methanizer
Duty: To separate and remove methane and hydrogen from the ethylene gas stream
Temperature: 120°C
Pressure: 30bar
Height: 15m
Diameter: 1.4m
5.1.9 De-ethanizer
Duty: To separate the C2s and C3s
Temperature: 6°C
Pressure: 32bar
Height: 25 m
Diameter: 1.5 m
Number: 1
5.1.10 C2-splitter
Duty: To separate or split the C2 into ethylene and acetylene as overhead and ethane as
bottom stream to be recycled back to the furnace.

45
Type: continuous type tray column
Operating temperature: -24.95°C
Feed pressure: 30bar
Height: 14m
Diameter: 1.7 m
5.1.11 Ethylene Column
Duty: To recover and obtain our final ethylene product.
Type: tray tower
Temperature: 20°C
Height: 78.2 m
Diameter: 3.6 m
5.1.12 Acetylene Absorber
Duty: To separate the ethylene as overhead into the ethylene still and acetylene as bottoms
to the acetylene stripper.
Type: packed tower
Temperature: 21°C
Height: 19.09m
46
Diameter: 3.248m
5.1.13 Acetylene Stripper
Duty: To strip the acetylene from the extracting solvent used in the acetylene absorption
column.
Type: packed tower
Temperature: 20°C
5.2 SPECIFICATION OF STORAGE TANKS
Tanks are typically filled to 80% of capacity to function safely. [43]
See appendix C for detailed calculations
5.2.1 Ethane storage tank
Duty: To temporarily store the ethane feedstock before cracking.
Type or description: cylindrical vertical tank on concrete support.
Capacity: 7,427,160.362gal (US)
Internal diameter of ethane storage tank =
Length of ethane storage tank = 50.1667 in = 1.274m
Thickness of tank = 25mm

47
5.2.2 Propane storage tank
Duty: To store propane produced from the cracking process temporarily.
Description: Vertical cylindrical tank with flat base and conical roof [43]
Capacity: 3,537,431gal (US) per week
Internal diameter =
Length = 42.376in = 1.076m
Thickness of tank = 28.18mm
5.2.3 Acetylene storage tank
Duty: To temporarily store acetylene produced
Type or description: cylindrical vertical tanks with flat base on concrete foundation.
Capacity: 3,374,331.513 gal (US) per week
Internal diameter =
Length = 42.05 in =1.068 m
5.2.4 Ethylene storage tank
Duty: To store our polymer-grade ethylene produced for 7 days.
Type or description: flat bottomed vertical cylindrical tank on concrete foundation.
Capacity: 6,361,192.115 gal (US) per week
48
Internal diameter =
Length = 48in = 1.22m
5.3 PIPE SPECIFICATION
The most common means of transporting fluid is the pipeline. Every pipe is a long,
cylindrical, completely enclosed conduit used to transport gas, liquid, or both from one
point to another. Sizing of pipes for fluid flow in a given plant does not only depend on the
fluid‟s physical properties, but also to some extent, on the sound economic factors. In most
engineering practices under this heading, the criterion used is the optimum diameter which
is the diameter of the pipe that gives the least total cost for annual pumping charges. The
design parameters considered are:
1) The nominal size
2) Schedule number
3) Material of construction
4) Wall thickness
1000
Approximately, Schedule number 
S
Where P = Internal pressure, psig.
S = Allowable working stress in psi.
The optimum diameter is first of all estimated based on the fluid density, capacity and
viscosity depending on the nature of the fluid.
49
According to Sinnott, the optimum diameter of a stainless steel pipe is given as:
d,optimum = 230G 0.52ρ-0.37
where, G = Mass flow rate in kg/s and ρ= density in kg/m3
5.3.1 SAMPLE CALCULATION FOR PIPE SPECIFICATION
Pipe Location: from acetylene absorber to acetylene stripper
Mass flow rate = 13574.7079 kg/hr =3.85 Kg/s
Density of gas = 1.73 kgm-3
The optimum pipe diameter for turbulent flow using stainless steel pipe is given as:
dopt = 260G0.52ρ-0.37 ……………………….. (1) [43]
Where: G = mass flow rate of feed
ρ = density of slurry
It implies, dopt = 260(3.77075)0.52(1.73) -0.37
= 428mm, 16.85 in
From the above calculation, a 428mm (16.85in) pipe diameter can be used.
4G
Reynolds number, Re  ……………………… (2) [43]
d
Where G is mass flow rate.
43.77075
Re 
 0.0010.428
50
Re = 11217
Re is greater than 4000 and hence flow is turbulent.
From Wallas (1990) Table A5
For optimum pipe diameter of 16.85 in
Nominal size = 16 in
Pipe schedule number = 30s
Outer diameter (do) = 16.00 in
Inner diameter (di) = 15.25 in
  2  
  D   0.423 m  0.1405m
2 2 2
4 4
The normal fluid velocity is given by:
………. (3) [44]
 3.77075 
u     0.471ms1
 8.2686 
Also Maximum design fluid velocity is assumed to be given by the correlation;
Maximum design fluid umax   1.2 u …….. (4) [44]

2
umax   1.22  0.471  0.67824ms1
51
5.3.1.1 Line Equivalent length
The pressure loss through the bends and check valves can be included in the line pressure-
loss calculations as an equivalent length of pipe. Assuming all the bends to be 90” elbows
of standard radius, and the isolation valves as plug-type valves.
Elbow equivalent length = 30D....................................... (9) [44]
= 30 x 0.428 m
= 12.84 m
Plug-valve equivalent length = 18D................................ (10) [44]
= 18 x0.428 m
= 7.704 m
Entry losses (at maximum design velocity) are calculated from the equation:
2
umax  0.6782 
Entry loss =   1.73   0.4 KPa
2  2 
52
Table 5.1 Summary of pipe line specifications for our ethylene plant
Nor Maxim
Locatio Optim Nomi Sched Cross- mal um
n um nal ule Material Outer Inner sectio fluid design
diamet Size(i Numb of diamete diamet nal veloc fluid
er n) er Construct r er area(i ity velocit
(mm) ion (in) (in) n2) (m/s) y (m/s)
From
Furnace Stainless
to TLE 655.53 25.83 20 steel 24 23.25 0.3375 2.297 3.3082
From
TLE to
quench Stainless
tower 423.24 16.66 40 steel 16.00 15.25 0.2277 2.713 3.906
From
quench 733.00 28.87 20 29 28.80 0.422 1.464 2.108
tower
to
compre Stainless
ssor steel
From
compre 467.6 18.40 40 18.00 17.25 0.252 2.452 3.53
ssor to
caustic Stainless
tower steel
From 737.96 29.05 20 29.20 28.70 0.425 1.453 2.094
caustic
tower Stainless
to dryer steel
From 729.29 28.65 20 28.70 28.40 0.421 1.434 2.077
dryer to Stainless
cooler steel
From 2.035
cooler 721.28 28.40 20 28.40 28.20 0.418 1.413
to de-
methani Stainless
zer steel
From
de- 696.56 27.42 30 27.45 27.00 0.403 1.353 1.95
methani
zer to
de-
ethaniz Stainless
er steel
From
de-
ethaniz
er to C2 Stainless
splitter 659 25.95 30 steel 26 25.50 0.3806 1.43 1.206
53
From
C2 495.15 19.5 30 19.5 19.25 0.193 1.89 2.73
splitter 0
to
acetyle
ne
absorbe Stainless
r steel
From
acetyle
ne 428 16.85 30 16.6 16.00 0.1405 0.471 0.678
absorbe 0
r to
acetyle
ne Stainless
stripper steel
From 491 19.33 30 19.3 19.00 0.190 0.64 0.920
acetyle 0
ne
absorbe
r to
ethylen Stainless
e still steel
From
ethylen 44.95 17.70 30 Stainless 17.7 17.00 0.0152 4.00 5.76
e still to steel 0
storage
tank
5.4 PUMP SELECTION
Centrifugal pumps will be used throughout the process. These pumps are characterised by
their specific speed which is a dimensionless variable. Different types of pumps have
different efficiency envelopes according to their specific speed. Pump selection is made
based on the flow rate and the head required, together with other process considerations,
such as corrosion or the presence of solids in the fluid. The pressure developed by a
centrifugal pumps depend on:
 Fluid density
 Diameter of the pump impeller
 The rotational speed of the impeller

54
 Volumetric flow rate through the pump
5.4.1 PUMP SPECIFICATION
Sample Calculation
Location: Between acetylene absorber and ethylene still
Volumetric flow rate = 836.934 m3s-1
From the above pipe specification,
Optimum pipe diameter = 16.66in
Nominal size = 16 in
Pipe schedule number = 30s
Outer diameter (do) = 16 in
Inner diameter (di) = 15.25 in
Velocity of fluid in the pipe = 0.678ms-1
Reynolds number of fluid = 11350
5.4.1.1 Power requirement

Total pump head, H  H dc  H sc
P V2   P V2 
H   dc  Z dc  dc    sc  Z sc  sc 
 g 2 g   g 2g 
P P V 2 V 2 
Therefore, H   dc sc  Z  dc sc 
 g 2g 
55
Where Pdc = Discharge pressure, 405 KPa
Psc = Suction pressure, 40 KPa
0.0097688
The suction velocity, Vsc   2.873ms1
0.0034
0.0001084
The discharge velocity, Vdc   3.284ms1
0.000033
P V2 
The total discharge head, H dc   dc  Z dc  dc 
 g 2g 
 Pdc Vdc2 

The total suction head, H dc    Z dc  
 g 2 g 
But the Total pump head, H  H dc  H sc
P V2   P V2 
H   dc  Z dc  dc    sc  Z sc  sc 
 g 2 g   g 2g 
P P V 2 V 2 
Therefore, H   dc sc  Z  dc sc 
 g 2g 
Where, Z  Z dc  Z sc  2m
that is the height difference at the centre line of the pump between the suction and
discharge pipe. [44]
Pdc  Psc  365KPa
Vdc  Vsc  0.411ms1
56
ρ = 790kg/m3; g = 9.81m/s2
365000 0.411
Hence, H  2  49.11m
790  9.81 2  9.81
Useful power, Puseful  gQH
Q = 0.0097688; H = 49.11m ; ρ = 790kg/m3;
g = 9.81m/s2
Hence, Puseful  790  9.81 0.00977  49.11  3718.433W
The value of specific speed represents the ratio of the pump flow rate to the head at the
speed corresponding to the maximum efficiency point. It depends primarily on the design
of the pump and impeller. The specific speed can be used to avoid cavitations or to select
the most economical pump for a given system layout.
The value of specific speed can be calculated from the relation;
N Q
Ns  3
………………………………….. (11)
4
H
Where N is in rpm (1750rev/min), Q in gpm (586.2gpm), and H in feet (15.41ft).
1750 586.2
Ns  3
 936.903
4
161.122
Specific speeds for centrifugal pumps usually lie the range 900-15000 but values above
12000rpm are considered impractical .Since the calculated value lies within the range it
suggest that the calculated value is correct.
57
5.4.1.2 Net positive suction head
NPSH is the absolute pressure at the pump inlet expressed in feet of liquid, plus velocity
head, minus the vapour pressure of the fluid at pumping temperature, and corrected to the
elevation of the pump centreline in the case of horizontal pumps or to the entrance to the
first-stage impeller for vertical. Thus if NPSH is zero or less, the liquid can vaporise. The
NPSH increases as the pump capacity increases. Hence it is important to consider the range
of flow requirement during the pump selection time.
Pi  Pvap
Net positive suction head  ………… (12)
g
Where Pi = absolute static pressure at the pump inlet, N/m2
Pvap = Vapour pressure, N/m2 = 0.1233 x 105 Pa (Rogers and Mayhew)
Pi  Patm  gH s ………………………… (13)
Patm = atmospheric pressure, N/m2
ρ = density of pulp
Hs = Suction head
Inserting values into equation (12), it implies,
279272.589  12330
Net positive suction head   34.444m
790  9.81
58
Table 5.2 Summary of pump specification
Pump location Qty Power Net positive Specific Efficiency

requirement suction head speed
(w) (m) (r/min)
From TLE to Quench 1 1637 21 293 65

Tower
For pumping caustic 1 1142.82 15.095 192 60
solution into the
caustic tower
For pumping acetone 1 3718.433 34.44 862 72
into the acetylene
absorber
59
CHAPTER 6
6.0 DESIGN OF A FURNACE
6.1 Problem statement
To design a cracking furnace to crack ethane feedstock to yield ethylene and acetylene as
products. Furnace to operate at thermal efficiency of 85 %.
Stack
Stack damper
Stea
m
Ethane feed
Convection section
sesection
Cracked gas
Radiant section
Fuel
Air
Figure 6.1 A schematic diagram of a typical industrial furnace
6.2 CHEMICAL ENGINEERING DESIGN

60
6.2.1 SCOPE OF DESIGN
 Design constraints
 Total energy absorbed
 Total Energy absorbed
 Heat flux across the cracking coils
 Heat transfer coefficient across tube
 Pressure drop across tubes
 Stack height
 Fuel and air requirement
6.2.2 Design constraints
Furnace geometry cylindrical
Tube diameter OD = 0.168275 m (6.625 in.)
Center-to-center spacing =0.3048 m (12 in.)
Tube thickness =0.00762 m (0.3 in.)
Diameter of the radiant section = 5 m
Number of tubes in the radiant section = 30
Number of tubes in the convective section = 16
Tube length = 10.7 m
61
Height of the radiant section = 11.5 m
Methane use as fuel
Excess air 10%
A single row tube alignment
6.2.3 Total energy absorbed
6.2.3.1 Reactions in the furnace:

C2H6 C2H4 + H2 Reaction 1
2C2H6 C3H8 + CH4 Reaction 2
C3H8 C2H2 + CH4 + H2 Reaction 3
C + 2H2O CO2 + 2H2 Reaction 4
Since there are a series of reaction in the furnace the four
–
–
62
Reference: CO2, C2H2, C2H4, C3H8, CH4, H2O, C2H6, H2 at 25 oC 1 atm
63
Table 6.1 Enthalpy table
Nout × 103
3
Substance Nin × 10 Hin KJ/mol Hin KJ/mol
mol/hr
CO2 - - 3.555 H3
C2H2 - - 3.199 H4
C2H4 - - 505.869 H5
C3H8 - - 60.79 H6
CH4 - - 66.477 H7
H2O 291.896 H1 291.265 H8
C2H6 972.985 H2 340.564 H9
H2 - - 509.068 H10
Estimation of the enthalpy of the inlet stream
64
Total heat absorbed = Heat for preheating the feed + Heat absorbed for cracking of feed
Assume a furnace efficiency of 85 %
Duty of the furnace is 20.862 MW
6.2.4 Energy absorbed
Assume 70 % of the total heat absorbed in used for the cracking of Feed stock the
remaining is used for preheating of the feed stock.
6.2.5 Heat flux in the radiant coils
65
π ……………………… 6.2
[2]
Where: N tube is number of tubes, Do is Outer diameter of tubes, L tube is the length of the
tube
6.2.6 Heat lost to the surroundings
The heat lost to the surroundings is in the range of 0.02 to 0.03 as a fraction of the total
released heat [Wallas, 1948].Since Q lost is an allowance and for this design we can set it to
be equal to 0.02.
6.2.7 Heat lost is the stack gas
6.2.8 TEMPERATURE PROFILE IN THE FURNACE
6.2.8.1 Temperature of the process fluid leaving the convective section

The stream entering the radiation section has absorbed 30 % of the total heat absorbed.
Qabsorbed in the convective tubes = Hout – Hin
66
Where Qabsorbed in the convective tubes = heat absorbed in the convection section (MJ/hr)
Hout = Enthalpy of the stream entering the radiant section (KJ/mol)
Hin= Enthalpy of the feedstock (KJ/mol)
Qabsorbed in the convective tubes
10−3+0.688×10−5 +0.7604×10−12 2)
T = 312 ºC
6.2.8.2 Temperature of flue gas entering the convective section

By rule of thumb the temperature of the flue gas entering the convective section should be
150 ºC above the process temperature. This mean the temperature of the gas is 990.8 ºC.
6.2.8.3 Temperature of flue gas entering the stack section

(Waals 1990,pg. 214)
Where Ts temperature of flue gas leaving the convection section oF
a = 0.22048 - 0.35027z + 0.92344z2, b = 0.016086 + 0.29393z - 048139z2
Where z = fraction excess air =0.1
Therefore substitute into the equation above: a= 0.1946874, b=0.0406653
Now solving for Ts,

67
6.2.9 STACK DESIGN
Where:
P = the suction available from a natural draft system, Pa
C = 0.0342
a = atmospheric pressure in Pa, h = height of the stack (m).,Ti=inlet temperature in K
To =ambient temperature in K (25 oC)
Setting the ∆P = the suction available from a natural draft system to 400 Pa which is in the
acceptable range [2]
=80.04 m
=80.04 m
6.2.10 PROCESS SIDE HEAT TRANSFER
6.2.10.1 Process-side heat transfer

…………………………..… ………..… 6.14 [2]
Neglecting the viscosity correction factor

68
Where Nu = Nusselt number = , Re =Reynolds number = ,
Pr =Prandtl number = , hi= inside coefficient (W/m2 oC), di= tube inside diameter (m),
ut = fluid velocity(m/s), kf = fluid thermal conductivity(W/moC), Gt = mass velocity, mass
flow per unit area(kg/m2s), µ = fluid viscosity at the bulk fluid temperature (Ns/m2),
µw= fluid viscosity at the tube wall temperature (Ns/m2),
Cp = fluid specific heat, heat capacity, J/kgoC.
6.2.10.1.1 In the convection tubes
6.2.10.1.2 For the radiative tubes
69
6.2.11 PRESSURE DROP
ρ
…………………………... 6.15 [2]
Where P = tube-side pressure drop, KPa,
Np= number of tube-side passes, Ut = tube-side velocity, m/s, L = length of one tube, m
jf = Friction factor
6.2.11.1 Pressure drop in the radiative tubes:

At Reynolds number of 5.872 , jf = 2 ×10-3 [2], µw = 0.1238×10-3, Np=30, L=11m
= 26.152 KPa
6.2.11.2 Pressure drop in the Convective tubes:

At Reynolds number of 2.446 , jf = 1.7 ×10-3 [2], µw=1.698×10-3, Np=3, L=11m
=5.743KPa
6.2.12 FUEL CONSUMPTION AND REQUIRED AIR FLOW RATE
6.2.12.1 Fuel consumption

Using methane as the fuel
Q released=W fuel LHVfuel ( Mullinger et al.2008)

70
Where Q released= total heat released MJ / hr
W fuel = Fuel flow rate (Kg/hr), LHVfuel= Low heating value of fuel (CH4) (MJ/Kg)
LHVfuel=50.055 MJ/Kg (21520 Btu/Ibm) (Waals 1990,pg. 216 )
6.2.12.2 The flow rate of air to be required:

CH4 + 2(O2 + 3.76N2) CO2 + 2H2O + 7.52N2
71
Table 6.2 chemical engineering design summary of pyrolysis furnace
DESIGN PARAMETERS VALUES UNITS
Heat Duty 20.862 MW
o
Temperature in/out 70/840.8 C
Pressure drop 5.737 KPa
Fuel consumption rate 0.417 Kg/s
Air required flow rate 7.192 Kg Air /s
Excess air required 10 %
Feedstock flow rate 3.858 Kg/s
Steam required 1.461 Kg/s
Outlet process flow rate 9.588 Kg/s
Operating pressure 107 KPa
72
6.3 MECHANICAL ENGINEERING DESIGN
6.3.1 Design Pressure
For vessels under internal pressure, the design pressure is normally 5 to 10 percent above
the normal operating pressure (Sinnott, 2005).The internal pressure in the furnace is related
to the hydrostatic head, atmospheric pressure and the pressure drop by:
Design Pressure (Pi) =hydrostatic pressure + atmospheric pressure = ρgh + (101325 - ∆P),
Pa
Where ρ = density of the flue gas =3.896 Kg/m3
g = acceleration due to gravity=9.81m/s2
h = height of furnace =15.16 m
∆P= negligible
H conv. =the height of the convective section = 3.66 m
H rad. = the height of the radiative section = 11.5 m
Design Pressure (Pi) = (3.896×9.81× (3.66+11.5) + (101325)
= 101.904 KPa
10 % of the design pressure =1.1×101.904
=112.095 KPa
73
6.3.2 Minimum Thickness of Cylindrical shell
For a cylindrical shell, the minimum thickness required to resist internal pressure is given
as:
Where Pi is the internal pressure = 112.095 N/m2
Di is the internal diameter = 6 m
F is design stress,
Typical design stress for stainless steel at 3500C is 100000 N/m2 (Sinnott, 2005).
Allowing for a corrosion allowance of 0.002m, the minimum thickness is 0.005365m.
6.3.3 Design Temperature
The design temperature at which the design stress is evaluated should be taken as the
maximum working temperature of the material (Sinnott, 2005). The design temperature is
4000C (523.15K)
6.3.4 Materials of Construction
Stainless steels are the most frequently used corrosion resistant materials in the chemical
industry. Type 304 stainless steel (the so called 18/8 stainless steel) is the most generally
used stainless steel. If the equipment is being deigned to operate at high temperatures,
materials that retain their strength must be selected. The stainless steels are superior in this
74
respect to plain carbon steel. Stainless steel is to be used for this design (Coulson et al,
Volume 6).
6.3.5 STRESS ANALYSIS
The main sources of loads to consider are:
The internal Pressure
The total longitudinal and circumferential stresses due to internal pressure are given as:
Pi Di
Longitudinal stress, L
2t
Pi Di
Circumferential stress, h
4t
112.095  6.0
  62681.267 KPa
2  0.005365
112.092  6.0
h   31340.634 KPa
4  0.005365
3.6 DEAD WEIGHT OF THE FURNACE
6.3.6.1 Weight of the refractory
The density of high alumina refractory bricks is given as 2579kg/m3 (Rotary kiln transport
phenomena and transport processes)
Where,
75
R= external radius of refractory shell, r = internal radius of refractory shell
6.3.6.2 Weight of steel shell
Density of steel is given as 8027Kg/m3.
Where,
R= external radius of steel shell, r = internal radius of steel shell
6.3.6.3 Weight of the content in tube

Total weight of the fluid in the tubes
6.3.6.3.1 Volume of convection section
Mass of content:
76
6.3.6.3.2 Volume of radiant section
6.3.6.4 Total dead weight
6.3.6.5 Choice of support

The support will be so strong enough to with stand the weight exerted by the furnace
Table 6.3 Summary of mechanical engineering design for pyrolysis furnace
PARAMETER VALUE
Design Temperature 400 oC
Design Pressure 112.095 KPa
Minimum thickness of shell 0.005365 m
Longitudinal stress 62681.267 KPa
Circumferencial stress 31340.634 KPa
Total force exerted on the surpport 1827.722 kN
77
CHAPTER 7
7.0 DESIGN OF HEAT EXCHANGER
7.1 PROBLEM STATEMENT
To design a heat exchanger to cool cracked gases at a flow rate of and
to cooled gases at using cooling water at to .
7.2 PARAMETERS TO CALCULATE
1) Heat transfer area
2) Bundle diameter
3) Bundle clearance
4) Heat transfer coefficient
5) Overall heat transfer coefficient
6) Tube side and Shell side fouling resistances
7) Pressure drops
7.2.1 CHEMICAL ENGINEERING CALCULATIONS
The fundamental heat transfer equation is given by,
78
The log mean temperature difference, for countercurrent flow is given by:
Where equations (5) and (6) are the dimensionless temperature ratios of the correction
factor.
79
7.2.2 Exchanger type and dimensions:
The graph of FT against S at various R values on page 9 of Perry‟s Chemical Engineers‟,
Section 11, 8th Edition gives a corresponding
Hence the chosen Heat Exchanger is 2-4 Shell-and-Tube Heat Exchangers.
7.2.3 Heat Load
80
Overall Heat Balance gives,
7.2.4 Overall coefficient:
7.2.5 Heat transfer area:
81
7.2.6 Layout and tube size:
Using a split-ring floating head exchanger. Neither fluid is corrosive, so plain carbon steel
can be used for the shell and tubes.
From the tubing characteristics as given in Perry‟s, I chose the following dimensions of the
tube.
1-inch Outer Diameter (O.D) tubes with 1.25-inch Triangular Pitch, 16 BWG
Length of tube = 6m (standard length)
7.2.7 Number of tubes
82
7.2.8 Bundle and shell diameter
For a split ring floating head exchanger,
7.2.9 Tube-side heat transfer coefficient calculations:
83
The Reynold‟s (Re) and Prandtl‟s number (Pr) of the cracked gas at the tube side is given
by,
84
Hence the Nusselt Number (Nu) is thus calculated as,
7.2.10 Shell-side heat transfer coefficient calculations:
85
Choose a baffle spacing (Lb) of 100 mm.
The shell side linear velocity is appreciable since it falls in the standard range 0.3 1.0 m/s.
Equivalent Diameter (De) of the triangular pitch is given by,
86
The Reynold‟s (Re) and Prandtl‟s number (Pr) of the cooling water at the shell side is given
by,
87
7.2.11 Overall coefficient:
Using carbon-steel for the tube and shell side because neither fluid is corrosive and the
temperature is very high.
Thermal Conductivity of carbon-steel (KW) = 55
Taking the fouling coefficients of cracked gas = 0.00030
Taking the fouling coefficients of water = 0.00090
The overall coefficient is the reciprocal of the overall resistance to heat transfer, which is
the sum of several individual resistances.
The other parameter above were defined previously, hence
+ + +
88
Since the calculated U = is above the assumed value of
Hence the design with the above parameters is accepted.
7.2.12 Tube Side Pressure Drop Calculations:
The total pressure drop at tube side is given by the equation,
Where Np = number of tube passes
L – Length of tube
For (friction factor at tube side)
The total tube side pressure drop is less than 70 kPa, hence within specification.
7.2.13 Shell Side Pressure Drop Calculations:
The shell side pressure drop is also related by the equation,
89
Where De = equivalent diameter of shell
Lb = baffle spacing
As this pressure drop on the shell side is less than 70 kPa, the design is acceptable from the
pressure drop point of view.
7.2.14 SUMMARY OF PROCESS DESIGN FOR HEAT EXCHANGER
Heat transfer area
Tube side coefficient
Shell side coefficient
90
Overall transfer coefficient, assumed
Overall transfer coefficient, required
7.3 MECHANICAL DESIGN OF HEAT EXCHANGER
7.3.1Parameters to determine
1) Shell and tube thickness
2) Shell and tube nozzle thickness design
3) Head thickness design
4) Estimation of bolt loads
5) Flange thickness design
6) Channel and channel cover
7) Gasket width
8) Axial stress in shell
Shell side Calculations:
91
Nozzles
Assume that inlet and outlet nozzles = 100 mm
92
Head
Take Torispherical heads for both ends and the following parameters are determined
bellow.
Therefore we take head thickness as that of the shell thickness = 7.0 mm
Transverse baffles
93
Tie rods and Spacers
Flange Design
Flange is ring type with plain face.
Determination of Gasket width
94
Estimation of Bolt Loads
Under atmospheric conditions, the bolt load due to gasket reaction is given by,
Load due to design pressure is also given by,
95
Calculation of Minimum bolting area
Calculation of Optimum Bolt size
Flange Thickness
96
97
Hence the thickness of flange
Tube Side Calculations:
Therefore a tube thickness of 6.0 mm was used, including corrosion allowance.
Tube Sheet thickness
The tube sheet is held between shell flange and the channel. Hence thickness of tube sheet
is given by,
98
Channel and Channel Cover
Gasket size
Gasket material: jacketed asbestos
99
Under atmospheric conditions, the bolt load due to gasket reaction is given by,
After the internal pressure is applied, the gasket which is compressed earlier, is released to
some extent and the bolt load is given by,
100
Using the larger of the above areas, determine the size of bolts,
Thickness of Nozzle
Assume that inlet and outlet nozzles = 100 mm
101
Flange Thickness
102
SUPPORT FOR SHELL AND TUBE HEAT EXCHANGER
103
Depth of Head, H = 250 mm
104
Longitudinal Bending Moments
The bending moment at the supports is given by,
The bending moment at the center of the span is given by,
105
Stress in Shell at Saddle
Stress in the shell at mid-span
The stress at the mid span is f3, which is either tensile or compressive depending on the
position of the fiber. The resultant tensile stresses (including the axial stress due to internal
pressure) should not exceed the permissible stress, and the resultant compressive stress
should not exceed the permissible compressive stress. (Sinnot, 2003)
106
Axial stress in shell due to internal pressure
The combined stresses are within the allowable limits.
The Shell-and-tube heat exchanger with the above specification is designed.
107
CHAPTER 8
8.0 DESIGN OF A QUENCH TOWER
8.1 Problem statement:
Design of a quench tower to condense the steam coming out of the furnace in a packed
tower
8.1.1 Chemical engineering design
8.1.1.1 Scope of the design:

 The superficial gas velocity
 The diameter of the column
 The dry-gas-pressure drop
 The liquid holdup in the column
 The actual pressure drop when the bed is irrigated
 The overall gas-phase transfer units
 The height of the gas-phase transfer unit
 The height of the liquid-phase transfer unit
 The overall height of a gas-phase transfer unit
 The packed height
 Residence time
 Data: The packing used is 50mm metal pall ring random packing
Cp = is a packing constant, 0.763, a = specific surface area of packing, 112.6 m2/m3,
= packing void fraction, 0.951, FP = packing factor, 27m2/m3,
Ch = is a characteristic of the particular type and size of packing, 0.784

108
Temperature =34°C
Flowrate =7589.283 kmol/hr
Gas out
1. -- Column
2
shell
2. -- Inlets
and
2 outlets for
Liquid gas and
liquids
in
Flowrate =1492.490 kmol/hr 3. -- Packing
material
Temperature
=30°C
1
3
2
Gas in
Temperature
=350°C
Flowrate =1777.473 kmol/hr
Liquid out
2
Temperature =80°C
Flowrate =7874.283
kmol/hr
Figure 8.1 A schematic diagram of a quench tower
109
8.2 Superficial gas velocity calculation
The molecular weight of the gas can be calculated as
MG = 0.0374×16 + 0.2846×28 +1.8×10-3×20 +0.1916×30 +2×10-4×44 +0.164×18
+0.0338×44 + 0.2864×2
MG =19.3864g/mol
Hence the molecular weight of the gas is 19.3864g/mol
The gas mass flow rate of the gas can be calculated as
V' = 9.571890 Kg/s
Hence the mass flow rate of the gas is 9.571890 Kg/s
The density of the gas mixture is calculated as
Hence the density of the gas mixture is 0.570832Kg/m3
The volumetric flow of the gas can be calculated as
110
ρ
Where, L = liquid mass flow rate, 39.3714Kg/s
ρG = gas density, 0.570832Kg/m3
V' = gas mass flow rate, 9.571890 Kg/s
ρL = liquid density, 1000Kg/m3 (Sinnot, 1999)
QG = is the volumetric flow rate of the gas,m3/s
The ratio of the liquid mass flow rate to the gas mass flow rate is given by
Flooding data for quench columns with countercurrent flow of gas and liquid can be
correlated in terms of the flow parameter(X) given by
ρ
ρ
Flooding curve in quench tower can be accurately described by the polynomial regression
111
Where, FP = packing factor, 27m2/m3 (Wiley and Jaime, 1987)
L = liquid viscosity, 0.001Pa-s (Sinnot, 2005)
8.2.1 Calculation of the superficial gas velocity at flooding
The superficial gas velocity can be calculated as
ρ
ρ ρ
Where, VGF = the superficial gas velocity at flooding, m/s
The superficial gas velocity at flooding is 4.8257m/s
112
8.2.2 Calculation of pressure drop at flooding
The pressure drop at flooding is strongly dependent on the packing factor for both random
and structured packings and it is given by the empirical expression:
Where, Pflood has units of Pa per meter of packed height
8.2.3 Superficial gas velocity calculation
For a given fluid flow rates and properties, and a given packing material, superficial gas
velocity can be calculated from the expression given by:
Where,VG = superficial gas velocity, m/s
f = a fraction of flooding and is usually 0.7 for quench towers (Wiley and
Jaime,1987)
Hence the superficial gas velocity VG = 3.37799m/s
The diameter of the column can be calculated from
113
D =2.49865m ≈ 2.5m
Hence the diameter of the column is 2.5m
The area of the column can be calculated as:
The wall factor can be important for columns with an inadequate ratio of effective particle
diameter to inside column diameter, and is given by:
Where, = packing void fraction, 0.951 (Wiley and Jaime,1987)
Kw = wall factor
The effective particle diameter, dp, is given by
Where, dp = the effective particle diameter, m
a = specific surface area of packing, 112.6 m2/m3 (Wiley and Jaime,1987)
114
KW = 0.9805309
The Reynolds number of the gas can be calculated as
Where, G = kinematic viscosity of the gas mixture, 3×10-5Pa.s
The Reynolds number of the gas ReG = 2756.6837
The dry-packing resistance coefficient (a modified friction factor), , is given by the
empirical expression:
Where, = the dry-packing resistance coefficient (a modified friction factor)
Cp = is a (packing constants) characteristic of the particular type and size of packing,
0.763. (Wiley and Jaime,1987)
115
The dry-packing resistance coefficient = 0.7464431
8.2.4 Calculation of dry-gas-pressure drop
The dry-gas-pressure drop can be calculated from the dimensionally consistent correlating
equation given by:
Where, Z= packing height, m
△PO = the dry-gas-pressure drop, Pa
The liquid mass velocity can be calculated as
Where, GX = liquid mass velocity, Kg/m2.s
116
=7.931453316Kg/m2.s
The Reynolds number of the liquid can be calculated as:
Hence the Reynolds number of the liquid ReL = 70.439195
The Froude number of the liquid can be calculated as
Where, FRl = Froude number of the liquid
g = acceleration due to gravity, 9.81m/s2 (Wiley and Jaime,1987)
= 7.22062728×10-4
Where, Ch = is a (packing constants) characteristic of the particular type and size of
packing, 0.784. (Wiley and Jaime,1987)

117
ah = hydraulic, or effective, specific area of packing, m2/m3
8.3 Calculation of specific liquid holdup
The specific liquid holdup (i.e. volume of liquid holdup/volume of packed bed) in the
preloading region can be calculated from the dimensionless expression:
Where, hL, = specific liquid holdup, m3 holdup/m3 packed bed
VL = superficial liquid velocity, m/s
hL= 0.047606969
Hence the liquid holdup in the column is 0.047606969
8.3.1 Calculation of pressure drop when the bed is irrigated
When the packed bed is irrigated, the liquid holdup causes the pressure drop to increase.
The Correct pressure drop for liquid holdup is calculated with the equation
Where, △p = Actual pressure drop when the bed is irrigated, Pa
118
The actual pressure drop when the bed is irrigated is therefore
8.3.2 The residence time can be evaluated as:
8.3.3 Calculation of the number of overall gas-phase transfer units
The number of overall gas-phase transfer units is given by:
Where, NOG = the number of overall gas-phase transfer units
m= is the slope of the equilibrium line
Gm/Lm= the slope of the operating line.
y1 and y2 = the mol fractions of the solute in the gas at the bottom and top of the
column, respectively.
119
For the case of quench tower use in condensing of the steam the value of is taken as
0.8 for purpose of design (Colburn, 1939)
Therefore the number of overall gas-phase transfer units is calculated as
NOG = 10.156
Hence the overall gas-phase transfer units is 10.156
8.4 Calculation of the height of gas and liquid film transfer units
The height of the gas and liquid film transfer units is given as:
Where, HG = height of a gas-phase transfer unit, m
HL = height of a liquid-phase transfer unit, m
(Sc)v = gas Schmidt number
(Sc)L = liquid Schmidt number
Dc = column diameter, m,
Z* = column height factor, m
K3 = percentage flooding correction factor

120
= HG factor
= HL factor
= liquid mass flow-rate per unit area column cross-sectional area, kg/m2s,
f1 = liquid viscosity correction factor
f2 = liquid density correction factor
f3 = surface tension correction factor
The liquid Schmidt number can be calculated as:
Hence the liquid Schmidt number is 588
The gas Schmidt number can also be calculated as:
Hence the gas Schmidt number is 3.624
121
The liquid mass flow-rate per unit area column cross-sectional area is given by:
Therefore the mass flow-rate per unit area column cross-sectional area is 8.020676 Kg/m2s
For 70%flooding, = 8.020675846 and liquid temperature of 30°C ,the values of the
various parameters are given as
K3= 0.85, = 80, Z* =8m, f1=f2=f3=1 (Sinnot,2005)
The height of a gas-phase transfer unit is evaluated as
Therefore the height of a gas-phase transfer unit is 0.852m
Also, the height of a liquid-phase transfer unit is evaluated as
Hence the height of a liquid-phase transfer unit is 0.726m
8.4.1Calculation of the overall height of a gas-phase transfer unit
The overall height of a gas-phase transfer unit is given by:
122
HOG = 0.852 +0.8×0.726 = 1.4328m
Hence the overall height of a gas-phase transfer unit is 1.4328m
8.5 Calculation of the packed height
Therefore the packed height is calculated as
Z = 10.156×1.4238 = 13.897m
Hence the packed height Z =14m
Table 8.1 Summary of chemical engineering design for quench tower
Parameter value
The superficial gas velocity, m/s 4.8257
The diameter of the column, m 2.5
The dry-gas-pressure drop, Pa/m 325
The liquid holdup in the column 0.0476
The actual pressure drop when the bed is irrigated, Pa/m 499
The overall gas-phase transfer units 10.156
The height of the gas-phase transfer unit, m 0.852
The height of the liquid-phase transfer unit, m 0.726
The overall height of a gas-phase transfer unit, m 1.4238
The packed height, m 14
Residence time, seconds(s) 28
123
8.6 Mechanical Engineering Design of a Quench Tower
8.6.1 Column Design Specifications
Total column height 18 m
Internal diameter 2.5 m
Operating pressure 1.5 bar
Operating temperatures 350°C-34°C
Material of construction is stainless steel type 304
Design stress 125 MPa
Density of the stainless steel, ρs = 8030 kg/m3
Vessel fully radiographed (joint factor 1)
The design pressure (P) is chosen to be 10% above the operating pressure, (Sinnot, 2005)
= 1.10x 1.5 bar
= 1.65bar
Minimum thickness (ts,) of the shell cylinder required for pressure loading:
Where, ts = Minimum thickness of the shell cylinder required for pressure loading, mm
P = the design pressure, bar
Di = Internal diameter of the column, m
124
C = corrosion allowance, mm
J = weld joint factor
ts = 28mm
Hence Minimum thickness (ts,) of the shell cylinder required for pressure loading is taken
as 28mm
The minimum thickness of ellipsoidal heads is given as
Therefore, 28mm plating is chosen for the column heads (for uniformity).
8.6.2 Calculations of Other Stresses
8.6.3 Dead weight stress
Volume = column shell + column heads
π
π
Where, Di = internal diameter of the column, m
HT = Total height of the column, m
ts = column thickness, m
125
π
π
Volume = 4.047075055 + 0.107992247 = 4.16m3
Density of shell material = 8030kg/m3 (Perry, 1997)
Mass of shell material = volume × density
Mass of shell material = 4.16×8030
Mass of shell material (mS) = 33404.8kg
Mass of water in the column = 4216.83 Kg
Mass of insulation
Mineral wool density = 130Kg/m3
Where, HT =Total column height, m
tins = insulation mineral wool thickness, mm
Va = Approximate volume of insulation, m3
Va = π 2 18 75 10-3
Va = 8.48m3
The approximate volume is 8.48m3
126
Mass of insulation = density× volume
Mass of insulation =130×8.48
Mass of insulation (mins) =1102.4Kg
To allow for fittings the mass of insulation is multiply by two
Therefore the mass of insulation = 2×1102.4
Mass of insulation = 2204.8 Kg
Mass of packing
Metal pall ring 50mm density =353Kg/m3
Mass of packing =density× Area of column ×packed height
Mass of packing =353× 4.909 ×14
Mass of packing =19060.63Kg
Total mass = mass of shell + mass of the Internals to the column+ mass of water in the
column+ mass of insulation
Total mass = 33404.8 + 19060.63 + 2204.8+4216.83
Total mass = 74014.4kg
Total weight of the column and contents (wT) =74014.4×9.81
Total weight of the column and contents (wT) = 726kN
8.7 Dead Weight stress
127
π
DO = Di+2ts
DO = 2.5 + 2(0.028)
DO = 2.556m
Where, DO = Mean diameter, mm
m = total mass of the column and contents, Kg
g = acceleration due to gravity, 9.81m/s2
Weight stress = 3MPa
Axial stress
Axial stress = 27MPa
8.7.1 Hoop stress
Hoop stress = 2×Axial stress
Hoop stress = 2×27
Hoop stress = 54MPa

128
8.7.2 The bending stress is given as:
Wind loading
Wind velocity (max) V, = 160 km/h (Sinnott, 2005)
Wind velocity which correspond to Dynamic wind-pressure loading of 1280Pa (Sinnott,
2005)
Bending moment (Mx) at bottom tangent line
Where, Mx = Bending moment at bottom tangent line, Nm
FW =Wind loading, N/m
HT = the total height of the column, m
Where, tins =insulation mineral wool thickness, mm
Wp = Dynamic wind-pressure loading, Pa
FW = (2.5+2(28+75)×10-3)×1280
FW = 3527.68N/m
129
Bending moment at bottom tangent line Mx = 571484.16Nm
Where, DO =Mean diameter, including insulation, mm
Moment of inertial (I) = 0.178m4
Bending stress = 4MPa
8.8 Analysis of stress
8.8.1Upwind
Total stress =Bending stress +Axial stress – Radial stress
Total stress = 4MPa +27MPa – 3MPa
Total stress = 28MPa
8.8.2 Downwind
Total stress = bending stress +Hoop stress – Radial stress
Total stress = 4MPa+54MPa – 3MPa
Total stress = 55MPa
Therefore the maximum stress is 55MPa
130
The maximum stress is more than 43% below the design stress of 125 MPa, and therefore
the shell design is considered acceptable.
8.8.3 Design of skirt support for the quench tower
The resultant stresses in the skirt will be:
Where,
bS = bending stress in the skirt
WS = The dead weight stress in the skirt
Bending moment at base of skirt (Ms)
Where, FW =Wind loading, N/m
Hs= height of skirt and column, m
MS = maximum bending moment, evaluated at the base of the skirt (due to wind, seismic
and eccentric loads), Nm
W = total weight of the vessel and contents, N
Ds = inside diameter of the skirt, at the base, m

131
ts = skirt thickness, m
Bending moment at base of skirt,
Ms = 778.365kNm
8.8.4 Bending stress in the skirt,
bS= 5.6N/mm2
The maximum dead weight load on the skirt will occur when the vessel is full of water.
Where, Di = internal diameter of column, m
HT = the total height of the column, m
Density of water, Kg/m3
= Acceleration due to gravity, m/s2
Approximate weight = 867kN
Weight of vessel and its content = mg
Weight of vessel and its content = 74014.4×9.81

132
Weight of vessel and its content (W) = 726kN
Total weight = (867+726) kN
Total weight =1593kN
8.9The dead weight stress in the skirt is given by:
Where, WS = The dead weight stress in the skirt, N/mm2
W = total weight of the vessel and contents, N
Ds = inside diameter of the skirt, at the base, mm
ts = skirt thickness, mm
WS(operating) = 3.26N/mm2
WS(test) = 3.90N/mm2
Maximum compressive stress = (5.6+3.9)N/mm2 = 9.5 N/mm2
Maximum tensile stress = (5.6 - 3.26) N/mm2 = 2.34 N/mm2
Base ring and anchor bolt design

133
Assume approximate pitch circle bolt diameter, say, 2.2 m
Circumference of bolt circle = 2200π
Closest multiple of 4 = 12 bolts
The anchor bolts are assumed to share the overturning load equally, and the bolt area
required is given by:
Where, Ab = area of one bolt at the root of the thread, mm2,
Nb = number of bolts,
fb= maximum allowable bolt stress, N/mm2; typical design value 125N/mm2
Ms = bending (overturning) moment at the base, Nm,
W = weight of the vessel, N,
Da =assumed bolt circle diameter, m.
Ab= 466.8mm2
Using M30 bolts (BS 4190:1967) root area = 561 mm2
Ab =561mm2
134
The bolt root diameter (Db) is given by:
Db = 27mm
The bolt root diameter is therefore 27mm.
The base ring must be sufficiently wide to distribute the load to the foundation. The total
compressive load on the base ring is given by:
π π
π π
Fb = 362kN/m
Where, Fb = the compressive load on the base ring, Newtons per linear metre,
DS = skirt diameter, 2m.
The minimum width of the base ring is given by:
Where, Lb = base ring width, mm
135
fc = the maximum allowable bearing pressure on the concrete foundation and is
taken as 5 N/mm2
Actual width required = Lr + ts +50mm
Actual width required = 76 + 30 +50mm
Actual width required = 156mm
Where, Lr = the distance from the edge of the skirt to the outer edge of the ring,mm
Actual bearing pressure on concrete foundation required is given by:
The minimum thickness is given by:
Where, = base ring thickness, mm,
= actual bearing pressure on base. N/mm2,
= allowable design stress in the ring material, typically 140 N/mm2.
136
Round off to 20mm
The minimum base ring thickness is = 20mm.
Table 8.2 Summary of mechanical design of the quench tower
Parameter Value
Thickness of the shell, mm 28
Dead weight stress , MPa 3
Axial stress, MPa 27
Hoop stress, MPa 54
Bending stress, MPa 4
Total Upwind Stress, MPa 28
Total Downwind Stress, MPa 55
Table 8.3 Summary of mechanical design of the skirt support for the quench tower
Parameter Value
Skirt thickness, mm 30
Bending stress in the skirt, N/mm2 5.60
The dead weight stress in the skirt, N/mm2 3.27
Maximum tensile stress, N/mm2 2.34
Maximum compressive stress, N/mm2 9.50
137
Table 8.4 Summary of mechanical design for base ring and anchor bolt
Parameter Value
Base ring width, mm 156
Bolt diameter, mm 27
Compressive force on base ring, N/m 362000
Base ring thickness, mm 20
138
CHAPTER 9
9.0 DESIGN OF A CAUSTIC TOWER
9.1 Problem Statement
To design a caustic tower to absorb CO2 from an ethylene gas stream entering at feed
conditions of 35°C and 3500kPa.
Illustration of problem statement
L2 = 2233.073 kmol/hr
X2 = 0.0
G2 = 1481.664kmol/hr
y2 = 3ppm
G1 = 1488.71549 Kmol/hr
y1 = 0.0021
L1 = 2236.195 Kmol/hr
X1 = 0.0014
9.2 CHEMICAL ENGINEERING PROCESS DESIGN OF ABSORBER
Basis:
1 Hour of Operation
Assuming negligible absorption of the other gases and at average temperature of the gas
inside the tower at 35 0C.
139
Table 9.1: Composition of the Incoming Gas:
Component Amount in Mole
kmoles fraction
Methane 66.4062 0.0446
Ethane 340.545 0.2287
Propane 60.0818 0.0404
H2O 0.29189 0.0002
Hydrogen 509.1142 0.3420
Acetylene 3.1622 0.0021
Ethylene 505.952 0.3399
CO2 3.1622 0.0021
TOTAL 1488.71549 1.0000
9.2.1 Heat of Reaction
The chemical reaction across the tower is
CO2 (g) + 2NaOH (aq)  Na2CO3(s) + H2O (l)
This is a fast second order reaction.
∆H°r = Σ|r|∆H°f(products) - Σ|r|∆H°f(reactants)
Hf°CO2 (g) = -393.5 kJ/mol Hf°NaOH (aq) = -469.6 kJ/mol Hf°NaCO3(s) = -1130.77 kJ/mol
Hf°H2O (l) = -285.8 kJ/mol
∆H°r = (-1130.77-285.8)-(-393.5-2×469.6) = -83.87 kJ/mol (exothermic)
140
9.2.2 Calculating liquid flow rate
G1= 1488.71549kmol/hr = 0.4135kmol/s y1 = 0.0021
Y1= 0.0021044, Y is the mole ratio
y2 = 3ppm
Y2 = 3×
Gs=0.4135 (1-0.0021) = 0.4126kmol/s, where Gs is the flow rate of the inert gas
X2 = 0
p°CO2 = 7350917.175 Pa, where p°CO2 is the partial pressure of CO2 at 31°C
Pt = 3500000pa, where Pt is the total pressure of the gas
Y*= 2.1
Y* = 2.1x, Henry‟s law
Min Ls =
For 1.5 times the minimum, Ls= 1.5×0.4129 = 0.619 kmol/s
X1= 0.0014
141
L2 2231.52Kmol/hr G2 1481.664kmol/hr
x2 0.0 y2 3ppm
L1 2228.4Kmol/hr G1 1488.71549 Kmol/hr
x1 0.0014 y1 0.0021
G = total flow rate of gas entering/exiting the tower
y = mole fraction of CO2 in entering/exiting gas stream
L = total flow rate of liquid leaving/entering the tower
x = mole fraction of CO2/NaCO3 in entering/exit liquid stream
9.2.3 Calculating for the mass velocity of the gas and the liquid
Average molecular weight of the gas = [16×66.4062 + 30×340.545 + 44×60.0818 +
18×0.29189 + 2×509.1142 + 26×3.1622 + 28×505.952 + 44×3.1622]/1488.71549
MwG= 19.704 Kg/Kmoles
Now considering 20wt% of NaOH solution
Finding the mole fraction of NaOH(XNaOH) in this solution using the relation
X NaOH 
Wi M W i 
Wi M W i   1  Wi) M W H2 0 
X NaOH 
0.20 / 40
0.20 40  0.80 18
X NaOH  0.1011 X H2O  0.8989
Hence calculating for the average molecular weight of the solvent
142

M W SOLUTION   X NaOH M NaOH   X H 2O M H 2O 
M W SOLUTION  0.1011 40  0.8989 18
M W SOLUTION  20.2242 Kg/kmol
Mass flow rate (L1) of liquid at the bottom of the column
L1  L1  M W so ln  2228.4kmol / hr  20.2242kg / kmol

L1  45067.60728Kg / hr
L1  12.519 Kg / s
Calculating for mass flow rate (G1) of inlet gas at the bottom of the column
G1 = 1488.71549×19.704 = 29333.65001 kg/hr
G1 = 8.148 Kg/s
9.2.4 Physical Properties of gas and liquid
Gas density ρg= [3500× ×19.704] / [8314 x 308.15] = 26.92 kg/m3
Liquid density ρL = 1213.5 kg/m3
Liquid viscosity µL = 0.00317kg/m.s
Volumetric flow rate of gas= 0.298m3/s
9.2.5 Type and size of packing
As a rough guide, packing sizes of 25 mm or larger are ordinarily used for gas rates of 0.25
m3/s, and 50 mm or larger for gas rates of 1 .0m3/s or more.
(Principles and Modern Applications of Mass Transfer Operations, 2nd Edition, Page 222)
Packing type: 38mm ceramic Raschig rings

143
Bulk density of packing = 689kg/m3
Surface area of packing per unit volume, a = 128m2/m3
Packing factor,FP =310/m
0.5
L1  ρ g 
FLV  1  
G  ρl 
Hence substituting the values of the parameters in the equation
0.5
12.519  26.92 
FLV     0.229
8.148  1213.5 
From the generalized pressure drop correlation given in Richardson and Coulson, pg 603
K4 = 2.1
= 2.137 Kg/ m2s
Then, the cross section area required,
Diameter, d =
144
D= 2.203m
Column diameter = 2.203m
9.2.6 Pressure drop and percent loading
For gas flow rate of Gy = 7693.063kg/m2h = 1575.66 lb/ft2h
∆P = 1.0 inches water/ft packing when dry (McCabe and smith, pg 570)
∆P =25.4mm
K4 = 0.723
Then,
% loading = = 58.7%
9.2.7 Wetting rate
A useful measure of the effectiveness of wetting of the available area is the wetting rate LW
defined as:
volumetric liquid rate per unit cross - sectional area of column

Packing surface area per unit volume of column
Volumetric liquid rate per unit cross-sectional area =
12.519kg/s
LW 
1213.5kg/m  128m 2 /m 3  3.813m 2
3
L W  2.11  10 -5 m 3 /m 2 s
145
Absorption and stripping tower by Morris and Jackson, recommends wetting rate of
2.0×10-5m3/m2s and above for packing size between 25mm and 75mm.
9.2.8 Liquid hold up
Hw = 0.143
L* = liquid mass flow rate per unit area of column = 3.283kg/m2s
Hw = 0.143
Hw = 0.182 m3 of liquid/m3 of column
9.2.9 Residence time
Γ=Hw v/V (liquid hold up volume of packing/ liquid volumetric flow rate)
Γ= (0.182 18.528)/ 0.0103
Residence time = 326.87s = 5.4min
9.2.10 Packed Tower height
The equation for column height can be written as follows:
ZT =
ZT = HoyNoy
Hoy = in terms of partial pressure driving force
GM = 390.43mol/m2h (molar flow rate per cross sectional area)
Gy = 7693.063kg/m2h = 1575.66 lb/ft2h
146
KGa = 1.4 mol/ft3h.atm = 4.879×10-4mol/m3hPa
(Unit operations of chemical engineering, McCabe and Smith, seventh edition, pg603)
Hoy =
Hoy = 0.229m
Noy =
Where a= top of column, b= bottom of column
x a= 0 xb = 0.0014 ya = 3×10-6 yb = 0.0021
y* = 2.1x
yb* = 2.1×0.0014 = 0.00294
ya* = 0
∆y = yb-ya = 0.0021-3×10-6 = 0.00297
At the bottom of the column, yb-yb* = 0.0021-0.00294 = -0.00084
At the top, ya-ya* = ya = 0.000003
Noy = = 1.496×10-4
Noy = 19.852
ZT = 0.229×19.852 = 4.546m
Height of packing = 4.546m
147
Table 9.2: Free spaces in Packed Tower
Location Distance
Purpose
Tower top above distributor 90cm Demister pads to remove liquid droplets from
the clean flue gas
Distributor 50cm Space for distribution
Between beds and top distributor and bed40cm Prevent excessive carryover of liquid
Between top of inlet gas nozzle and

50cm Prevent excessive carryover of liquid
bottom support plate
Source: (Rase, 1977)
Total height of free spaces in column = 230cm = 2.3m
Table 9.3: Summary of Chemical Engineering Design
Parameter Value
Column diameter 2.203m
Height of packed bed 4.546m
Height of column 6.846m
Overall mass transfer coefficient 4.879×10-4mol/m3hPa
Wetting rate 2.1110-5 m3 /m 2s
Liquid hold up 0.182 m3/m3
% Loading 58.7%
Residence time 5.4min
Choice of packing Raschig rings (ceramic)
Packing size 38mm
Type of installation Random
148
9.3 MECHANICAL DESIGN OF ABSORPTION COLUMN
Inner Diameter of tower, Di = 2.203 m
Height of the packing required = 4.546m
Skirt height = 2m
Density of material column = 7700 Kg/m3
Wind pressure, Pw = 130 Kg/m2
Material: Carbon Steel
Permissible tensile stress (f) = 950kg/cm2
9.3.1 Thickness of Shell:
Thickness of shell, ts = [p D / (2f J – p)] + c
Where,
Inner Diameter of vessel, Di = 2203 mm
Working Pressure = 3500×103 N/m2
Design Pressure, p = 3850×103 N/m2= 3.850 N/mm2
Permissible Stress = 135N/mm2
Joint Efficiency (J) = 0.85
Corrosion allowance = 2mm
Hence,
ts= (3.85×2203)/[(2×135×0.85-3.85]+2
ts= 37.47mm
So outer diameter of shell Do = 2.203 m + (2×0.03747m) = 2.278 m
149
9.3.2 Weight of Packed Tower
Thickness of tower = 37.47mm = 0.03747m
Overall height of tower h = 4.546m+2.30m = 6.846m
Diameter = 2.203m
Outer diameter of the shell (Do) = 2.278m
Implies radius, r = 1.139m
Volume of material of construction  2rht  ht 2
= 2  ×1.139×6.846×0.03747+  ×6.846×0.037472
= 1.866m³
Density of carbon steel = 7700Kg/m³
Therefore mass of carbon steel = 7700×1.866
= 14368.2Kg
Weight of the tower is therefore = 14368.2× 9.81 = 140952N
9.3.3 Weight of Packing
Packing volume = Ah
Height of packed bed = 4.546m
Area = = 4.076 m2
Volume = 4.076m2×4.546 m = 18.528m3
150
Bulk density of packing = 689 Kg/m³
Mass of packing = 689×18.528 = 12765.739Kg
Thus total dead weight = 12765.739 + 14368.2
= 27133.939 Kg
Vessel volume = 6.846m×4.076m2 = 27.904m³
9.3.4 Skirt Thickness
The skirt thickness must be sufficient to withstand the dead-weight loads and bending
moments imposed on it by the vessel.
The resultant stress in the skirt will be
 s (Tensile) =  bs   ws
 s (Comprehensive) =  bs   ws
Where
 bs = bending stress in the skirt
4Ms
 bs 
 ( Ds  ts )tsDs
 ws = dead weight stress in the skirt
W
 ws 
 (Ds  ts)ts
151
Where
Ms = maximum bending moment, evaluated at the base of the skirt
W = total weight of the vessel and contents
Ds = inside diameter of the skirt, at the base
ts = skirt thickness
Dynamic wind pressure = 1280 N/m2
Mean diameter = 2.203 + 2(0.0543) = 2.3116m
Loading per linear mater (Fw) = 1280N/m2×2.278m
= 2915.84 N/m
9.3.5 Bending moment, Ms
Fw  h 2 2915.84  (6.846) 2
Ms   = 68329.38051Nm
2 2
Ds = 2.278m = 2278mm
Weight of vessel, W= 27133.939kg ×9.81ms-2 = 266183.9416N
The maximum dead weight load on the skirt would occur when the drum is full of the
solvent NaOH.

Approximate weight = ( x 2.2782 x 6.846) x 1213.5 x 9.81
4
= 332156.6897N
152
Therefore total weight, W = 266183.941 + 332156.689 = 598340.63N
= 598.341kN
ts = 35mm
4Ms 4(598340.63) x 103

 bs  
 (Ds  ts)tsDs  (2278  35) (2278  35)
= 3.855 N/mm2
W 598340.63
 ws  
 (Ds  ts)ts  (2278  35)35
= 2.1952 N/mm2
 s (tensile) =  bs -  ws
= 3.855 – 2.1952 = 1.6598 N/mm2
 s (comprehensive) =  bs +  ws
3.855+2.1952 = 6.0502N/mm2
9.3.6 Criteria for design
The skirt thickness should be such that under the worst combination of wind and dead-
weight loading the following design criteria are not exceeded (Sinnott Vol 6, page 846):
s
s
153
fs = maximum allowable design stress for the skirt material, normally taken at ambient
temperature, 20oC
s = base angle of a conical skirt, normally 80o to 90o
E = Young‟s modulus, for steel at ambient temperature, E = 200000N/mm2
Considering the design criteria
 s (tensile) ≤ fs J sin s
1.6598≤ 0.85 135 sin 90
1.6598≤ 114.75
 s (compressive) > 0.125E(ts / Ds) sin s
6.0502≤ 0.125 x 200000 x (20 / 457) sin 90
6.0502≤ 1094.09
Both criteria are satisfied, and thus skirt support thickness is 35mm (Sinnott, vol. 6 Pg 848-
850)
9.3.7 Primary Stresses
1. Longitudinal and circumferential stresses due to pressure (internal and external)
given by
PDi
h 
2t
PDi
L 
4t
154
Where h = circumferential stresses
L= longitudinal stresses
P is the design pressure in the absorber
Di = is the internal diameter of the absorber
t = thickness of the vessel
3.850  2203
h   113.18 N / mm2
2  37.47
3.850  2203
L   56.59 N / mm2
4  37.47
2. Direct stress due to the weight of the vessel, its contents and any attachments.
W 266183.9416
w    1.009 N / mm2
 ( Di  t )t  (2203  37.47)37.47
9.3.8 Base ring and Anchor Bolts:
Approximate pitch circle diameter = 1.5m
1500
Number of bolts required, at recommended bolt spacing =  7.8  8
600
Scheiman gives the following guide rules which can be used for the selection of the anchor
bolts:
1. Bolts smaller than 25 mm (1 in.) diameter should not be used.
2. Minimum number of bolts 8.
3. Use multiples of 4 bolts.
155
4. Bolt pitch should not be less than 600 mm (2 ft).
(Sinnot, volume 6, pg 848)
Table 9.4: Summary of Mechanical Engineering Design
Parameter Value
Equipment(shell) thickness 37.47mm
Weight of tower 140952N
Weight of packing 125231.9N
Vessel volume 27.904m3
Skirt thickness 20mm
Longitudinal stress 56.59N/mm2
Circumferential stress 113.18N/mm2
Direct stress 1.009N/mm2
No. Of bolts 8
Bending moment 68329.38Nm
Type support Straight skirt
156
CHAPTER 10
10.0 DESIGN OF SPRAY TOWER
In the production of ethylene and acetylene, the removal of water is very crucial. This is
because, water that accumulate during the process will turn into its solid form (ice) when
the separation process of the gas mixture into individual required components is being
done. The aim of the design is to remove almost all the amount of water in the gas mixture
using a spray tower at a lower operating cost.
10.2 JUSTIFICATION
The mixture of gases ready to undergo separation into their individual has water in it. The
exposure of the gas mixture to water sprayed at Tdp over a period of time will allow all the
water to be collected downstream. In this way about 96% of the water is sure to be
removed. By this process, the gas mixture is ready to be separated into individual gases.
10.3 SCHEMATIC DIAGRAM OF A SPRAY TOWER
Outlet air(Gas mixture)
Water cooler
Inlet air(Gas mixture)
157
Mass flowrate of inlet gas= Gin
Mass flowrate of outlet gas= Gout
Mass flowrate of inlet water(sprayed water)= Lin
Mass flowrate of outlet water(condensed water)=Lout
Lin
Gout
Gin
Lout
Gin = 29438.1762
Therefore the amount of water entering the spray tower = 87.9234 kg/hr
Therefore to find the flowrate of the exit gas stream = 29241.1306kg/hr
But water of 2ppm is the least that can be allowed in the mixture without effect on the
result.
2ppm which is 0.0002% of the total amount present;
Taking an ideal system,
Lin = Lout
158
…………………………………..(tosun, 2007)
10.4.1The diameter of the spray tower column
…………………………………………….. (tosun, 2007)
Where D is the diameter of the tower
Ga is the mass flowrate of the inlet gas
is thedensity
V is the velocity of the gas particles
Assuming ideal gas situation:
But P, pressure is 3500kPa, T = 313K
Average molecular weight of the gas, M = [16×66.4062 + 30×340.545 + 44×60.0818 +
18×0.29189 + 2×509.1142 + 26×3.1622 + 28×505.952 + 44×3.1622]/1488.71549
MwG= 19.704 Kg/Kmoles
Get tight in the main door close to the housing of it
159
l= 8.90 10-4Pa.s or 10-3Ns/m
The velocity of the gas is assumed to be the same as the mass velocity since the gas mixture
is in vapour form(perry cha 6 pg 6-7)
V = 1485.36kmol every hour
D = 3.878m
10.4.2Terminal velocity of water droplets
An assumption is made;
 that all the water droplets are spherical in shape,
 that the droplet is rigid,
 and applying the force balance between buoyancy and drag forces.
……………………………..( Zheng L.1997)
But;
160
d = 0.09551 m
Ut = 0.005283 m/s
10.4.3 The tower height
H = vtt………………………………….(tosun, 2007)
Where H is the height of the tower,
vt is the terminal velocity of the water particles
t is the time for the unsteady state energy balance around the condensed water
10.4.4The cooling time
10.4.4.1 Cooling period

Lin = Lout
…………………………………(tosun, 2007)
is the heat capacity of the water.
a = 1.82964 10 b = 4.72118 10-1 c = -1.33678 10-3 d = 1.31424 10-6
Cpl = 1.82964 10+(4.72118 10-1 313)+(-1.33678 10-3 3132)+(1.31424 10-

6
3133)
Cpl = 18.2964+147.7730-130.9630+40.3002
161
Cpl = 75.4066J/mol.K
is the mean temperature Ta(in) – Ta(out)/2
Tdp is dew point
It is assumed that the pressure of the inlet water is at atmospheric pressure
The actual vapour pressure of water (p) at 40 °C is 0.0728atm (7376.46Pa)
Where dv represent volumetric humidity
Therefore dv = 0.051069kg.m-3
Therefore …………………..T G Anthony & P R Clarke(2006)
Where ps is saturation vapour pressure
And f is enhancement factor is f
f = 1+A+P[B+C(T+D+EP)2]……………………………….(Buck A. 1981)
f = 1+(4.8 10-4)+35000[(3.47 10-6)+5.9 10-10(313+0-(0 35000)2]
f = 1.1284
Therefore
ps = 2556.89 Pa
162
to find the dew point; the temperature at which the water in the gas mixture begins to
condense.
………………………………(tosun, 2007)
tdp = 21.4922=21.5 °C
thus a temperature below this will condense the water in the mixture.
(40-21.5) °C = 24.5 °C/2=9.25 °C 12.5
12°C is assumed to be the temperature(modeling in transport)
therefore
……………………………..(tosun, 2007)
t1 = 1880.5445s = 31.34 min
10.4.4.1Height of tower
H = terminal velocity×time for cooling
H = Ut×t
H = 0.005283×1880.5447
H = 9.935m
163
The overall mass transfer coefficient is Kg
= 5.1878 × 10-5m3/m2s
10.4.6 The number of nozzles required
Assume a water flow of 50gal/min (3.2 L/s) per nozzle; this is a typical flow rate for usual
cooling-tower nozzles. Then, the number of nozzles required equals 10,000 gal/(min)/(50
gal/min per nozzle) = 200 nozzles. If six nozzles are used in each spray group in a series of
crossed arms, with each arm containing one or more nozzles, then 200 nozzles divided by 6
nozzles per spray group means that 33 1/3 spray groups will be needed. Since a partial
spray group is seldom used, 34 spray groups would be chosen.
(handbook of chem. Eng cal)
where σ = surface tension, mJ/m2 (dyne/cm),
Pch = Sugden's parachor,
pL = liquid density, kg/m3,
pv — density of the saturated vapour, kg/m3,
M — molecular mass.
σ, pi, pv evaluated at the system temperature

164
Pch ( Sugden's parachor) = (H×1) + (OH×1)+ (O×1)
= (17.1×1)+(11.3×1)+(20.0×1)
= 48.4
= 49.20mJ/m2
10.6.1.1 Summary of chemical engineering design

Table 10.1 Chemical engineering design of spray tower
Parameter Value
Column diameter 3.878m
Column height 9.94m
Terminal velocity 0.005283m/s
Dew point 21.5 C
Water temperature(inlet) 12 C
Residence time 31.34minutes
Overall Mass Transfer Coefficient 5.1878  10-54mol/m3hPa
Number of spray groups 34
Number of nozzles per spray 200 nozzles
Inner Diameter of tower, Di = 3.878m
Skirt height = 2m
Density of material column = 7700 Kg/m3
165
Wind pressure, Pw = 130 Kg/m2
Material: Carbon Steel
Permissible tensile stress (f) = 950kg/cm2
10.6.1 Thickness Of Shell:
Thickness of shell, ts = [p D / (2f J – p)] + c
Where,
Inner Diameter of vessel, Di = 3878 mm
Working Pressure = 3500×103 N/m2
Design Pressure, p = 3850×103 N/m2= 3.850 N/mm2
Permissible Stress = 135N/mm2
Joint Efficiency (J) = 0.85
Corrosion allowance = 2mm
Hence,
ts= (3.85×3878)/[(2×135×0.85-3.85]+2
ts= 68.17mm
So outer diameter of shell Do = 3.878 m + (2×0.06617m) = 4.0103 m
10.6.2 Weight of Spray Tower
Thickness of tower = 69.17mm = 0.06917m
Diameter = 3.878m
Outer diameter of the shell (Do) = 4.0103m
Implies radius, r = 2.0052m
166
Volume of material of construction  2rht  ht 2
= 2  ×2.0052×9.94×0.06917+  ×9.94×0.069172
= 8.8119 m³
Density of carbon steel = 7700Kg/m³
Therefore mass of carbon steel = 7700×8.8119
= 67851.63 Kg
Weight of the tower is therefore = 67851.63× 9.81 = 665624N
Area = = 6.0915 m2
Vessel volume = 6.0915×9.94 = 60.549m2
10.6.3 Skirt Thickness
moments imposed on it by the vessel.
The resultant stress in the skirt will be
 s (Tensile) =  bs   ws
 s (Comprehensive) =  bs   ws
Where
 bs = bending stress in the skirt
167
4Ms
 bs 
 ( Ds  ts )tsDs
 ws = dead weight stress in the skirt
W
 ws 
 (Ds  ts)ts
Where
Ms = maximum bending moment, evaluated at the base of the skirt
W = total weight of the vessel and contents
Ds = inside diameter of the skirt, at the base
Dynamic wind pressure = 1280 N/m2
Mean diameter = 3.878 + 2(0.0543) = 3.9866m
Loading per linear mater (Fw) = 1280N/m2×2.278m
= 2915.84 N/m
The weight of the spray nozzles is approximated to be 500kg
Thus total dead weight = 67851.63+500
= 68351.63kg
10.6.4 Bending moment, Ms
Ds = 4.0103m = 4010.3mm
168
Weight of vessel, W= 68351.63kg ×9.81ms-2 = 669845.97N

Approximate weight = ( x 4.01032 x 9.94) x 1000 x 9.81
4
= 1230427.61N
Therefore total weight, W = 669845.97+ 1230427.61= 1900273.31N
= 1900.27kN
ts = 66mm
4Ms 4(1900273.31) x 10 3
 bs  
 (Ds  ts)tsDs  (4010.3  66) (4010.3  66)
= 3.242N/mm2
W 1900273.31
 ws  
 (Ds  ts)ts  (4010.3  66)66
= 2.148 N/mm2
 s (tensile) =  bs -  ws
=3.242 – 2.148= 1.094 N/mm2
 s (comprehensive) =  bs +  ws
3.242+2.148 = 5.390/mm2
10.6.5 Criteria for design
The skirt thickness should be such that under the worst combination of wind and dead-
weight loading the following design criteria are not exceeded (Sinnott Vol 6, page 846):
169
s
s
fs = maximum allowable design stress for the skirt material, normally taken at ambient
temperature, 20oC
s = base angle of a conical skirt, normally 80o to 90o
E = Young‟s modulus, for steel at ambient temperature, E = 200000N/mm2
10.6.6 Base ring and Anchor Bolts
Approximate pitch circle diameter = 1.5m
1500
Number of bolts required, at recommended bolt spacing =  7.8  8 (closest
600
multiple of 4 to answer calculated)
Scheiman gives the following guide rules which can be used for the selection of the anchor
bolts:
1. Bolts smaller than 25 mm (1 in.) diameter should not be used.
2. Minimum number of bolts 8.
3. Use multiples of 4 bolts.
4. Bolt pitch should not be less than 600 mm (2 ft).
(Sinnot, volume 6, pg 848)
170
Direct stress due to the weight of the vessel, its contents and any attachments.
W 665624
w    0.762 N / mm 2
 ( Di  t )t  (4010.3  68.17)68.17
Table 10.2 Mechanical Engineering Design
Parameter Value
Equipment(shell) thickness 68.17mm
Weight of tower 665624N
Vessel volume 60.549m3
Direct stress 0.762
No. Of bolts 8
Bending moment 98854.38Nm
Type support Straight skirt
171
CHAPTER 11
11.0 DESIGN OF A DE-METHANIZER
This section of the project is aimed at designing a demethanizer which would serve the
purpose of separating methane and hydrogen constituents from the condensed cracked gas
stream.
Determining the number of stages required for the desired degree of separation and the
location of the feed tray is merely the first steps in producing an overall column design.
Other things that need to be considered are tray spacings; column diameter; internal
configurations; heating and cooling duties.
Condenser
L Splitter Distillate, D
D = 577.7694 kmol/hr
Feed, F
F = 1448.2614 kmol/hr
V‟
L‟
Re-boiler Bottoms product, B
B = 870.4920 kmol/hr
172
Fig 2 – Diagram of problem statement
In the figure 2 above:
F = Flow rate of the feed stream, B = Flow rate of the bottoms product stream
D = Flow rate of the distillate stream, L = Flow returned as reflux
L‟ = Flow of liquid at the bottom, V = Flow rate of vapour at the top
V‟ = Flow rate of vapour from re-boiler into column
Table 11.1 Feed stream (F) specifications for demethanizer
Component Mole fraction
Hydrogen, H2 0.350
Methane, CH4 0.046
Ethane, C2H6 0.222
Acetylene, C2H2 0.002
Ethylene, C2H4 0.340
Propane, C3H8 0.040
Flow rate = 1488.094 kmol/hr
Temperature = -120oC
Pressure = 2000kPa
Table 11.2: Bottoms stream (B) specifications for demethanizer
Ethane, C2H6 0.3693
173
Acetylene, C2H2 0.0033
Propane, C3H8 0.0666
Methane, CH4 0.0008
Temperature = 6.05oC
Pressure = 3600kPa
Table 11.3: Distillate stream (D) specifications for demethanizer
Hydrogen, H2 0.8773
Methane, CH4 0.1142
Temperature = -127oC
Pressure = 3200kPa
11.2.1 Key Components
Ethylene, C2H2 and Methane, CH4 are considered as the key components. The light key
component shall be methane, CH4 and the heavy key component shall be ethylene, C2H2.
Hence: Ethylene, C2H2 – Heavy key (HK)
Methane, CH4 – Light key (LK)
174
11.2.2 Minimum number of stages
Assuming constant relative volatility, the minimum number of stages is thus estimated by
the FENSKE equation:
 x D , LK x B , HK 
ln  
 x B , LK x D , HK 
N min   1
ln  LK , HK
Nnim = Minimum number of stages
XB, LK = mole fraction of the light key component in the bottoms product
XD, LK = mole fraction of the light key component in the distillate
XB, HK = mole fraction of the heavy key component in the bottoms product
XD, HK = mole fraction of the heavy key component in the distillate
αLK, HK = relative volatility of the light key component with respect to the heavy key
component
From the stream composition tables above,
XB, LK = 0.0008 XD, LK = 0.114 XB, HK = 0.56 XD, HK = 0.0085
Table 11.4: Determining αLK, HK
Temp. Vap. Pressure, methane (Pmeth) Vap. Pressure, ethylene (Pethyl) Pmeth/ Pethyl
175 K 1573.072 Pa 813.309 Pa 1.93
200 K 2018.18 Pa 1096.51 Pa 1.84
230 K 2555.48 Pa 1434.98 Pa 1.78
253 K 2969.00 Pa 1696.86 Pa 1.75
175
Pmrthane 1.93  1.84  1.78  1.75
Realize that,  LK , HK  and Average  LK , HK   1.83
Pethylene 4
 0.114 0.56 
ln  
0.0008 0.0085 
 
ln 9388.2353
Therefore, N min 1  1
ln  LK , HK ln 1.83
N min  15.14  1  14.14  14
Hence, the minimum number of theoretical stages is 14.
11.2.3 Minimum reflux ratio
The Underwood‟s first equation is used to determine the minimum reflux ratio. It is given
by
V  x
Rm  1    i , HK D ,i
D i  i , HK 
Where:
αi, HK is the relative volatility of a component i, with respect to the heavy key component at
feed conditions
xd, I is the mole fraction of a component i, in the distillate
Rm is the minimum reflux ratio
 i xi , f
Θ is the root of the equation  
 1 q
i
176
Table 11.5: Determining θ
Component Xi,f αi, HK αi, HK Xi,f Try θ = 1.75 Try θ = 2.2 Try θ = 2.21
Methane 0.046 2.37 0.11 0.18 0.65 0.68
Ethane 0.222 1.33 0.30 -0.71 -0.345 -0.34
Propane 0.040 0.18 0.0072 -0.0046 -0.0036 -0.0036
Hydrogen 0.350 345.86 121.05 0.35 0.35 0.35
Acetylene 0.002 0.40 0.0008 -0.0006 -0.00044 -0.00044
Ethylene 0.340 1.00 0.340 -0.45 -0.283 -0.28
∑ = -0.64 ∑ = 0.367 ∑ = 0.406
Since ∑ = 0.407 is close enough to 0.4, θ = 2.21
Table 11.6: Determining Rm
Component XD,i αi,HK S = αi,HK - θ T = αi,HK XD,i T/S
Methane 0.1142 2.37 0.16 0.27 1.68
Ethane - 1.33 -0.88 - -
Propane - 0.18 -2.03 - -
Hydrogen 0.8773 345.86 343.65 303.423 0.88
Acetylene - 0.40 -1.81 - -
Ethylene 0.0085 1.00 -1.21 0.0085 -0.007
177
V  i , HK x D,i
 Rm  1    1.68  0.88  0.007  2.55  Rm  2.55  1  1.55
D i  i , HK 
Optimum reflux ratio (R) is given by R  1.5 1.55  2.33
R 2.33
For R = 2.19,   0.70
R  1 2.33  1.00
N min  R 
Erbar-Maddox correlation (Erbar and Maddox, 1961) is given by:  f 
N  R  1
14
From the Erbar-Maddox plot, N min  0.62 and hence N  22.6  23
N 0.62
The minimum reflux ratio is 1.46; the actual reflux ratio is 2.33; the minimum number of
theoretical stages is 14, and the actual number of theoretical stages is therefore 23.
11.2.4 Number of Real Stages
Using a column efficiency of 60 per cent and taking the reboiler as equivalent to one stage,
23 - 1
the number of real stages is given as Number of real stages   37
0.6
Note that the number of plates is same as the number of real stages.
11.2.5 Location of feed plate
KIRKBRIDE‟S equation is used for the estimation of the number of plates above and
below the feed plate and hence to locate the feed stage. The equation is given by:
0.206
N R  xF , HK  B
2
 xB , LK
   
N S  xF , LK  x
 D , HK
 D

 
Where:
B = molar flow rate of bottom product, D = molar flow rate of top product
178
XF, HK = mole fraction of the heavy key component in the feed
XF, LK = mole fraction of the light key component in the feed
XB, LK = mole fraction of the light key component in the bottoms product
XD, LK = mole fraction of the light key component in the distillate product
NR = number of theoretical stages in the rectifying section
NS = number of theoretical stages in the stripping section
0.206
N R  x F , HK  B
2 0.206
 x B , LK  0.34  0.0008  2  894.434 
Therefore,           
N S  x F , LK  x
 D , HK
 D
  0.046  0.0085   593.660 
 
 7.39130.0088581.50664
NR
  0.62
0.206
NS
Solving N R  0.62 N S and N R  N S  23 simultaneously gives:
N S  14.20  14 N R  8.80  9
14.20
The number of plates in the rectifying section =  23.67  24
0.6
8.80  1
The number of plates in the stripping section =  13
0.6
Hence, feed enters the column at the 24th tray from the top.
11.3 Vapour/liquid desities & Vapour/liquid Flowrates
Vapour and liquid flow rates at the top of the column
179
Material balance around the splitter as in figure 2 gives: V  L  D
Where
V = Vapour flow rates at the top of the column, L = Liquid flow rates at the top of the
column
D = Distillate flow rate
L
Again, R 
D
V
Solving equations (6) and (7) simultaneously yields:  R 1
D
Where R = reflux ratio
Having found that R = 2.19 and D = 593.660 kmol/hr;
V  593.6602.19  1  1893.78kmol / hr
L  V  D  1893.78  593.660  1300.12kmol / hr
Therefore vapour and liquid rates at the top of the column are 1893.78kmol/hr and
1300.12kmol/hr respectively.
11.3.1 Vapour and liquid density at the top
At top of the column conditions (30bar and 175 K), the following are attained:
 vap  2.06kg / m 3  liq  221.67kg / m 3
Vapour and liquid flow rates at the bottom of the column
180
The contribution of the feed stream to the internal flow of liquid is described by the
equation below:
L‟ = L + qF V‟ = V – (1 – q) F
Where:
L‟ = liquid flow rate at the bottom of the column
V‟ = vapour flow rate at the bottom of the column
 L'  1300.12  (0.6)1488.094  2192.98kmol / hr
 V '  1893.78  (1  0.6)1488.094  1298.54kmol / hr
11.3.2 Vapour and liquid density at the bottom
At bottom of the column conditions (30bar and 253 K)
 vap  1.43kg / m 3  liq  433.20kg / m 3
Condenser and re-boiler heat duties
Assumptions:
 kinetic and potential energy terms are negligible
 work terms are negligible
Balances around the Condenser
Condenser mass balance is
V=L+D
Condenser energy balance is

181
V hV + QC = DhD + L hL
Where: hV = enthalpy of vapour at the top of column = 4694.491 KJ/kgmol
V = vapour flow rate = 1893.78 kgmol/hr
QC = condenser duty
D = flow rate of distillate = 593.660 kgmol/hr
hD = enthalpy of distillate = 7662.846 kJ/kgmol
L = flow rate of liquid at the top of the column = 1300.12 kgmol/hr
hL = enthalpy of liqiud at the top of the column = -517480.041 kJ/kgmol
Qc  593.6607662.846  1300.12 517480.041  1893.784694.491  677127MJ / hr
QR = V‟ hV + B hB – L‟ hL
Where:
QR = reboiler heat duty hL = enthalpy of liquid at bottom = -5488.954 kJ/kgmol
hV = the enthalpy of vapour at bottom = -5488.954 kJ/kgmol
hB = enthalpy of bottom product = 1446.39 kJ/kgmol
L‟ = flow rate of liquid at the bottom of the column = 2192.98 kgmol/hr
V‟= flow rate of vapour at the bottom = 1298.54 kgmol/hr
B = flow of bottoms = 894.434 kmol/hr
QR  1298.54 5488.954  894.4341446.39  2192.98 5488.954  6203MJ / hr
182
11.4 Determination of liquid-vapour flow factor, FLV at the bottom and top
The liquid-vapour flow factor, FLV is given by:
Lw V
FLV  (R.K Sinnot, 1986)
Vw L
Where:
Lw = liquid flow-rate Vw = vapour flow-rate
2192.98 1.43
 FLV , bottom   0.097  0.10
1298.54 433.20
1300.12 2.06
 FLV , top   0.06618  0.07
1893.78 221.67
Therefore, the liquid-vapour flow factor at the bottom and top are 0.10 and 0.07
respectively.
11.5 Determination of flooding velocity at the top and bottom
The flooding velocity can be estimated from the correlation given by Fair (1961):
K1 (  L  V ) 0.5
uf =
V 0.5
Where:
uf = is the flooding vapour velocity in m/s or maximum permissible velocity based on the
net column cross-sectional area
K1 = empirical constant V = vapour density
183
 L = liquid density
From fig. 11.27 (R.K. Sinnot, 1986), and using a plate spacing of 0.5m at bottom and top
and their respective flow factors:
K1= 8 x 10-2 ………………………………………….…….bottom
K1 = 8.5 x 10-2 …………………………………………….top
11.5.1 Surface tensions:
Bottom surface tension = 0.045 N/m Top surface tension = 0.022 N/m
At these surface tensions, the K1 values are correlated as follows:
0.2
 0.045 
K1 = 0.08    0.094 ……………………………………………………..bottom
 0.02 
0.2
 0.022 
K1 = 0.085    0.094 ……………………………………………………….top
 0.02 
Hence,
0.094(433.20  1.43) 0.5

Bottom uf =  1.63m / s
1.430.5
0.094(221.67  2.06) 0.5

Top uf =  0.99m / s
2.06 0.5
The flooding condition fixes the upper limit of the vapour velocity. A high vapour velocity
is needed for high plate efficiencies, and the velocity will normally be between 70 to 90 per
cent of that which will cause flooding. For design, a value of 80 to 85 per cent should be
used. (R.K. Sinnot, 1986)

184
Hence design for 85 per cent flooding at maximum flow rate (uf) will be:
Bottom uf = 1.63 x 0.85 = 1.39 m/s
Top uf = 0.99 x 0.85 = 0.84 m/s
Maximum volumetric flow rate
The maximum volumetric flow rate can be calculated from the correlation,
V
ύ  ………………………………………………………………………..(10)
V
Where V = vapour flow rate, kg/s
V = vapour density, kg/m3
ύ = maximum volumetric vapour flow rate
1298.54  20.80
Bottom ύ   5.25m 3 / s
1.43  3600
1893.78  3.82
Top ύ   0.98m 3 / s
2.06  3600
Net Area Required
The net area required can be estimated from the equation:
A = ύ/ uf
Where: A = net area ύ = maximum volumetric flow rate
uf = maximum flooding flow rate
5.25 0.98
Bottom A   3.78m 2 Top A   1.2m 2
1.39 0.84
185
11.5.2 Column Cross-sectional Area
Downcomer area is taken as 12 per cent of total and hence, column cross-sectioned area is
calculated as follows:
3.78 1.2
Bottom =  4.3m 2 Top =  1.4m 2
0.88 0.88
11.5.3 Column diameter
The column diameter is determined by:
A 4
D Where A = column cross-sectional area

4.3  4 1.4  4
Bottom D  2.34m Top D  1.34m
 
Liquid flow pattern
LB
Maximum volumetric liquid rate: ύL =
L
Where: LB = liquid rate, kg/s ρL= liquid density
2192.98  20.80
Bottom ύL   2.9  10 2 m 3 / s
3600  433.20
1300.12  3.82
Top ύL   6.22  10 3 m 3 / s
3600  221.67
The plate diameter is within the range of Figure 11.28 (R.K. Sinnot, 1986) and it is clear
from the flow pattern that a single pass plate can be used for both the top and the bottom.
186
11.6 Height of column, H
For safe operations
 0.1m is added to the top tray
 0.3m is taken as the spacing between the draw off tray and the bottom of the
product. (Coulson et al, 1983)
Hence, height of column = (number of plates x plate spacing) + 0.4 m = (37 x 0.5) + 0.4 =
19 m
Table 11.7 Summary of Property Values Used
Parameter Enriching Section Stripping Section

Liquid flow rate, kmol/hr 1300.12 2192.98
Vapour flow rate, kmol/hr 1893.78 1298.54
Liquid density, kg/m3 221.67 433.20
Vapour density, kg/m3 2.06 1.43
Surface tension, N/m 0.022 0.045
Liquid-Vapour flow factor 0.07 0.10
Flooding Velocity, m/s 0.84 1.39
Maximum volumetric rate, m3/s 0.98 5.25
187
Table 11.8: Summary of Demethanizer Design Specifications
Parameter Enriching Section Stripping Section

Temperature, oC -98 -20
Pressure, kPa 3000 3000
Number of trays 24 13
Column diameter, m 1.34 2.34
Parameter Overall Column Value
Optimum reflux ratio, R 2.33
Location of feed tray 24th tray from the top
Height, m 19
Condenser Heat Duty, QC, (MJ/h) -677127
Reboiler Heat Duty, QR, (MJ/h) -6203
11.6.1 Weir height
. For columns operating above atmospheric pressure, the weir heights will normally be
between 40-90mm; 40-50mm is recommended, (R.K. Sinnot, 1986).
Since the column is operated at about 30 atm, weir height (hw) of 50mm is used.
Tray area
Downcomer area Ad  0.12  Ac  0.12  1.4  0.2m 2 , at 12 per cent
Net area, An  Ac  Ad  1.4  0.2  1.2m 2
Active area, Aa  Ac  2 Ad  1.4  20.2  1.0m 2
Hole area, Ah  0.1Aa  0.1m 2
188
11.6.2 Weir Length
Ad 0.17
From Fig.11.31 (R.K. Sinnot, 1986),  100%   100%  12% corresponds to
Ac 1.4
lw
 0.76
Dc
Where lw is the weir length
Weir length = D C  0.76  1.34  0.76  1.02m
Take: Hole diameter = 3 mm Plate thickness = 3 mm
11.6.3 Check Weeping
The hole area must be chosen so that at the lowest operating rate the vapour flow velocity is
still and well above the weep point.
Maximum liquid rate = Liquid density, kg/m3 x Maximum volumetric liquid rate, m3/s

Maximum liquid rate = 221.67  6.22  10 3  1.38kg / s 
Minimum liquid rate, at 70 per cent turn-down = 0.7  1.38  0.97kg / s
2/3
 L 
Weir crest is given by: hw  750 w 
  Llw 
For maximum weir crest, maximum liquid rate is used:
2/3
 1.38 
hw  750  25mm liquid
 221.67  1.02 
For minimum weir crest, minimum liquid rate is used:
189
2/3
 0.97 
hw  750  19mm liquid
 221.67  1.02 
At minimum rate, hw + h w = 50 + 19 = 69 mm
From the weep-point correlation Eduljee (1959), Fig. 11.30 (R K Sinnot), K2 = 30.4
Minimum vapour velocity through the holes at weep point is given by:
uˆ h min  
K 2  0.9025.4  d h   30.4  0.9025.4  3  6.3  6m / s
 v 0.5 2.06 0.5
minimum vapour rate 0.7  0.98

Actual minimum vapour velocity =   6.86  7m / s
Ah 0.1
This implies that the minimum operating rate is well above the weep point, and hence no
weeping occurs.
11.7 Plate pressure drop
0.98
Dry plate drop: Maximum vapour velocity through holes: uˆ h   9.8  10m / s
0.1
The pressure drop through the dry plate can be estimated using expressions derived for flow
2
 uˆ  
through orifices given as: hd  51 h  V
 CO   L
Where the orifice coefficient CO is a function of the plate thickness, hole diameter and the
hole to perforated area ratio.
From discharge coefficient (CO) plot, fig 11.34 (R.K Sinnot, 1986), Liebson et al, (1957),
for plate thickness/hole diameter =1 and Ah/Ap  Ah /Aa = 0.1, CO = 0.84.
190
2
 10  2.06
Hence hd can be estimated as: hd  51  67mm liquid
 0.84  221.67
Residual head
Methods have been proposed for estimating the residual head as a function of liquid surface
tension, froth density, and froth height. However as this correction term is small the use of
an elaborate method for estimation is not justified and the simple equation proposed by
Hunt et al (1957) can be used. (R.K.Sinnot 1986)
12.5  10 3 12.5  10 3
hr    56mm liquid
L 221.67
11.7.1 Total plate pressure drop, ht
ht  hd  hw  hw   hr  67  50  19  56  192mm liquid
Downcomer liquid back-up
Downcomer pressure loss; assume the height of apron, hap = hw – 10 = 40mm
Then area under apron, Aap = lw x hap = 1.02 x 0.04 = 0.041 m2
As this is less than Ad = 0.17 m2, the head loss in the downcomer, hdc can be estimated
using the equation given by Cicalese et at, (1947)
2
 L 
hdc  166 wd 
  L Am 
Where: Lwd = Liquid flow rate in the downcomer, kg/s
Am = either the downcomer area Ad or the clearance area under the downcomer Aap;
whichever is smaller, m2
191
2
 1.38 
hdc  166  3.83  4mm
 221.67  0.041
Back-up in Downcomer
In terms of clear liquid the downcomer back-up, hb, is given by:
hb   hw  how   ht  hdc ...................................................................................(21)
hb  hw  hw   ht  hdc  50  19  192  4  265mm  0.27m
0.22 
1
plate spacing  weir height  and hence the tray spacing is acceptable.
2
11.7.2 Check residence time
A time of at least 3 seconds is recommended.
Ad hb  L 0.17  0.27  221.67

Downcomer residence time is given by: t r   tr   7.4s
Lwd 1.38
The residence time, tr = 7.4s is well above 3 seconds and hence indicative of a satisfactory
result.
11.7.3 Check Entrainment
As a rough guide the upper limit of can be taken as 0.1; below this figure the effect on
efficiency will be small.
The percentage flooding is given by:
u v actual velocity based on net area 

Percentage flooding 
uf
192
maximum volumetric flow 0.98
uv    0.82m / s
net area 1.2
0.82
Percentage flooding =  0.83  83% FLV = 0.07
0.99
From Fig. 11.29 (R.K. Sinnot, 1986), fractional entrainment, = 0.04 which is less than the
upper limit of 0.1, hence satisfactory.
Perforated Area
Using the cartridge-type construction, assume: 50 mm unperforated strip round plate edge;
lw
50 mm wide calming zones. From Fig. 11.32 (Sinnot, 1986) and at  0.76 , c  99 0
Dc
Where θc = angle subtended by chord
Angle subtended at plate edge by unperforated strip = 180  99  810
Mean length, unperforated edge strips = 1.34  50  10 3  

81
 1.82m
180
Area of unperforated edge strips = 50  10 3 1.82  0.091m 2
Mean length of calming zone, approximate = weir length + width of unperforated strip
= 1.02 + 50 x 10-3 = 1.07 m
Area of calming zones = 2 (1.07 x 50 x 10-3) = 0.107 m2
Total area for perforations, Ap = 1.0 – (0.107 + 0.091) = 0.802 m2
193
Hole Pitch
The hole pitch (distance between the hole centres) lp should not be less than 2.0 hole
diameters, and the normal range will be 2.5 to 4.0 diameters. Square and equilateral
triangular patterns are used; triangular is used in this design.
2
A d 
For an equilateral triangular pitch: h  0.9 h 
Ap  l p 
2
0.1 3 0.9  32  0.802
Where lp denotes the hole pitch   0.9   l p   8.06mm
0.802  l p  0.1
lp = 8.06 mm is in the range 2.5 – 4.0 hole diameter and hence a satisfactory result.
  dh2   3  10 3 
2
Area of one hole =   7.06858  10 6 m 2 Number of holes =

4 4
hole area 0.1

  14147.113  14148
area of one hole 7.06858  10 6
Design pressure
From the chemical design analysis, the design pressure is taken as 10% of the operating
pressure.
10
  3000  300kPa
100
Hence, the design pressure = 3000 kPa + 300 kPa = 3300 kPa
194
Design temperature
The strength of the materials decreases with temperature. The maximum operational
temperature used was -20oC (253 K). For design purposes, a tolerance of about 20oC is
allowed. The maximum operational temperature could therefore be pegged at 0oC (273 K).
For carbon and low alloy steel, a minimum allowance of 2.0mm should be used. (R.K.
Sinnot). Where more corrosion is expected a minimum of 4mm is allowed.
Wall thickness
If Di is internal diameter; e the minimum thickness required; f the design stress and Pi the
internal pressure, then:
Pi Di
e
2 f  Pi
Design stress (f) for carbon steel at the design temperature is 135 N/mm2 = 135000 kPa
(Table 13.2, Sinnot, 1993)
At bottom of the column, minimum thickness required is:
3000  2.34
e  0.026  26mm
2135000  3000
At top of the column, minimum thickness required is:
3000  1.34
e  0.015  15mm
2135000  3000
Adding corrosion allowance: Bottom = 26 mm + 2 mm = 28 mm plate
Top = 15 mm + 2 mm = 17 mm plate
195
11.8.2 Thickness of Head
Using a “standard” ellipsoidal head at the top,
Pi Di 3000  1.34
e   0.015  15mm
2 Jf  0.2 Pi 2  1  135000  0.2  3000
3000  2.34
At the bottom, e   0.026  26mm
2  1 135000  0.2  3000
Adding corrosion allowance: Bottom = 26 mm + 2 mm = 28 mm plate
Top = 15 mm + 2 mm = 17 mm plate
Conical Section
With Dc as the diameter of the cone at a point and α as half the cone apex angle which from
geometry is found to be 8.7o;
Thickness at top of the knuckle,
Pi Dc 1 30001.34 1
ek      0.0152  15.2mm
2 fJ  Pi cos  2135000  3000 cos 8.7
At the bottom,
30002.34 1
ek    0.0263  26.3mm
2135000  3000 cos 8.7
Adding the corrosion allowance: Bottom = 26.3 mm + 2 mm = 28.3 mm
Top = 15.2 mm + 2 mm = 17.2 mm
Length of thicker section
The length of the thicker section Lk depends on the cone angle and is given by:
196
Di 2.34
Lk    0.77m
4 cos  4 cos 8.7
Weight of shell
According to Sinnot, 1993, the approximate weight of the column, Wv is given by:
Wv  240Cv Dm H c  0.8Dm  t
Where:
Wv = Total weight of column excluding internal fittings such as plates
Cv = a factor to account for the weight of nozzle, manways and plate support ring or
equivalent fittings and it is equal to 1.15 for distillation columns. (R.K sinnot, 1993)
Hc = height of cylindrical section
t = wall thickness
Dm = mean diameter of column = t + diameter of column
Since the column diameter at the top is different from that at the bottom, the total weight of
the column is determined as below:
Total weight of shell = weight of bottom + weight of top
weight of top  240Cv Dm H c  0.8Dm  t  240  1.15  1.35712.1  0.81.357 0.017  84kN
weight of bottom  240  1.15  2.3686.9  0.82.368 0.028  161kN
Total weight of column = 161kN  84kN  245kN
197
Weight of Plate
Since the plate diameter at top is different from that the bottom, the weight of the plates is
determined as shown below:
Weight of plates = weight of plates at the top + weight of plates at the bottom
Weight of plates at the top = 1.2 kN x 1.4 x 24= 40.32 kN
Weight of plates at the bottom = 1.2 kN x 4.3 x 13= 67.08 kN
Total weight of plates = 40.32 + 67.08 = 107.4 kN
Weight of insulation
Mineral wool is used for the insulation because it is relatively cheap and also widely used
for insulating distillation columns (Nelson, 1963).
Density of mineral wool = 130kg/m3 (Nelson, 1993)
Thickness of insulation = 75mm (Nelson, 1993)
Approximate volume of insulation
 1.34 12.1 75 10 3    2.34  6.9  75 10 3  7.6m3
Weight of insulation = 7.6 x 130 x 9.81 = 9692 N
The weight of insulation is doubled to allow for attachment of fittings and moisture
absorption. (Nelson, 1963)
Therefore weight of insulation together with fittings is taken as: 2 x 9692 = 19384 N
Total weight = weight of shell + weight of plates + insulation weight
= 245 + 107.4 + 19.38 = 371.78 kN
198
Wind Loading
Take dynamic wind pressure as 1280 N/m2
Mean diameter, including insulation (using average diameter and average thickness)
Mean diameter = 1.84 + 2(23 + 75) x 10-3 = 2.04 m
Loading (per linear metre) Fw = 1280 x 2.04 = 2611 N/m
2611
Bending moment at bottom M x   19 2  471285.5 Nm
2
Analysis of Stresses
Pressure stresses
PDi
The longitudinal stress is given by:  h 
2t
Where:  h = longitudinal stress P = Design pressure = 3000 kPa
Di = internal diameter (avg.) of column = 1.84 m
t = wall thickness (avg.) = 23 mm = 0.023 m
PDi 3000  1.84

h    120000kPa  120 N / mm2
2t 2  0.023
The circumference stress is also calculated from the relation:
PDi 3000  1.84

L    60000kPa  60 N / mm 2
4t 4  0.023
Dead weight stress
199
The stress due to the weight of the vessel and the attachments are referred to as the dead
weight stress and is calculated as follows:
W
w  , where W is the total weight of the column
 Di  t t
371.78
w   2761.8kN / m  2.77 N / mm 2
 1.84  0.0230.023
Bending Stress
As a result of bending moments on the column, the column would definitely be subjected to
bending stress. The bending stress will be compressive or tensile, depending on the location
and it is given by:
M  Di 
b    t
Iv  2 
Where: M = total bending moment at the plane being considered
Iv = second moment of the area of the vessel about the plane of bending and it is given by:
Iv 

64
D o
4
 Di
4

Do =1.84 + 2 x 0.023 = 1.886 m = 1886 mm

Iv 
64
1.886 4

 1.84 4  0.0584m 4  5.84  1010 mm 4
471285500  1840 
b   10 
 23   7.6 N / mm 2
5.84  10  2 
The longitudinal stress is:  z   L   w   b , w is compressive and therefore negative.

200
 z (upwind)  60  2.77  7.6  64.83N / mm2
 z (downwind)  60  2.77  7.6  49.63N / mm2
As there is no torsional shear stress, the principal stresses will be z, and h.
The greatest difference between the principal stresses will be on the down-wind side.
Thus 120 – 49.63 = 70.37 N/mm2.
The value is well below the allowable design stress of 115 N/mm2 and hence satisfactory.
Elastic Stability
The critical buckling stress c is given by:
 t 
  2  10 4 
23 
 c  2  10 4    244 N / mm
2
 Do   1886 
The maximum compressive stress will occur when the vessel is not under pressure.
Thus maximum compressive stress = 2.77 + 7.6 = 10.37 N/mm2 and this value is well
above the critical and hence acceptable.
Column Supports
The supports must be designed to carry the weight of the vessel and contents, and any
superimposed loads such as wind loads. Supports should also be designed to allow easy
access to the vessel and fittings for inspection and maintenance. The height of the skirt is
usually between 2-3m. For this design a height of 2m is used.
In this design, a straight cylindrical skirt (θs = 90o) is adopted. The material of construction
shall be carbon steel.

201
Skirt thickness
moments imposed on it by the vessel; it will not be under the vessel pressure.
The resultant stresses in the skirt will be:  s (tensile)   bs   ws
 s (compressive)   bs   ws
4M s
Where = bending stress in the skirt =
 Ds  t s t s Ds
bs
W
= dead weight stress in the skirt =
 Ds  t s t s Ds
ws
Where:
Ms = maximum bending moments evaluated at the base of the base of the skirt
W = total weight of the vessel and its contents
Ds = inside diameter of the skirt at the base
The maximum dead weight load on the skirt would occur when the column is full of the
feed in liquid form at top and bottom conditions.
   
Approximate weight =   1.34 2  12.1  221.67  9.81    2.34 2  6.9  433.20  9.81
4  4 
Approximate weight = 163211.20 N = 163.21 kN
202
Total weight = weight of column + approximate weight of content =371.78+163.2 =535 kN
Wind loading = 2.61 kN
212
Using a skirt height of 2 m, bending moment at the base of skirt, 2.61   575.50kNm
2
As a first trial, take skirt thickness to be 20 mm
163.21  10 3
 ws (test)   1.40 N / mm 2
 1840  2020
371.78  10 3
 ws (operating)   3.18 N / mm 2
 1840  2020
Maximum ˆ s (compressive)  10.7  1.4  9.3N / mm2
Maximum ˆ s (tensile)  10.7 - 3.18  7.52 N / mm2
Take the joint factor, J as 1.0
Criteria for design:
f s J sin  135  1 sin 90  135N / mm2
 135N / mm2 is greater than the maximum stress (tensile) = 7.52 N/mm
2
f s J sin
t 
 sin  0.125  200000
20 
0.125E  s  sin 90  271.8 N / mm
2
 Ds   1840 
203
t 
0.125E  s  sin  271.8 N / mm 2 and is greater than the maximum stress (compressive)
 Ds 
Both criteria are satisfied, adding 2 mm for corrosion gives a skirt thickness of 22 mm.
Base ring and anchor bolts
1  4M s 
Ab    W 
N b f b  Db 
Where:
Ab = area of one bolt at the root of the thread
Nb = number of bolts
Fb = maximum allowable bolt stress also equal to the design stress
Ms = bending moments at the base
Db = bolt circle diameter
Mean diameter of column including insulation = 1.84 + 2(0.023 + 0.075) = 2.04 m
Circumference of bolt diameter = 2040π
According to Scheiman (1963), bolt spacing should not be less than 600mm and the total
number of bolts should be in multiples of 4.
2040
Number of bolts required at minimum bolt spacing =  11
600
Per the specifications, the number of bolts at minimum spacing = 12
Assume bolt diameter = 3.2m
204
Number of bolts = 12
2040
Bolt spacing =  534mm
12
1  4M s  1  4  575.5  10 3 
Ab    W     371.78   752mm 2
N b f b  Db  12  125  2.04 
4  752
Bolt root diameter   31mm

The total compressive load, Fb on the base ring per unit length is given by:
4  575.5  10 3 371.78  10 3
Fb    281  10 3 N / m
  1.84 2
  1.84
Take the bearing pressure as 5 N/mm2
The minimum width of the base ring, Lb is given by:
Fb 1 281  10 3
Lb   3   56.2mm
f c 10 5  10 3
205
Table 11.10: Summary of Mechanical Design for demethanizer
Parameter Value
Weight of shell, kN 245
Weight of plates, kN 107.4
Weight of insulating material, kN 19.38
Total weight, kN 371.78
Critical buckling stress, N/mm2 244
Maximum stress (compressive), N/mm2 10.37
Resultant longitudinal stress (upwind), N/mm2 64.83
Resultant longitudinal stress (downwind), N/mm2 49.63
Circumferential stress, N/mm2 60
Dead weight stress, N/mm2 2.77
Skirt height, m 2
Skirt thickness, mm 22
Number of bolts 12
Bolt area, mm2 752
Bolt root diameter, mm 31
206
CHAPTER 12
12.0 DESIGN OF DEETHANIZER
12.1 Problem statement
Design a distillation column (de-ethanizer) to separate C2s from C3s with propane and
ethylene as the main bottom product at a rate of 62.0737 kmol/hr at 40ºC and ethane,
methane, acetylene and ethylene as distillate at a rate of 832.3602kmol/hr at -34.95 °C
operating at 3000kPa.
12.1.1 Material balance
The material balance over the distillation unit has been prepared on the basis given in
chapter 4; thus in sub-section 4.9.
12.1.2 Calculation of vapour pressure and relative volatility
The relative volatility is taken as the geometric mean of the values at the column top and
bottom temperatures.
°
α ° , ....................................................................................................................................1
where,
PºA = vapour pressure of heavier key component (propane).
PºB = vapour pressure of lighter key component (ethylene).
= Relative volatility.
207
Table 12.1 Vapour pressure and relative volatility of propane and ethylene
Temperature (K) Vapour Pressure of Vapour Pressure of Relative volatility
C3H8 (Pa) C2H4(Pa)
248.05 2.2608×106 3.7808×106 1.6723
313 3.3714×106 7.2785×106 2.1592
Average relative volatility =α
12.1.3 q-line calculation
,..............................................................................................................................2
HV is the enthalpy of feed at dew point.
HL is the enthalpy of feed at boiling point.
HV is the enthalpy of feed at entering conditions.
12.1.4 Number of ideal plates
Assuming constant relative volatility, the number of ideal plates at total reflux can be
estimated by the FENSKE equation:
Where:
Nmin = Minimum number of ideal plates
208
xB = mole fraction of bottom product
LK and HK denote lighter component and heavy component respectively
xD = mole fraction of distillate
α = relative volatility of the two component
Nmin =
Nmin =
Therefore the minimum number of stages, Nmin = 21
12.1.5 Minimum and optimum reflux ratio analysis
α
,……………..……………………………………………………………………4
α θ
where , = the relative volatility of component i with respect to some reference component,
usually the heavy key,
Rm = the minimum reflux ratio,
xD = concentration of component i in the tops at minimum reflux
and θ is the root of the equation:
α
, ……………………………………………………………………….5
α θ
xF = the concentration of component i in the feed, and q depends on the condition of the
feed.
209
But,
= -1 = 1.75597
Most columns are designed to operate between 1.2 and 1.5 times the minimum reflux ratio
because this is approximately the region of minimum operating cost.
The Erbar-Maddox correlation which gives the ratio of number of stages required to the
number at total reflux, as a function of the reflux ratio, with the minimum reflux ratio as a
parameter was used here. Estimates of the number of stages at total reflux and the minimum
reflux ratio gives
Hence the number of plates is therefore 36.
For plate/tray efficiency, Eo = 0.59×100 = 59%
210
12.1.6 Feed stage location
By the feed stage location is given by;
, ...............................................................................................5
Where;
NR = number of stages above the feed, including any partial condenser,
NS = number of stages below the feed, including the reboiler,
B = molar flow bottom product,
D = molar flow top (distillate) product,
XF, MK =concentration of the heavy key in the feed,
XF, LK = concentration of the light key in the feed,
XD, HK = concentration of the heavy key in the top product,
XB, LK = concentration of the light key if in the bottom product.

0.206
N R  0.0666  0.04035  62.0737 
2
    
N S  0.56  0.0000072  832.3602 
= 4.552196 .........................................................................................................................6
........................................................................................................................7
Solving equation A and B simultaneously,
NR = 6.484 = 7 and NS = 29
211
Therefore the number of plates below the feed is 29. Hence the feed plate is at the 28th
plate from the top.
12.1.7 Height of tower, H
The height of tower is given is given by,
– , ……………………………………………………………………………8
Where;
N = Number of trays
Ts = tray spacing ( 0.6 m is specified)
Kd = safety factor = 1.3
H = (36-1) 0.6×1.3 = 27.3 = 27m.
12.1.8 Vapour and liquid rates at the top of the column
Material balance around the first tray of the column and the condenser gives:
……………………………………………………………………………….9
Where V and L are vapour and liquid rates at the top of the column
D = Distillate or top product
Now
Where:
212
R = reflux ratio
=2.1072+1=3.1072, but D = 857.2043kmol
V = 3.1072×857.2043 =2663.5052kmol/hr
Also /hr
Therefore vapour and liquid rate at the top of the column are 2663.5052kmol/hr and
12.1.9 Vapour and liquid rates at the bottom of the column
Assume a constant molal overflow at the bottom of the column, the total material balance
gives:
LB = VB +B……………………………………………………………………………….11
Where:
LB = liquid rate at the bottom of the column
VB = vapour rate at the bottom of the column
B = bottom product
F= feed rate
But
LB = L + F…………………………………………………….………………………….12
LB = 1806.3892 + 894.434 = 2700.8232kmol/hr
213
VB = 2700.8232 - 62.07372 = 2638.7495kmol/hr
Therefore liquid and vapour rate at the bottom of the column are 2700.8232kmol/hr and
12.1.10 Balances around entire column
Steady state energy balance around the entire column:
FhF + QC + QR = DhD + BhB……………………………………………………………..13
Assumptions:
 kinetic and potential energy terms are negligible
 work terms are negligible
12.1.11 Balances Around the Condenser
V = L + D, ……………………………………………………………………………….14
V HV + QC = DHD + LHL…………………………………………... ……………………15
Where:
HV = enthalpy of vapour at the top of column = -5468.588kJ/kgmol
V = vapour flow rate = 2663.5052kmol/hr
QC = condenser duty
D = flow rate of distillate = 832.3602kgmol/hr
214
HD = enthalpy of distillate = -2.405 kJ/kgmol
L = flow rate of liquid at the top of the column = 1806.3892kgmol/hr
HL = enthalpy of liquid at the top of the column = -5468.588kJ/kgmol
QC =DHD + LHL - VHV, …………………………………………………………………16
QC = [1806.3892(-5468.588)]+[ 1806.3892(-2.405 ] - [-5468.588 (2663.5052)]
QC = -195.4954138MJ/hr
From equation (16), QR = DHD + BHB - FHF - QC
Where:
QR = reboiler heat duty
HF = the enthalpy of feed = -6458kJ/kgmol
HD = enthalpy of distillate = -2.405 kJ/kgmol
HB = enthalpy of bottom product = -6458kJ/kgmol
D = flow rate of distillate =832.3602kmol/hr
QC = condenser heat duty = - 617.4183MJ/hr
F = feed flow rate = 894.434kmol/hr
B = flow rate of bottoms = 62.0737kmol/hr
QR =[832.3602(-2.405 )] +[62.0737( - 6458)] - [832.3602( - 6458)] –-195495413.8]
QR = 688.1685452MJ/hr
215
12.1.12 Determination of vapour and liquid density at the top and bottom
From calculations the vapour and liquid density of the column are as shown below
Table 12.2: Vapour and liquid density at the top and bottom
Property Top Bottom
Vapour density (ρV, 434.2564 450.9902
Kg/m3)
Liquid Density (ρL, 460.0943 482.8811
Kg/m3)
12.1.13 Determination of liquid-vapour flow factor, FLV
The liquid-vapour flow factor FLV is given by:
ρ
ρ
Where
Lw = liquid mass flow-rate, kg/s,
Vw = vapour mass flow-rate, kg/s.
FLV at the bottom = = 0.98913
FLV at the top = 0.6782
Therefore, the liquid-vapour factor at the bottom and top are 0.98913 and 0.6566
respectively.
216
12.1.14 Determination of flooding velocity
The flooding velocity can be estimated from the correlation given by [2]:
ρ ρ
,……………………………………………………………...….18
ρ
Where:
uf = is the flooding vapour velocity in m/s or maximum permissible velocity based on
bubbling of active area,
K1 = empirical constant,
V = vapour density
Using a plate spacing of 0.6m [1] and the flow factors at the top and bottom; thus
for FLV = 0.98913, K1= 0.035 (bottom) and
for FLV =0.6566, K1 = 0.046 (top)
Corrections for surface tensions:
Bottom surface tension = 0.1333N/m
Top surface tension = 0.000801N/m
Therefore:
Bottom, K1 = = 0.0541
217
Top, K1 = 0.048 0.0252
Hence,
Bottom uf = = 0.0144m/s
Top uf =
used. [1]
Hence design for 85 per cent flooding at maximum flow rate (uf) will be:
Bottom uf = 0.0144 0.85 = 0.01224m/s
Top uf =0.00615 0.85 = 0.00523m/s
12.1.15 Maximum volumetric flow rate
ύ ……………………………………………………………………………………..19
ρ
Where V = vapour rate, kg/s
Top; ύ
218
Bottom; ύ
12.1.16 Area required
ύ
……….…………………………………………………………………………..20
Where:
AC = column area
ύ = maximum volumetric flow rate
uf = maximum flooding flow rate
Top;
Bottom;
12.1.17 Determination of column diameter, dc
Column diameter:
……………………………………………………………………………21
π
Where:
AC = column area
Top; π
219
Bottom ; π
12.1.18 Liquid flow pattern
Maximum volumetric liquid rate,
ύ …………………………………………………………………………………..22
ρ
Where:
LB = liquid rate at the bottom of the column, kg/s
L= liquid density
Summary of chemical engineering design
Table 12.3: Column Design Specifications
Feed Temperature (0C) 6.005
Feed Pressure (kPa) 3006
Top Pressure (kPa) 3000
Bottom Pressure (kPa) 3000
Reflux Ratio(R) 2.1072
Minimum Reflux Ratio(Rmin) 1.7560
R/Rmin 1.2
Feed Stage 28
220
Minimum number of trays(Nmin) 21
Number of Actual Trays (N) 36
Tray Efficiency 59%
Height of column(m) 27
Condenser Heat Duty, QC, (MJ/h) -195.4954138
Reboiler Heat Duty, QR, (MJ/h) 688.1685452
Column diameter, m top 2.8265
Bottom 3.4584
12.2 Column internal selection, operation and design
The sieve tray is chosen for the purpose of this design because of its efficiency, wide
operating range, and ease of maintenance and cost factors.
12.2.1 Wier height
For columns operating above atmospheric pressure, the weir height will normally be
between 40-90mm; 40-50mm is recommended. Therefore a weir height of 50mm is chosen;
hw = 50mm.
12.2.2 Tray area
The weir height fixes the area of the down comer (Ad).
Net area = Column cross sectional area – Downcomer area.
221
An = Ac –Ad, ………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………23
For the top, An = 6.2745 0.075 = 6.1995m2
For the bottom, An = 9.9393 – 0.075 = 9.8643m2
Using , is read from Fig.11.31 [2].
Where;
lw = length of weir
Dc = column diameter
Thus for the top, lw = 2.8265 0.805 = 2.2753m
For the bottom, lw = 3.4584 0.805 = 2.7842m
12.2.3 Hole Diameter (dh)
A preferable hole diameter = 5mm. [2]
12.2.4 Tray thickness (tT)
A preferable tray thickness = 3mm
12.2.5 Active area
, ………………………………………………………………………...24
Thus for the top, Aa = 6.2745 2(0.075) =6.1245m2
For the bottom, Aa = 9.9393 2(0.075) = 9.7893m2
222
12.2.6 Hole area
, ……………………………………………………………………………..25
For the top AH =
For the bottom,
12.2.8 Maximum liquid rate
At the top = 14.4697kg/s
minimum liquid rate at 70% turn down =
At the bottom = 21.3354kg/s
minimum liquid rate at 70% turn down
12.2.9 Weir crest (mmLiquid), how
,…………………………………………………………………………26
ρ
where:
Lw = liquid flow rate, kg/s
Lw = weir lenght weir crest, mm liquid
12.2.10 Maximum how
For the top = 43.1960mm liquid.
For the bottom = 56.71893mm liquid.
223
12.2.11 Minimum how
Top, =34.0546 mm liquid.
Bottom, = 41.1666mm liquid.
Minimum rate =
Top, 50 + 39.0546 =89.0546 mm liquid.
Bottom, 50 + 39.1332 =58.1332 mm liquid.
The weep-point correlation,
K2 of the top is 30.8 and that of the bottom is 30.9 [1]
, .............................................................................................................27
ρ
minimum vapour velocity through the holes at weep point
ρ vapour density
hole diameter
For the top, =0.5970m/s
For the bottom, = 0.6018m/s
Actual minimum vapour velocity =
For the top, = = 24.3853m/s
224
Bottom, = = 22.7953m/s
This means minimum operating rate will be well above weep point.
12.2.12 Plate pressure drop
The total pressure drop is taken as the sum of the pressure drop calculated for the flow of
vapour through the dry plate (i.e. the dry plate drop, hd); the head of the clear liquid on the
plate (i.e. ); and a term to account for other, minor, sources of pressure loss, the
so called residual loss (hr).
ht = ,………………………………………………………………28
12.2.13 Head loss through dry hole
hd = head loss across the dry hole
ρ
, ........................................................................................................29
ρ
where uh =gas velocity through hole area
k1, k2 are constants
For sieve plates
k1 = 0 and
Cv = 0.7419
k2 = 50.8 / 0.74192 = 92.77
For the top, uh = 0.1254m/s
225
Thus mm liquid
For the bottom, uh =0.0502m/s
Hence
12.2.14 Residual Head
The simple equation proposed by Hunt [1] is used.
, ……………………………………………………………………………….30
ρ
For the top, hr = mm liquid
Bottom, hr = mm liquid
Hence ht =117.6008mm liquid for the top and 84.2379mm liquid for the bottom
12.3 Downcomer design
12.3.1 Head loss over downcomer apron
, ..................................................................................................................31
ρ
Take clearance, C = 0.5
liquid flow rate in downcomer kg/s
For the top,
Bottom,
12.3.2 Downcomer liquid back-up
226
+ , ………………………………………………………………32
For the top, 89.0546+177.6008+9.8335=276.4889mm liquid
Similarly the bottom is also 164.4842mm liquid.
Since these values are less than the tray spacing of 0.6m there will be no flooding in the
enriching section and stripping sections (bottom and top).
12.3.3 Residence time
Downcomer residence time is given by:
ρ
, …...…………………………........................................................………….33
is the residence time
is clear liquid back up
0 075 460 0943 0 2765

For the top tr = 0.7001sec
13 6275
Similarly that of the bottom is 0.18525sec.
12.3.4 Determination of entrainment
In operation some liquid droplets will be entrained and carried up the column by the vapour
flow, and this will reduce the actual, operating, efficiency. The dry-plate efficiency can be
corrected for the effects of entrainment using the equation proposed by Colbura (1936)[1]:
12.3.5 Estimation of perforated area
227
lw
At 0 805 for the top the and bottom c 91 thus angle subtended at plate edge by
Dc
unperforated strip = 180 – 91 = 89º
12.3.6 Calculation of the Number of Holes
Area of one hole = 1.963 x 10-5m2
0.0148
  753.95  754
Number of holes 1.963  105
Table 12.4 Plate Specifications
Active area, Ac Top 6.1245m2 Length of weir, lw Top 2.2753m
Bottom 9.7893m2 Bottom 2.7842m
Weir height 50mm dh 5mm

Hole diameter,
Downcomer area, Ad 0.075m2 Plate thickness 3mm
Hole area, Ah Top 0.61245m2 Plate pressure drop Top 117.6 mm liquid
Bottom 0.97893m2 Bottom 84.2379 mm liquid
Net area, (An) Top 6.1995m2 Number of holes 754
Bottom 9.8643m2
Plate spacing 0.6m Downcomer area 0.07m2
Plate material carbon steel Downcomer material carbon steel
228
12.4 Mechanical Design
12.4.1 Maximum Design Pressure
Vessels subject to external pressure should be designed to resist the maximum differential
pressure that is likely to occur during operation. From the chemical design analysis, the
design pressure is taken as 10% of atmospheric pressure.
10
3000kPa 300kPa. Hence the design pressure is 300 + 3000 = 3300kPa
100
12.4.2 Design temperature
The strength of materials decreases with temperature. The maximum operational
temperature was -34.95 ºC for the top and 40 ºC for the bottom. For design purposes, a
tolerance is allowed. Hence the maximum operational temperature could therefore be
pegged at -45 ºC for the top and 85 ºC for bottom. [2]
12.4.3 Material for construction
The material selected must be compatible with the process conditions. [1] Carbon steel is
therefore used for the construction.
12.4.4 Design loads
A structure must be designed to resist gross plastic deformation and collapse under all the
conditions of loading. The loads to which a process vessel will be subject in service are
listed below.
The major loads include:
 Design pressure: including any significant static head of liquid.
 Maximum weight of the vessel and content under operating conditions.
229
 Maximum weight of the vessel and contents under hydraulic test conditions.
 Wind loads
12.4.5 Weight Loads
The approximate weight of the column, Wv is given by:
Wv 240Cv Dm Hc 0 8 Dm t ,.......................................................................................34
Where:
W v = Total weight of column or shell; N
equivalent fittings and it is equal to 1.15 for distillation columns. [1]
Hc = Column height = 27m
g = acceleration due to gravity = 9.81N/m2
t = wall thickness, mm = 5mm
Dm = mean diameter of column = t + Hc = 0.005 + 2.8265 = 2.827m for the top and
3.4589m for the bottom
Wv 240 1 15 2 827 27 2 827 0 005
21077 83286N for the top and 34763 44462N for the bottom. Therefore total weight of
column =21077.8386 + 34763.444462 = 55.8412831MN.
12.4.6 Weight of plates

π
Plate area = 4 0 62 0 28m2
230
The total weight of a plate are found by multiplying the plate area by 1.2kN/m
 weight of plate = 1.2  0.28 = 0.34kN
Therefore for 36 plates;
Total weight of plates = 36×340 = 12.240kN
12.4.7 Weight of insulation
for distillation columns.
Density of mineral wool = 130kg/m3
Thickness of insulation = 75mm
Approximate volume of insulation =   0.6  14  0.075  1.98m

3
Weight of insulation = 1.98 130  9.81  2.525kN
absorption.[1]
Therefore weight of insulation together with fittings is taken as 2 × 2525 = 5.050kN
Sum of Weights = weight of shell + weight of plates + insulation weight
= 21.077 + 12.24 + 5.050
= 38.367kN for the top and 52.053kN for the bottom, hence total weight = 90.420kN
12.4.8 Wind loading
Wind pressure for smooth cylindrical columns is estimated from the relation;
231
Pw = 0.05Uw 2,…………………………………………………………………………...35
Pw = wind pressure, N/m2
Uw = wind speed, km/h.
Average Uw = 150km/h [6]. To allow for tolerance, a value of 160km/h will be used.
Pw 0 05 1602 1280N/m2
The load per unit length of the column, Fw, is given by
Fw = Pw Deff, ……………………………………………………………………………..36
Deff = 2.8265 + 2(0.075 + 0.005) = 2.9865mfor the top and 3.6184m for bottom.
Fw 1280 2 9865 3822 72N m for the top and 4426.753N/m for the bottom. Hence
load per unit length of the whole column is 8249.473N/m.
Since the column would be free standing and mounted on skirt supports it would act as a
cantilever under wind loading.
Now for a uniform loaded cantilever, the bending moment at any plane is given by:
Wx2
Mx , ……………………………………………………………………………….37
2
W = load per unit length
x = column height
3822 72 272
Mx =1393381.44Nm for the top and 1613551.469Nm for the bottom
2
12.4.9 Wall thickness
232
To ensure that column is sufficiently rigid to withstand its own weight, a minimum wall
thickness is allowed. For column with diameter between 3-3.5m a minimum thickness of
12mm is required.[2] Since the column diameter is approximately between 3 and 3.5, wall
thickness of 12mm is used.
12.5 Design stress
12.5.1 Primary stress
The longitudinal stress is given by:
PDi
h , ………………………………………………………………………………..38
2t
Where:
h= longitudinal stress, N/m2
P = Design pressure, N/m = 3300kPa
Di= internal diameter of column = 2.8265m for the top and 3.4584m for the bottom.
t = wall thickness = 0.005m
3300 2 8265
h 932745kN m2 for the top and 1141272kN/m2 for the bottom.
2 0 005
PDi
L , ………………………………………………………………………………...39
4t
3300 2 8265
L 466372 5kN/m2 for the top and 570636kN/m2 bottoms.
4 0 005
The stress due to the weight of the vessel and the attachments are referred to as the direct
stress, w is calculated as:

233
W
w , ……………………………………………………………………………40
π Di t t
21077 8386
w is weight of the column w 474680.1kN/m2 for the top, similarly
π 2 8265 0 005 0 005
that of the bottom is 639636.4kN/m2. Hence total stress is 639636.4 + 474680.1 =
1114316.534kN/m2
and it is given by:
M Di
b t ,……………………………………………………………………….41
Iv 2
where:
M is the total bending moment at the plane being considered
Iv is the second moment of area of the vessel about the plane of bending moment
π
Iv Do 4 Di 4 , …………………………………………………………………….42
64
Do = 2.8265 + (2×0.005) = 2.8365m for the top and 3.4684 for the bottoms.
Iv = 0.0446m for the top and 0.0816m for the bottoms
b 44308592.54N/m2 for the top and 34291923.5 N/m2 for bottoms
The resultant longitudinal stress, z w L αb ……………………...…..................43
For compressive stress, w negative
Therefore, z upwind 3108434536 N m2
234
z downwind 2072721518N m2
As there is no torsional shear stress, the principal stresses will be z and k. The greatest
difference between the principal stresses will be on the down-wind side and this should be
below the maximum allowable of 141.92 N/mm2.
Therefore the metal can withstand the stresses imposed on it during operation since the
stresses are well below the maximum allowable stress.
12.5.2 Column support
The method used to support a vessel will depend on the size, shape and weight of the
vessel, the design temperature and pressure, the vessel location and arrangement and the
internal and external fittings and attachments.
12.5.3 Choice of support
The most suitable support for the column is the skirt support since the bending moment is
significant.
12.5 .4 Skirt support design
The height of the skirt is usually between 2-3 m. For this design a height of 2.5 m is used.
The skirt thickness must be sufficient enough to withstand the dead weight loads and
bending moments imposed on it by the column.
Thus, the resultant stresses, in the skirt will be:
s bs ws ………………………………………………………….………………..44
Where:
bs = the bending stress in the skirt given by;

235
4Ms
bs ………………………………………………………………………….45
π Ds ts ts Ds
Where,
bs = bending stress,
Ms = bending moment at the base
Ds = inside diameter of skirt (assumed to be that of column = 3.4584m)
ts = skirt thickness: as first trial, take skirt thickness to be 15 mm.[1],
Approximate weight π
4
1 52 28 1081 736 9 81 525074 2508 N
Therefore the total weight 525074 2508 481038 2 1006112 451 N
wx2
Bending moment at base of skirt .................................................................................46
2
Where, w = wind loading = 2131 2 N/m
x = distance measured from the free end = height of cylinder + height of skirt below apex
of cone (try 1.5 m) = 28 + 1.5 = 29.5 m.
2131 2 29 52
Therfore the bending moment 927338 4 Nm
2
4Ms 4 927338 4 103

bs 34 64 N mm2
π Ds ts ts Ds π 1500 15 15 1500
Also
W
ws ...................................................................................................... 47
π Ds ts ts
Where, ws dead weight stress in skirt.
236
W = Total weight of contents in column =90.420 kN
Ds = inside diameter of skirt = 3.4584m,
ts = skirt thickness, 15 mm.
1006112 451
ws 14 09 N mm2
π 1500 15 15
Maximum compressive stress = bs ws 34 64 14 09 48 73 N mm2
Maximum tensile stress = bs ws 34 64 14 09 20 55 N mm2
12.5.5 Criteria test for design

t
Maximum allowable compressive stress = 0 125E Ds sinθ ...................................................48
s
Where, Ds = inside diameter of skirt =3.4584m
ts = skirt thickness, 15 mm
θ = base angle of conical skirt = 90o
E = Young modulus of skirt material = 190000 N/m2
0 015
maximum 0 125 190000 sin90 103 01N m2
3 4584
This is far higher than the calculated design stress. The criterion is therefore satisfied.
Maximum tensile stress = fsJsinθ [1].
Where fs = maximum allowable design stress for skirt material = 103.01 N m2
J = weld joint factor = 0.85 [1]
237
θ = base angle of skirt = 90o
maximum tensile strength 103 01 0 85 sin90 87 559N m2
Both criteria are satisfied. Thus the design is satisfactory.
2mm is added to the skirt thickness to cater for possible corrosion. Design skirt thickness is
therefore taken as 17 mm.
12.5.6 Base ring and anchor bolt
The loads carried by the skirt are transmitted to the foundation slab by the skirt base ring.
The moments produced by wind and other lateral loads will tend to overturn the column;
however this will be opposed by the couple set up by the weight of the column and the
tensile load in the anchor bolts.
1 4Ms
Ab W ……………………………………………………….. ……………49
Nb fb Db
Where:
fb = maximum allowable bolt stress = 125 N/m2
Ms = bending moment at the base = 1613551 469 Nm
Db = bolt circle diameter = 2.2 m
238
W = weight of column =90.420 kN
Bolt spacing should not be less than 600 mm and the total number of bolts should be in
multiples of 4.[1]
2200π
Number of bolts required at minimum bolt spacing 11 519
600
1 4 1613551 469
Ab 9042 1895 54m2
12 125 22
4 453 3
Bolt root diameter = 49 127mm
π
π 2 2 103
Bolt spacing = 575 95 576 mm
12
4 1613551 469 90420

Fb 2 973363 35 N m
π 15 15
Fb 1 1195507 822
Lb 194 673m
fc 103 5 103
12.5.7 Actual width
LR Lf ts 50 mm
100 15 50 165 mm
Actual pressure on the concrete foundation,
239
Fb 1195507 822
fc 3 7 25 N mm2
LR 165 10
The minimum thickness of base ring is found by the ring as a cantilever beam and it is
given by:
3fc
tb Lr ……………………………………………………………………………….50
fr
3 7 25
tb 150 59 mm
140
Table 12.5 Mechanical Engineering Design Specification

240
Weight of Resultant 3108434536N/
shell, Wv longitudinal m2
stress
(upwind),
z
Design -45ºC(top) Resultant 2072721518N/

temperatur longitudinal m2
e 85ºC(botto stress
m) (downwind),
z
Weight of 12.241kN Circumferenti 1037008.5kN/m

2
plates al stress
Skirt 2.5m Direct stress 1114316.53kN

height
Number of 12 Load per unit 8249.473Nm

bolts length of the
column, Fw
Wind 1280Pa Total weight 55.841283MN

pressure column
Bolt area 1895.54mm Bolt spacing 576mm
Total 125N/m2 Minimum 194.673m

compressiv width of base
e load, Fb ring, Lb
Bolt 49.127mm Actual 3000kPa

diameter pressure,
Minimum 59mm Design 3300kPa

thickness pressure
of base
ring, tb
241
CHAPTER 13
13.0 DESIGN OF C2 SPLITTER
To design C2- splitter which will separate ethylene, acetylene and other hydrocarbon
exiting the de-ethanizer.
13.2 CHEMICAL ENGINEERING CALCULATIONS
SETUP
By aid of a diagram, a distillation column can be illustrated as shown below:
D=500.0665Kmol/hr
x(C2H6) =0.3970
x(CH4)=0.0008 x(C2H4) =0.994
x(C2H2)=0.0035 x(C2H2)=0.006
x(C2H4)=0.5987 T=262.3K
P=3200kPa
F=832.3662Kmol/h
T=238.05K B=332.24407kmol/hr
P=3080027kPa x(C2H6)=0.9942
x(C2H4)=0.0038
x(CH4)=0.002
T=265.099K
P=2000kPa
Figure 13.1 flow compositions entering and exiting the column.
242
Relative volatility(α)
To determine the relative volatility between the two substances,a formula is employed from
(R.K. Sinott,1986) to determine their vapour pressures.The relative volatility is taken as the
geometric mean of the values at the top column and the bottom temperature.
α=PBo/PAo
where PBo = vapour pressure of the light key
PAo= vapour pressure of the heavy key
Using the formula,
exp⌠C1+(C2/T)+C3x ln(T)+ C4x TC5⌡,……………………………………(1)
PBo (C2H4) = 31.44
PAo (C2H6) =25.28
Therefore , α = 31.262/25.28=1.24
Using the McCabe – Thiele theory,
y= αx/⌠1+(α-1)x⌡…………………………………………………………..(2)
Choosing sample values for x between 0.1 to 1.0(values are used to construct the
equilibrium curve and operating lines)
Table 13.1 sample values for construction of the equilibrium curve
243
X Y X Y
0.1 0.12 0.6 0.65
0.2 0.23 0.7 0.74
0.3 0.36 0.8 0.83
0.4 0.45 0.9 0.91
0.5 0.56 1.0 1.00
Figure 3 shows the Equilibrium curve relation between Ethylene and Ethane
244
For the McCabe – Thiele theory, only one component is being considered (predominantly
the lighter component) throughout the entire section.
By the aid of figure 1 above,
For ethylene compositionXD in top stream,
=0.994 ᴝ 1.00
For ethylene composition,XB in bottom stream,
=0.0038 ᴝ0.004
For the construction of the equilibrium curve, the compositions are :
XF=0.6 XB=0.003 XD=1.00
For construction of the q – line,
q=(HV –HF)/ λ……………………………………………………………………….(3)
where :
CP=heat capacity
HV=enthalpy of vapour flow
HF=enthalpy of feed
λ=latent heat of vapourisation of ethylene
HV=mvCpT but m=Mn=28x1.0=28kg(M(ethylene)=28)
Hv=28x0.994x87.461x262.3=638494.47
245
HF= mFCpT Cp=82.04
HF= 28x0.5987x82.04x238.05=327386.771
q=(638494.47-327386.771)/2182578.473=0.15 ᴝ0.2
For minimum reflux(Rm)
Rm/Rm+1=(XD-yI)/(XD-xI)
= 1-0.92/1-0.9
0.8=Rm-0.8Rm
0.80=0.2Rm
Rm=0.8/0.2=4.0
13.2.1Actual number of Reflux(Ractual)
Ractual=1.5Rm
=1.5x4
=6.00
Reflux ratio,RR
R=L/D and RR=Ractual
L(liquid flow rate)=?
D(distillate flow rate)=500.0665Kmol/hr
R=6.00
246
L=RxD=6x500.0665=3000.399Kmol/hr
Also,V=L+D , where V –vapour flow rate
V=3000.399+500.0665
=3500.4655Kmol/hr
For Rectification section,
Calculate for :
XD/(R+1)=1/(6+1)=0.14
Minimum number of plates or stages,Nm
From the Fenske equation,
Nm=log⌠(dL/1-dL)X(1-bL/bL)⌡/logαL,H………………………………….(4)
=⌠(0.99/1-0.99)x(1-0.003/0.003)⌡/log1.24
=4.417/0.093
=48.35 stages
Theoritical number of stages,N
Using Gilliland correlation,
R-Rm/(R+1)=6-4/6+1=0.286
247
From correlation,
N-Nm/N+1=0.35
N-Nm=0.35N+0.35 but Nm=48.35
N-48.35=0.35N+0.35
0.65N=48.7
N=74.92 stages
Feed stage location
By the feed stage location is given by;

0.206
N R  0.5987  0.0038  332.244 
2
    
N S  0.3970  0.0001  500.06 
Where;
NR = number of stages above the feed, including any partial condenser,
NS = number of stages below the feed, including the reboiler,
B = molar flow bottom product,
D = molar flow top (distillate) product,
XF, HK =concentration of the heavy key in the feed,
XF, LK = concentration of the light key in the feed,
XD, HK = concentration of the heavy key in the top product,
248
XB, LK = concentration of the light key in the bottom product.
0.206
N R  0.5987  0.0038  332.244 
2
    
N S  0.3970  0.0001  500.06 
= 4.47 .................................................................................................................................5
................................................................................................................................6
Solving equation A and B simultaneously,
NR = 63 and NS = 14
plate from the top.
Tray Spacing
Chosen as 0.5m using theory from Handbook of Chemical engineering calculations
13.2.2 Height Of Tower,H
H=(N-1)TsKd
Where:
N= number of trays
Ts=tray spacing(0.5m taken from Sinnot,2003)
Kd=safety factor(1.3 taken from Sinnot,2003)
249
H=(75-1)x0.5x1.3
=48.1m
13.2.4 Column Diameter,Dc
Chosen as 3.7m using F-factor method,
From correlation,Fc= 1.58Ib/(ft)(s2)
FREE AREA FOR VAPOUR FLOW
AF=W/(Fcρv1/2)………………………………………………………………..(7)
Where :
AF=Free area (Ft2)
W=vapour mass flow rate(Ib/s)
Fc=F-factor(Ib/(ft)(s2))
ρv=vapour density(Ib/ft3)
For W
Molar flow rate of ethylene
=498.378Kmol/hr=(30.754/3600)Ibmol/s
But n=m/M,M(ethylene)=28
m=nxM=498.378x28
m=13954.58kg/hr
250
by conversion,W=8.542Ib/s
From theory, ρv=2.085kg/m3.By conversion,ρv=1.402Ib/ft3
AF=(8.542Ib/s)/1.58x(1.402)1/2
=4.56ft2
FLOODING VELOCITY(at the top and bottom columns)
Flooding velocity can be estimated from the correlation given by Fair(1961)
Uf=K1(ρL- ρv)0.5/ ρv0.5 ………………………………………………………..(8)
where :
Uf=flooding vapour velocity in m/s or maximum permissible velocity based on bibbling of
active area
K1=empirical constant
ρv=vapour density
ρL=liquid density
From fig.11.27(R.K. Sinnot,1986)
Using a plate spacing of 0.5m(18in) and the flow factor,FLV from figure 11.27(Coulson and
Richardson.Vol. 6)
FLV=Lw/VW√ ρv/ ρL where
LW=liquid mass flow rate ,kg/s=332.24407kmol/hr=2.58kg/s
Vw=vapour mass flow rate ,kg/s=501.0665kmol/hr=3.89kg/s

251
ρv=density of vapour(ethylene)
ρL=density of liquid(ethane)=
13.2.5 Vapour density at top
Mv(ethylene)=0.994(28)+0.006(26)=27.98g/mol
Assume ideal gas law is applicable to vapour
Then PV=nRT=m/MvRT
ρvMv=(m/V)RT
ρv=PMv/RT
=101.325x27.98/8.314x262.3
=1.300kg/m3
ρL=0.994(497.1149)+0.006(2.9516)
=494.14kg/m3
Vapour density at bottom
MV=0.0038(28)+0.9942(30)+0.002(16)
=29.96g/mol
Assuming the ideal gas law is applicable
Then ρv=PMv/RT=101.325x29.96/8.314x265.099
=1.377kg/m3
252
Liquid density, ρL=0.994(330.3145)+0.002(0.6658)+0.0038(1.26377)
=328.338kg/m3
DETERMINATION OF LIQUID-VAPOUR FLOW FACTOR,FLV AT THE BOTTOM
AND TOP COLUMNS
The liquid-vapour flow factor FLV given by R.K. Sinnot
FLV=Lw/VW√ ρv/ ρL where
LW=liquid mass flow rate ,kg/s
Vw=vapour mass flow rate ,kg/s
FLV,bottom=0.7√1.37/328.33=0.04
FLV,top=0.7√1.3/494.14=0.035
Therefore the liquid-vapour factor at the bottom and top columns are 0.04 and 0.035
respectively.
DETERMINATION OF FLOODING VELOCITY AT THE TOP AND BOTTOM
COLUMNS
The flooding velocity can be estimated from the correlation given by (Fair 1961)
Uf=K1(ρL-ρv)0.5/ ρv0.5…………………………………………………………………(9)
Where Uf=flooding vapour velocity in m/s or maximum permissible velocity based on
bubbling of active area
K1=empirical constant
253
ρv=vapour density
ρL=liquid density
From figure 11.27(Sinnot 2003) using a plate spacing of 0.5m(18in) and the flow factors at
the top,
K1=0.06…………….bottom
K1=0.08……………top
Correlations for surface tensions ( =0.02N/m multiply K1 by( /0.02)0.23)
Bottom surface tension=128x10-3N/m
Top surface tension=171.28x10-3N/m
Therefore
Bottom K1=(128/20)0.2x10x10-2=0.14
Top K1=(171/20)0.2x9x10-2=0.13
Hence
Bottom,Uf=0.14√(328.33-1.37)/1.37
=2.16m/s
Top Uf=0.13√(494.14-1.3)/1.3
=2.53m/s
The flooding condition fixes the upper limit of the vapour velocity.A high vapour velocity
is needed for high plate efficiencies, and the velocity will normally be between 70 to 90%
254
of that which will cause flooding.For design, a value of 80 to 85% should be used(R.K.
Sinnot,1986).Hence design for 80% flooding at maximum flow rate(Uf) will be as follows:
Bottom Uf=2.16x0.80
=1.728m/s
Top Uf=2.53x0.80=2.024m/s
V
ύ  ………………………………………………………………………..(10)
V
Where V = vapour rate, kg/s
Base ύ =3.89/1.37=2.84m3/s
Top ύ =2.58/1.3=1.98m3/s
Area required
AC  ύ/ ủf ……….…………………………………………………………..(11)
Where:
AC = column area
255
ủf = maximum flooding flow rate
Bottom Ac=2.84/1.728=1.64m2
Top Ac=1.98/2.024=0.98m2
Determination of column diameter, dc
Column diameter:
DC 
 4  AC  ……………………………………………………………….. (12)

Where:
AC = column area
Top Dc=((4x0.98)/3.142)0.5=1.117m
Bottom Dc=((4x1.64)/3.142)0.5=1.44m
Liquid flow pattern
LB
ύL = ………………………………………………………………………..(13)
L
Where:
256
ύL = 2.58/328.338=7.86x10-3m3/s
From Fig. 11.28 (R.K. Sinnot, 2003) the flow pattern is chosen to be cross flow (single
pass) based on the value of ύL.
13.3 Condenser Heat Duty
Using the Underwood equation
QCOND = V (HV − HL)
where QCOND = heat rejected in the condenser
V = vapor flowrate at the top of the column
HV,HL = molar enthalpy of the vapor and liquid at
the top of the column
But HV=mCPdT= 500.06X28X87.46 X262.3=321209152.5
HL=mCPdT= 332.244X28X111.4X265.1=274732537.00
QCOND=500.06(321209152.5-274732537.00) = 2.32x1010
QR =L(HL- HV)
Where QR= Heat given out by the reboiler
L = Liquid flow rate at the bottom of the column
HL, HV = Molar enthalpy of the liquid and the vapour at the bottom of the column
But HL=mCPdT =332.244X28X111.4X265.1=274732537.00
257
HV=mCPdT = 500.06X28X87.46 X262.3=321209152.5
QR =332.24(274732537.00-321209152.5) = -1.5x1010
QFeed Temperature (0C) -34.95
Feed Pressure (kPa) 3080027
Top Pressure (kPa) 3200
Bottom Pressure (kPa) 2000
Reflux Ratio(R) 6.00
Minimum Reflux Ratio(Rmin) 4.00
R/Rmin 1.5
Feed Stage 13
Minimum number of trays(Nmin) 48.35
Number of Actual Trays 75.0
Tray Efficiency 78%
Height of column(m) 48.1
Condenser Heat Duty, QC, (MJ/h) 2.34x104
Reboiler Heat Duty, QR, (MJ/h) -1.5x104
Column diameter, m Top 1.117
Bottom 1.44
258
Choice of column tray
operating range, and ease of maintenance and cost factors. The sieve tray is the simplest
type of cross-flow plate.
Weir height
It is an important factor which determines the volume of the liquid on the plate and is an
important factor in determining the plate efficiency. A high weir will increase the plate
efficiency but at the expense of a higher plate pressure drop. For columns operating above
atmospheric pressure, the weir heights will normally be between 40-90mm; 40-50mm is
recommended, (R.K. Sinnot, 1986).
Since the column is operated above 1 atmosphere, weir height, hw, of 50mm is used.
Tray area
 Ad  0.12  0.50  0.06m2 , at 12 per cent
Net area, An= Ac – Ad = 0.98- 0.06 = 0.92m2
Ad
Using 100  12 , Ad/ Ac x 100 = 6.12
AC
lw
equivalent  0.76 is read from Fig.11.31 (R.K. Sinnot, 1986).
DC
Where lw = length of weir
259
For top column
lw = 0.76 x 1.117 = 0.848m
For bottom column
lw= 0.76x1.44=1.09m
Value of hole diameter, d h and plate thickness are 5mm and 5mm respectively.
Active area, Aa= Ac -2Ad = 0.98 – 2(0.06) = 0.86m2
Hole area, Ah = 0.1Aa= 0.1x 0.86 = 0.086m2
13.4 Checking weeping
The lower limit of the operating range occurs when liquid leakage through the plate
becomes excessive. This is known as the weep point. The vapour velocity at the weep point
is the operating rate the vapour flow velocity is still and well above the weep point.
 14090.52 
Maximum liquid rate     3.91kg / s
 3600 
Minimum liquid rate, at 70 per cent turn-down  0.7  3.91  2.74kg / s
how=750(Lw/(ρLlw))2/3…………………………………………………………(14)
where:
Lw= liquid flow rate,kg/s
260
lw =weir length
how=weir crest,mm liquid
Maximum how
For top column=750(3.91/(264.615x0.848))2/3=50.4mm liquid
For bottom column=750(3.91/(264.615x1.09))2/3=42.6mm liquid
Also minimum how
For top column= 750(2.74/(264.615x0.848))2/3=39.76mm liquid
For bottom column=750(2.74/(264.615x1.09))2/3=33.64mm liquid
Hence at minimum rate, hw + how
For top column = 50 + 39.76= 89.76mm
For bottom column=50+33.64=83.64mm
From Fig. 11.30, the weep-point correlation Eduljee (1959), K2 = 30.4
Also;
uh=(K2- 0.9(25.4-dh))/ ρv0.5…………………………………………………….(15)
uh= minimum vapour velocity through the holes at weep point
ρv=vapour density
dh= hole diameter,mm
uh=(30.4-0.90(25.4-0.0055))/1.6800.5=5.8m/s
261
Actual minimum vapour rate=minimum vapour rate/Ah
= (0.7 x3.91)/0.086=31.83m/s
Perforated area,Ap
The width of each zone is usually made the same; recommended values are: below 1.5 m
diameter, 75 mm; above, 100 mm.(Coulson and Richardson. Vol.6)
Therefore chosen diameter is 1.4m.
Ap=πd2/4...........................................................................................................(16)
=3.142x(1.42)/4
=1.5m2
Dry Plate Drop
Maximum vapour velocity through holes:
uh=3.91/0.105=37.2m/s
through orifices given as:
2
u  
hd  51  h  V ………………………………………………………………. (17)
 CO   L
Where the orifice coefficient CO is a function of the plate thickness, hole diameter, and the
262
for plate thickness/hole diameter =1 and Ah/Ap  Ah /Aa = 0.06  0.1, CO = 0.84. Hence hd
can be estimated as:
=51(37.2/0.84)2x(0.974/264.61)
=368mmliquid
=0.3mliquid
Residual Head
Methods have been proposed for estimating the residual head as a function of liquid surface
tension, froth density, and froth height. However as this correction term is small the use of
an elaborate method for estimation is not justified and the simple equation proposed by
Hunt et al (1957) can be used. (R.K.Sinnot 1986)
hr=12.5x103/ρL
hr=12.5x103/264.61=47.23mmliquid……………………………………………(18)
Total plate pressure drop, ht
ht  hd   hw  how   hr ……………………………………… ……………….(19)
For top column=368+(50+39.76)+47.23=504.99mmliquid
ht = 9.81x504.99x10-3x58=287.33Pa
For bottom column=368+(50+33.64)+47.23=498.87mmliquid
ht = 9.81x498.87x10-3x58=283.84Pa
263
Downcomer design
Downcomer pressure loss
Assume the height of apron, hap = hw – 10 = 40mm
Then area under apron, Aap = lw x hap
For top column= 0.848 x 0.04 = 0.03m2
For bottom column=1.09x0.04=0.04m2
As these values are less than Ad  0.06m2 , the head loss in the downcomer, hdc can be
estimated using the equation given by Cicalese et at, (1947)
 L 
hdc  166  wd  .................................................................................................(20)
  L Am 
where:
L wd  liquid flow rate in downcomer, kg/s
A m  either the downcomer area Ad or the clearance area under the downcomer A ap :
whichever is the smaller, m 2
hdc= 166(3.91/(264.615x0.06))=40.88mm
hb   hw  how   ht  hdc ...................................................................................(21)
For top column hb=(50+39.76) +287.33+40.88
= 417.97mm
264
= 0.42m.
For bottom column hb=(50+33.64) +283.84+40.88
=408.36mm
=0.41m
13.5 Residence time
Ad hbc  L
tr  .....................................................................................................(22)
Lwd
where:
tr  residence time
h bc  clear liquid back-up
tr=( 0.06x0.4x264.615)/3.91=1.62s
Determination of entrainment
Entrainment must therefore be reduced to a minimum amount such that it will not exceed
0.1 moles liquid per mole of gas. This can be estimated from the correlation given by Fair
(1961), which gives the fractional entrainment  (kg/kg gross flow) as a function of liquid-
vapour factor FLV, with percentage approach to flooding as a parameter.
un actual velocity  based on net area 

Percentage flooding = ………………… (23)
uf
265
Actual percentage flooding for design area
5.59
un   3.63m / s un= 3.91/1.54=2.54m/s
1.54
3.63
Per cent flooding   87, FLV  0.05 =2.54/4.24=60 FLV =0.03
4.24
From Fig. 11.28 (R.K. Sinnot, 2003), fractional entrainment =0.06 which is less than
the upper limit of 0.1, hence satisfactory.
Estimation of perforated area
lw
From Fig. 11.32 (R.K. Sinnot, 2003), at  0.76
DC
C  990
Where C  angle subtended by chord
angle subtended at plate edge by unperforated strip = 180 – 99 = 810
Mean length, unperforated edge strips = (3.7-50X10-3)πX81/180=5.16m
Area of unperforated edge strips = 50x10-3x5.16=0.26m2
Area of calming zones= 2(50x10-3)x(2.81-2x50x10-3)=0.271m2
Total area available for perforation AP=1.48-(0.26+0.271)=0.949m2
Ah/Ap=0.148/0.949=0.16
266
lp
From Fig. 11.33 (R.K. Sinnot, 2003),  2.7, satisfatory, within 2.5 to 4.0
dh
Where:
lp = the hole pitch (distance between the hole centers)
lp=dh x2.7=5x2.7=13.5mm
Calculation of the Number of Holes
Area of one hole = 1.963 x 10-5m
0.0148
Number of holes   753.95  754
1.963  105
Table 13.3: Plate Specifications
Plate I.D. 1.48m Length of weir, lw(top) 0.848m
Length of weir, lw(top) 1.09m
Weir height 0.005m Hole diameter, d h 5mm
Net area, (An) 1.112m2 Active area, Ac 0.98m2
Hole area, Ah 0.086m2 Hole pitch, lp 13.5mm
Plate spacing 0.5m Active holes 754
Turn-down 70% max. rate Plate pressure drop(top) 287.33Pa
Plate pressure drop(bottom) 283.84Pa
Plate material Mild steel Downcomer material Mild steel
267
13.7 Mechanical design of binary distillation column
Design pressure
design pressure is taken as 10% of the operating pressure.
10
  101.3  10.13kPa
100
hence Design Pressure =10.13 + 101.3 =111.43 kPa
Design temperature
temperature was 104oC. For design purposes, a tolerance of about 20oC is allowed. The
maximum operational temperature could therefore be pegged at 125oC.
Corrosion allowance
Weight Loads
W v  240Cv Dm  H c  0.8( Dm ) t
……………………………………………………(24)
Where:

268
Hc = Column height = 48.1m
Dm = mean diameter of column = t + diameter of column(top) = 0.005 + 1.117 = 1.122m
= t + diameter of column(bottom)=0.005+1.44=1.445m
Wv(top)=240x1.15x1.122(48.1+(0.8x1.122))x5 = 75.87kN
Wv(bottom)=240x1.15x1.445(48.1+(0.8x1.445))x5=98.22 kN
Weight of plates

  0.6   0.28m2
2
Plate area =
4
 weight of plate = 1.2  0.28 = 0.34kN
Total weight of plates = 75x0.34=25.5kN
269
for insulating distillation columns. (Nelson, 1963).
Approximate volume of insulation = =π x0.6 x48.1x0.075=6.7m3
Weight of insulation =6.7x130x9.81=8.544kN
Therefore weight of insulation together with fittings is taken as 2x8.54=17.08
= 44.13 + 25.5 + 17.08
= 86.71kN
Wind loading
Pw = 0.05Uw 2
Average Uw = 150km/h (Meteorological Department, KNUST). To allow for tolerance, a
value of 160km/h will be used.
270
 pw  0.05  1602  1280 N / m2
The load per unit length of the column, Fw, is obtained from the wind pressure multiply by
the effective diameter, Deff, (i.e. the outside diameter + an allowance for the thermal
insulation).
Fw = Pw Deff……………………………………………………………………………..(25)
Deff = 2.04 + 2(0.075 + 0.005) = 2.2m
 Fw  1280  2.2  2816 N / m
Wx 2
Mx =
2
………………………………………………………………………………(26)
x = column height
Mx= (2816x48.12)/2 =3257562.88Nm
Primary stress
PDi
The longitudinal stress is given by:  h  ………………………………………(27)
2t
271
Where:
 h = longitudinal stress, N/mm2
P = Design pressure, N/mm = 111.43kPa = 1.4bar = 0.14N/mm2
Di = internal diameter of column = 2040mm
t = wall thickness = 5mm
0.14  2040
h   28.56 N / mm2
25
PDi
L  .............................................................................................( Sinnot , 1993)
4t
2040  0.14
L   14.28 N / mm2
45
stress,  w , is calculated as:

W
w  ....................................................................................( Sinnot , 1993)
 ( Di  t )t
W  total weight of the column
57010
w   1.77 N / mm 2
 (2040  5)  5
and it is given by:
272
M  Di 
b     t  ..............................................................................( Sinnot, 1993)
Iv  2 
where:
M = Total bending moment at the plane being considered
I v = The second moment of area of the vessel about the plane of bending and it is given by:

Iv  ( Do4  Di4 )...............................................................................( Sinnot , 1993)
64
Do  2040  (2  5)  2050mm

 Iv  (20504  20404 )  1.68  1010 mm 4
64
275968  103  2040 
hence,  b   10 
 5   16.84 N / mm 2
1.68 10  2 
The total longitudinal stress,  z   L   w   b
According to Sinnot, 1993,  wshould be made negative if the stress is compressive.
 z (upwind)  14.28  1.77  16.84  29.35 N / mm 2
 z (down  wind )  14.28  1.77  16.84  4.33N / mm 2
According to Sinnot, 1993; the greatest difference between the principal stresses will be on
the down-wind side and this should be below the maximum allowable of 115N/mm2.
The greatest difference between principal stresses = 29.35 - (-4.33) = 33.68N/mm2. This far
below the maximum and it is therefore allowable.
Elastic Stability
The critical buckling stress  c is given by:
 t
 c  2 104  2
 N / mm ...................................................................(Sinnot, 1993)
 Do
 5 
  c  2 104    48.78 N / mm
2
 2050 
The maximum compressive stress that would occur when the column is not under pressure
would be equal to the dead weight stress plus the bending stress.(Sinnot, 1993).
273
The maximum compressive stress = 5.95 + 19.17 = 25N/mm2. This is far below the critical
and therefore acceptable.
Column Supports
The method used to support a vessel depends on the size, shape and weight of the vessel;
the design temperature and pressure; the vessel location and arrangement and the internal
and external fittings. Horizontal vessels are usually mounted on two saddle supports whilst
tall vertical vessels like distillation columns are mounted on skirt supports. The supports
must be designed to carry the weight of the vessel and contents, and any superimposed
loads such as wind loads. Supports should also be designed to allow easy access to the
vessel and fittings for inspection and maintenance. The height of the skirt is usually
between 2-3m. For this design a height of 2m is used.
Skirt thickness
The skirt thickness must be sufficient enough to withstand the dead weight loads and
bending moments imposed on it by the vessel.
The resultant stresses, in the skirt will be:
 s   bs   ws ……………………………………………………………………………(28)
Where:  bs = the bending stress in the skirt given by
4M s
 bs  .............................................................................(Sinnot, 1993)
 ( Ds  ts )ts Ds
 ws = the dead weight stress in the skirt given by:
274
W
 ws  ..........................................................................(Sinnot, 1993)
  Ds  ts  ts
Where:
Ts = skirt thickness
The skirt thickness should be such that under worst combination of wind and dead weight
loading the following design criteria should not be exceeded;
 ts 
 ws  0.125E   sin s .....................................................................(Sinnot, 1993)
 Ds 
Where:
E = Young‟s modulus = 200,000N/mm2
s = base angle of the conical skirt, normally 80o-90o
The maximum dead weight load on the skirt that would occur when the column is full of
water. (Sinnot, 1993)
 
Approximate weight =   2.042 14  1000  9.81  448.90kN
4 
275
=(π/4x2.042x48.1)
Weight of column = 57.01kN
Total weight  57.01  448.90  505.91kN
Wind loading = 2.82kN
 (14  2)2 
Bending moment at base of skirt=2.82    360.96kN
 2 
As a first trial, take skirt thickness to be 17mm.
4  360.96 103 103

 bs   6.44 N / mm2
   2040  17  2040 17
505.91103
 ws (test )   4.61N / mm2
   2040  17  17
57.01103
 ws ( operating )   0.51N / mm2
   2040  17  17
The maximum stress (compressive), ðs is calculated as: ðs
  bs   ws (test )  6.44  4.61  11.05N / mm2  11N / mm2
Maximum stress (tensile), ðs =   bs   ws ( operating )  6.44  0.51  6.95N / mm2  7 N / mm2
Criteria test for design
 17 
Maximum allowable stress  0.125  200, 000     sin 90  186.25 N / m
o 2
 2040 
276
2mm is added to the skirt thickness to cater for corrosion. Design skirt thickness is
therefore taken as 19mm.
Base ring and anchor bolt
1  4M s 
Ab    W  ........................................................................ Scheiman, 1963 
N b f b  Db 
Where:
A b  area of one bolt at the root of the thread, N/mm 2
N b  number of bolts
f b  maximum allowable bolt stress also equal to the design stress opf 115N/mm 2
M s  bending moments at the base, Nm
D b  bolt circle diameter, m
Mean diameter of column including insulation = 2.04  2  0.006  0.075   2.20m
Circumference of bolt circle  2200
According to Scheiman (1963), bolt spacing should not be less than 600mm and the total
2200
 Number of bolts required at minimum bolt spacing   12
600
Assume bolt diameter = 3.2m
Number of bolts = 12
  2.2 103
Bolt spacing =  575.96mm  576mm
12
277
1  4  360.96 103 
Ab    57.01103   399.52mm2  400mm2
12 125  2.2 
399.52  4
Bolt root diameter   22.55mm  23mm

 4  360.96 103 57.01103 

Fb     110kN / m
   2.04
2
  2.04 
Fb 1
Lb   ...................................................................................( Scheiman,1963)
f c 103
110 103
Lb   22mm
5 103
This is the minimum required; actual width  Lr  ts  50mm (Scheiman, 1963)
Where Lr is the distance from the skirt to outer edge of the ring.
Actual width = 76 + 13+50 = 139mm
Fb
f c'  ...............................................................................................( Scheiman, 1963)
LR
110 103
f c'   0.79 N / mm2
139 103
given by:
278
3 f c'
tb  Lr .......................................................................................( Scheiman, 1963)
fr
3  0.79
tb  79  10.28mm  10mm
140
279
Table 13.4: Mechanical Engineering Design Specifications
Weight of shell, Wv 44Kn Resultant 29N/mm2

longitudinal stress
(upwind),  z
Critical buckling 49 N/mm2 Resultant -4 N/mm2

stress,  c longitudinal stress
(downwind),  z
Weight of plates 25.5kN Circumferential 14N/mm2

stress
Skirt height 2m Bending moment at 361kN

skirt base
Number of bolts 12 Load per unit length 2816N/m

of the column, Fw
Weight of column 57kN Bending moment, 3257.56kNm

Mx
Wind pressure,N/m2 1280 Total weight 506kN
Maximum 11N/mm2 Maximum 7N/mm2

stress(compressive), stress(tensile), ðs
ðs
Bolt area 400mm2 Bolt root diameter 23mm
Total compressive 110kN/m Minimum width of 22mm

load, Fb base ring, Lb
Actual width of base 22mm Actual pressure, 0.8N/mm2

ring
Minimum thickness 10mm Total weight of 506kN

of base ring, tb column
280
CHAPTER 14
14.0 DESIGN OF ACETYLENE ABSORBER
14.1 Problem Statement
To design acetylene absorber for the absorption of 80Kg/hr acetylene from a gas phase of
ethylene and acetylene at an average temperature of 210C at 17atm with acetone as an
absorbent which flows counter-currently to the flow of gas.
14.1.1 Scope of design
 Components specification
 Calculation of liquid flow rate
 Calculation of gas flow rate
 Equilibrium relationship between the pollutants and solvent
 Height of packings
 Height of packed tower
 Type of packing
 Diameter calculation
 Support design
14.1.2 CONSTRAINTS
 Flooding limits
 Loading Limits
 Absorption factor
14.20 ASSUMPTIONS
 Assuming negligible absorption of other gases by the acetone.
281
 Once the process is followed by air stripping, the value of X2 will approach zero
 Since we're considering a new design with no serious pressure drop constraint, we'll
choose the more economical random packings.
 Incompressible and steady state fluid
 No dilution of the inlet stock
 No reaction in the column
14.3 Justification
Random packing absorber is chosen over the other types because
 It is cheaper in terms of cost of the type of packings used.
 It is economical as far as this pilot project is concern.
 It is simple to construct.
14.4 ACETYLENE ABSORBER
14.5 PROCESS DESIGN OF AN ACETYLENE ABSORBER
BASIS: 1 HOUR OF OPERATION
INCOMING TEMPERATURE: -100C, 2000KPa
Table 14.1: COMPOSITION OF INCOMING GAS (G):
Component mass flowrate mass fraction Amount in
(kg/hr) kmole/hr
Acetylene 76.7416 0.0059 2.9516
Ethylene 13919.217 0.9941 497.1149
TOTAL 13,995.958 1.0000 500.0665
282
OUTGOING TEMPERATURE: 200C, 17atm
Table14.2: COMPOSITION OF OUTGOING GAS:
Component mass flowrate mass fraction Amount in
(kg/hr) kmole
Acetylene 1.535 1.18 × 0.0059
Ethylene 13900.00 0.999882 496.423
TOTAL 13,901.535 1.0000 496.4345
INCOMING TEMPERATURE: 350C.1atm
Table 14.3: COMPOSITION OF INCOMING LIQUID (L):
Component Mass flowrate (kg/s) mass fraction Amount in kmole/s
Acetone 127.201 1 2.190
Table 14.4: COMPOSITION OF OUTGOING LIQUID (L):17atm
Component Mass flowrate mass fraction Amount in kmole/s
(kg/s)
Acetone 127.20 0.628 2.190
Acetylene 75.2066 0.372 2.8925
Total 202.4076 1 5.0825
OPERATING TEMPERATURE IN THE COLUMN: 210C,17atm
283
acaaaa
Figure 1.0: Schematic Diagram of Countercurrent Packed Bed Operation
14.5.1Material balance for countercurrent-flow absorber
Where:
Gm = total gas molar flow rate (mole/hr)
y = mole fraction of acetylene in gas stream
Lm = total liquid molar flow rate (mole/hr)
x = mole fraction of the acetone in pure liquid
The flow of gas and liquid does not change in the absorber
284
Rearranging the equation
For pure liquid stream, X2=0
At the minimum, liquid rate Y1 and X1 will be in equilibrium. Applying the Henry‟s law.
Henry‟s correlation (Hy) = 0.0082atm.m3/mol at 200C and 17 atm (Ray and Johnson)
Assuming 98% of gas absorption by the liquid, then
285
Gas Flow Rate =
Multiply the slope of the minimum operating line by 1.5 to get the slope of the actual
operating line: (sinott 2005)
14.5.2 ABSORPTION FACTOR (AF)
AF = absorption factor
L2 = molar flow rate of liquid
m = slope of the equilibrium line on a mole fraction basis = Hy
G1 = molar flow rate of gas
= 87%
14.5.3 DIAMETER CALCULATION:
286
Adopting the methodology as given in RICHARDSON AND COULSON, VOLUME 6,
page 587. First we calculate the liquid-vapour flow factor FLV,
From the Plot of entrainment vrs FLV,
K4 at flooding line = 0.64
Thus, the liquid flow rate is given as,
Ls = Kg/s
Density (ρL) = 790Kg/m3
The value for the absorption factor (AF) for most absorption processes is 0.5-0.95 (treybal,
1980)
Adopting the methodology as given in RICHARDSON AND COULSON, VOLUME 6,
Choosing the following packing, as given in RICHARDSON & COULSON, Pg 608
Material = 3‟‟ Pall rings metal
Nominal Size = 76 mm
Bulk Density = 273 Kg/m3
Surface Area = 66 m2/ m3
Packing Factor (Fp) = 52 m-1
Voidage, ϕ = 75
Then,
287
=
= 0.4545 Kg/m2s
Designing for a Pressure Drop of 32 mm acetone per m of packing, we have
K4 = 1.25
Then, Cornell‟s method for determining percentage flooding (sinnot 2005, page 618).
Percentage flooding at selected diameter:
% Flooding = = 71.55%
And,
Then, the cross section area required,
(Sinnott 2005)
Thus diameter calculated is,
Di =
288
Hence the Diameter which is calculated from this approach is m
14.5.4 HEIGHT OF PACKING CALCULATION:
Volumetric Flow rate ( ) of the entering gas is given by;
Gas Velocity at the bottom of the tower is given by,
Mass Flow Rate at the top of the tower is given by,
Volumetric Flow rate at the top of the tower is given by,
Gas Velocity at the top of the tower is given by,
289
0.415 m/s
Then Average Gas Velocity is given as,
And, Average Gas Velocity in the Packing,
Liquid Flow (Lf)
Given that,
Surface Area of Packing (SP) = 66 m2/ m3
Liquid Density =
Then, wetting rate (Kister (1992))
The Methodology adopted for the calculation of Height of the Packing is referred from the
literature by NORMAN W.S (ABSORPTION, DISTILLATION AND COOLING
TOWERS), Pg 214.
The Average Properties of the gas at the temperature are given as follows,
The Density of gas mixture )
Viscosity of gas mixture (µmix) =
0.9941
290
= 1.000445 × 10-5 Pa.s
Diffusivity of the gas (DF) = (sinott 2005)
Schmidt Number (NSC) =
As given in the literature,
The Reynolds number is calculated for the Standard Wetted Wall Column having the
diameter,
dw = 3.2447m
Reynolds Number (Re) =
Cited in the Reference NORMAN W.S (ABSORPTION, DISTILLATION AND
COOLING TOWERS), Pg 212, the co-relation is,
kG× (sinott 2005)
Now,
With (P/PBM) =1(approx), we have,
= 0.5087 lb mole / hr-ft2-atm.
Also given in the table of NORMAN W.S (ABSORPTION, DISTILLATION AND
COOLING TOWERS), Pg 210 & Pg 211
291
Partial Pressure of acetylene in the gas at inlet, P1= 0.0059atm = 597.82Pa
Partial Pressure at the Outlet,
P2 = =203.257 Pa
△
Mean Driving Force =
Acetylene absorbed =
Area of Packing =
Area of Packing/ft height = 66× =550.96 m
Height of Packing Required =
Therefore the height of the packing required is 9.2677 m
14.5.5 OVERALL HEIGHT OF COLUMN
H tower = 1.40 H pack + 1.02 D + 2.81 ((Ray and Johnson) (1.50)
Htower = 1.40(9.2677) + 1.02( ) + 2.81 = 19.09775 m
292
Summary of Chemical Engineering Design
PARAMETER VALUE
Height of Packings 9.2677m
Column Height 19.0977m
Wetting rate
Choice of packing 3‟‟ Pall rings metal
Packing size 76 mm
Type of installation Random
Absorption factor 87%
Percentage Flooding 71. 55%
Pressure of the Column 1722.525KPa
Diameter of Column m
Average Gas Velocity in the Packing
Cross sectional area
Henry‟s correlation (Hy) 0.0082atm.m3/mol
14.60MECHANICAL DESIGN OF ABSORBER
MATERIAL:
Carbon Steel
Inner Diameter of vessel, Di = m
293
Height of the packing required = 6.604m
Skirt height = 2m
Density of material column (carbon steel) = 7700 Kg/m3
Wind pressure = 90 Kg/m2
Permissible tensile stress (f) = 95N/mm2 for temperature (00C-500C)
Poisson ratio (v) =0.3
Thickness of skirt = 30mm
Young‟s modulus (E) = 207GPa (Sinnott 2005 pg 830)
14.6.1THICKNESS OF SHELL (e):
Thickness of shell (e), (sinnot 2005, pg 830)
Where,
Inner Diameter of vessel, Di = m
Working Pressure (p) = 1.09 x105 N/m2
For design pressure, take as 10 per cent above operating pressure. (Sinnott 2005,pg 835)
Design Pressure, p = 1.10 x 17.23x105 N/m2
= 1.89 N/mm2
Permissible Stress (f) = 95N/mm2
Joint Efficiency (J) = 0.5 (Sinnott 2005, table 9.21)

294
Most design codes and standards specify minimum allowance of 3.0 mm. (sinnott2005, pg
826)
Corrosion allowance(c) = 3mm = 0.003m
Hence, = 11.733mm
For column of diameter 2m-3m, the minimum thickness should be 10mm. (sinnott2005, pg
828)
14.6.2ELLIPSOIDAL HEADS DESIGN OF AN ABSORBER
Most standard ellipsoidal heads are manufactured with a major and minor axis ratio of 2: 1.
For this ratio, the following equation can be used to calculate the minimum thickness
required:
11.756 mm
14.6.3CRITICAL PRESSURE ESTIMATION
21 MPa
295
14.6.4OUT OF ROUNDNESS
Figure 2.0
So outer diameter of shell Do = 3.248 m + 2 x 0.03m = 3.308 m
Ovality (out-of-roundness) of a cylinder is measured by:
For vessels under external pressure this should normally exceed 1.5%. (Sinnot 2005, pg
841)
14.6.5PRIMARY STRESSES ON THE CLOUMN
MPa
296
Figure 3: stresses in cylindrical shell
14.6.6 Stresses in a cylindrical shell under combined loading
1.562 MPa
Total weight = Weight of vessel + Weight of Attachments
297
π π π
W= ρ ρ ρ
= 188 KN
The bending stresses will be compressive or tensile, depending on location, and are
given by:
The forces due to wind load acting on the lower and upper parts of the vessels are
determined as
Plw = k ρ1 h1 Do …………………………. (1)
Puw = k 2 h2 Do …………………………… (2)
Data:
Choosing cylindrical skirt support as the support for the absorber
Skirt support is used to support the absorber column.
Material to be used = Structural steel (ISO 800)
ρ1 = density structured steel = 7700 kg /m3
h1=2m D0=3.308m k=0.7 for cylindrical surface
Pressure due to the lower part of column (skirt)
Plw= 0.7×2×3.308×7700 =35,660 Pa
Pressure due to the upper part of column
298
Puw =0.7×7700×6.60×3.308 = 117,678.792 Pa
Bending moment due to wind at the base of the vessel is determined by:
ρ ρ
Iv the second moment of area of the vessel about the plane of bending
Therefore bending stress,
14.6.7 Torsional shear stresses (τ):
Torsional shear stresses resulting from torque caused by loads offset from the vessel axis.
The torsional shear stress is given by:
14.7 Principal stresses
299
Maximum allowable design stress down-wind side well =
14.7.1 Dynamic wind pressure
Wind velocity (uw) for most engineering design is 160Km/hr.
14.7.2 The loading per unit length of the column
Where the effective column diameter is: This includes the outside diameter plus an
allowance for the thermal insulation and attachments, such as pipes and ladders.
D0=3.308 m
An allowance of 0.4 m is mostly added for expansion (Sinnott 2005, pg 853)
300
14.7.3 Earthquake loading
ae = the acceleration of the vessel due to the earthquake,
g = the acceleration due to gravity,
W = total weight of the vessel.
(ae/g) is called the seismic constant Ce,
For most cylindrical vessels, the seismic constant is 0.08
14.7.4 Elastic stability (buckling):
Critical buckling stress:
71.076
14.7.5 Maximum Compressive Stress between bearing plate and foundation
Inner Diameter of the vessel, Di = 3.245 m
Outer Diameter of the vessel, Do = 3.305 m
301
14.7.6 Anchor Bolt,
Wmin=7.86 x 105 N (assumed)
= 596696.65
1 4Ms
Ab W
Nb fb Db
Where:
fb = maximum allowable bolt stress
Ms = bending moment at the base
Db = bolt circle diameter
W = weight of column
Bolt spacing should not be less than 600 mm and the total number of bolts should be in
multiples of 4.[Sinnott pg860]
302
00π
Number of bolts required at minimum bolt spacing
600
1 4 1613551 469
Ab 9042 m2
125 22
4
Bolt root diameter = mm
π
π 2 2 103
Bolt spacing = mm
14.8 Pressure exerted on the bolt
Pbolt = (fcmin x A) / N = 31.89 x 105N
303
Summary of Mechanical Engineering Design
PARAMETER VALUE
Type of Support Used cylindrical skirt
Minimum Shell thickness 11.733mm
Critical Pressure 21MPa
Weight of Support 188 KN
Inner Diameter of the vessel 3.248m
Outer Diameter of the vessel 3.308m
Maximum Stress on support
Number of Bolts
Material of Construction Carbon Steel
Elastic stability 71.076
Earthquake loading 15040 N
Torsional shear stress (τ) 0.37MPa
Bending stress ( 2.6 MPa
Ellipsoidal head thickness 11.756 mm
304
CHAPTER 15
15.0 DESIGN OF ETHYLENE COLUMN
15.1 Chemical engineering design of a binary distillation column
Fractional distilling of Acetylene in a mixture with Ethylene using binary distillation
column with ellipsoidal head.
The basis of the design of the distillation column is to produce pure Ethylene of
purity1.0ppm and Acetylene of purity 1.0x10-4 from a feed(F) rate of 13496.41774Kg/Hr.
the mass fraction of Ethylene and Acetylene are 99.99988% and 1.1838 x 10-4%
respectively. The feed entered the column at -10 oC and a pressure of 1atm.
15.1.1 Design of the binary column
Assumptions
 Solution in the column is well mixed and homogeneous
 Vapour leaving is pure Acetylene vapour at temperature of boiling solution and
operating pressure of the distillation column.
 The column is well insulated and adiabatic
 All of the heat transfer takes place in the condenser and reboiler
Stagewise analyse for an Hour operaion
Balances on fig.1
Basis: 13496.41774 kg of feed
Overall balance: F = D + B………………………………………….. (1)
305
Where:
F = feed
D = distillate or top product
B = bottom product.
Component Balance:
FX F  DX D  BX B .......................................................  2 
XD = mass fraction of distillate
XB = mass fraction of bottom product
XF = mass fraction of feed
Substituting values in equation (2):
For acetylene:13494.41774 (1.18381x0-4) = (0.999999)D + (1.01x0-6)B
Solving simultaneously gives B =13894.83353kg and D = 1.584212kg
Number of ideal plates
Assuming constant relative volatility, the number of ideal plates at total reflux can be
estimated by the FENSKE equation:
ln[ xD (1  xB ) / xB (1  xD )]
N min   1 ………………………………………….. (3)
ln 
Where:
Nnim = Minimum number of ideal plates

306
XB = mole fraction of bottom product
XD = mole fraction of distillate
α = PA/ PE (relative volatility of the two component)
PA = Partial pressure of Acetylene
PA =2769.6800KPa
PE =Partial pressure of Ethylene
PE =2250KPa
α =1.23
Average molecular Weight of mixture = MEXE + MAXA
Where ME = molar mass of Ethylene
XE = mass fraction of Ethylene
MA = molar mass of Acetylene
XA= mass fraction of Acetylene
The average molecular Weight of mixture = 28.05(0.9999988) + 26.06 (1.1838×10-6) =
28.0499Kg/kmol
Fraction of distillate (Acetylene), XD = 0.999999
Similarly, mole fraction of acetylene at the bottom, XB = 1.0×10-6
And mole fraction of Acetylene in the feed, XF = 1.1838×10-4
307
ln0.9999991  1.0  10^ 6 / 1.0  10^ 61  0.999999
Therefore Nnim = 1 
ln 1.23
Hence, Nnim = 110
Minimum and optimum reflux ratio
The Underwood‟s first equation is used to determine the minimum reflux ratio. It is given
by:
Rmin =
1
X / X   1  X D  /1  X F …………………………………… (4)
  1 D F
Where:
α is the relative volatility of the two components
Rmin is the minimum reflux ratio
XD and XF are the mole fraction of methanol in the distillate and feed
respectively.
 Rmin =
1
0.99999 / 0.11838  10^6  1.231  0.99999 /1  0.11838  10^6  3662
1.23  1
From studies, the optimum reflux ratio to use for lowest cost per year is between the
minimum Rmin and the total reflux. This has been shown for many cases to be at an
operating reflux ratio between 1.2 Rmin and 1.5 Rmin. (Geankopolis, 198…….)
Therefore, the optimum reflux ratio, R is chosen as
R = 1.2(Rmin) = 4394
308
Actual number of plates, N
From Gilliland‟s correlation given by:

N  N min  R  Rmin 
 f  ......................................................................................(5)
N 1  R 1 
(Coulson et al, 1983)
Where R is the optimum reflux ratio and N is the number of plates.
R  Rm
 1.83
R 1
For plate efficiency, Eo = 85%
N=Nmin/0.85
N=129
Location of feed plate
KIRKBRIDE‟S equation is used for the estimation of the number of plates above and
below the feed plate. The equation is given by:
m  B  X  X FD 
log    0.206 log   FF   …………………………………(6)
 p  D  X MF  X MD 
Where:
B = mass flow rate of bottom product
D = mass flow rate of top product
309
XFF = fraction of Ethylene in feed
XMF = mole fraction of Acetylene in feed XFD = mole fraction of Ethylene in top product
XMD = mole fraction of Acetylene in top product
m = number of theoretical stages above the feed plates
p = number of theoretical stages below the feed plate
m 13494.83  0.99999  1.0  10^ _ 6 

log    0.206 log      0.9998
 p  1.5977  0.11838  10^ 6  0.99999 
m
  0.9998
p
 m = 0.9998p………………………………………………………..…. (7)
Total number of plates, T = p + m……………….................................... (8)
Substituting equation (7) into (8) gives:
T = p + 0.9998p
 129 = 1.9998p
 P= 65
plate from the top.
310
15.2 Height of tower, H
For safety considerations,
 0.25m is added to the top tray
 0.5m is taken as the spacing between the draw off tray and the bottom of the
product. (Coulson et al, 1983)
Tray spacing =600mm=24in
H = (129*0.6)+0.75= 78.15m
Vapour and liquid rates at the top of the column
Material balance around the first tray of the column and the condenser gives:
V = L + D………………………………………………………. (9)
Where V and L are vapour and liquid rates at the top of the column
D = Distillate or top product
V
Now  R  1 (Mc Cabe et al, 1986)
D
Where:
R = reflux ratio
V
  4394  1  4395 , but D = 1.5842kg /hr
D
V=6962.6147kg/hr
L R 4394
Also    0.9459 L=6961.0305kg/hr
V R  1 4394  1
311
Therefore vapour and liquid rate at the top of the column are 6962.6147kg/hr and
6961.0305kg/hr respectively.
Vapour and liquid rates at the bottom of the column
Assume a constant molal overflow at the bottom of the column, the total material balance
gives:
LB = VB +B………………………………………………………………… (10)
Where:
LB = liquid rate at the bottom of the column
VB = vapour rate at the bottom of the column
B = bottom product
F= feed rate
But
LB = L + F…………………………………………………………….……. (11)
LB =20457.4482kg/hr
VB=LB-B
VB=6962.6182kg/hr
Therefore liquid and vapour rate at the bottom of the column are 20457.4482kg/hr and
6962.6182kg/hr respectively.
Balances around entire column
312
Steady state energy balance around the entire column:
FhF + QC + QR = DhD + BhB……………………………………………….. (12)
V=L+D
V hV + QC = DhD + L hL…………………………………………... ….. (13)
Where:
hV = enthalpy of vapour at the top of column =
V = vapour flow rate = 6962.6147kg/hr
QC = condenser duty
D = flow rate of distillate 1.5842kg/hr
hD = enthalpy of distillate = -2086.74kJ
L = flow rate of liquid at the top of the column =6961.0305kg/hr
hL = enthalpy of liqiud at the top of the column = -2086.74kJ
 QC  32614MJ / hr
From equation (11), QR = DhD + BhB - FhF - QC
Where:
QR = reboiler heat duty
313
hF = the enthalpy of feed = 102.55kJ
hD = enthalpy of distillate = -2086.74kJ
hB = enthalpy of bottom product = 102.55kJ
D = flow rate of distillate 1.5842kg/hr
QC = condenser heat duty = MJ/hr
F = feed flow rate = 13496.4177kg/hr
 QR  29833MJ / hr
Determination of vapour and liquid density at the top
Molecular weight of vapour MV = 0.99999(26.06) + 1.0*10-6(28.05) = 26.06g/mol
Assume the ideal gas law is applicable to vapour,
Then
M
PV = nRT  PV = RT
MV
M 
 PMV =   RT ,  PMV  V RT
V 
PM V
 V 
RT
Where:
T = Boiling point temperature of Acetylene = 357K
314
P = pressure of column = 5030kPa
MV = molecular vapour = 26.06g/mol
R = gas constant =8.314 Pa·m3/mol.K
V  vapour density
V  (5030 x 26.06)/(8.314 x 357) =44.1636kg/ m3
V  0.999999(7.61)+(5.5909)(1.x10-6)=7.61kg/m3
Liquid density = (1.0 x10 -6)(11.03329) +(0.999999 x17.2133)=17.2132kg/ m3
Determination of vapour and liquid density at the bottom
Molecular vapour, MV = 0.999999(28.05) + 1.0 x 10 -6(26.06) = 28.0499g/mol
Assume the ideal gas law is applicable to vapour,
M
then PV = nRT  PV = RT
MV
M 
 PMV =   RT
V 
PM V
 V 
RT
Where:
T = Boiling point temperature of Ethylene= 377K
P = pressure of column = 5030kPa
315
MV = molecular vapour = 28.0499g/mol
R = gas constant =8.314 Pa·m3/mol.K
V  vapour density
V  (5030 x 28. 0499)/(8.314 x 377)=45.0140kg/ m3
Hence the gas mixture is not ideal.
V  0.999999(5.5909) + 7.61(1.0 x 10 -6) =5.59kg/ m3
Liquid density, = 11.0339kg/ m3
Determination of liquid-vapour flow factor, FLV at the bottom and top
The liquid-vapour flow factor, FLV is given by:
Lw V
FLV  (R.K Sinnot, 1986)
Vw L
Where:
Lw = liquid mass flow-rate, kg/hr
Vw = vapour mass flow-rate, kg/hr
At bottom;
=2.091
At the top
=0.665
316
Therefore, the liquid-vapour factor at the bottom and top are 2.091 and 0.665 respectively.
Determination of flooding velocity at the top and bottom
The flooding velocity can be estimated from the correlation given by Fair (1961):
K1   L  V 
0.5
uf = ……………………………………………………….. (9)
V 0.5
Where:
uf = is the flooding vapour velocity in m/s or maximum permissible velocity
based on bubbling of active area,
K1 = empirical constant,
From fig. 11.27 (R.K. Sinnot, 1986), using a plate spacing of (24inch)
K1= 0.09…….bottom
K1 = 0.10…….top
Corrections for surface tensions:
Bottom surface tension = 56x10-3N/m
Top surface tension = 21x10-3N/m
Therefore:
317
0.2
 56  2
Bottom K1 =    9 10  0.11
 20 
0.2
 21  2
Top K1 =   10 10  0.10
 20 
Hence,
Bottom
uf=0.11((11.033-5.59)/(5.59)^0.5)
uf b= 13.5398 m/s
Top
uft =11.2352 m/s
used. (R.K. Sinnot, 1986)
Hence design for 85 per cent flooding at maximum flow rate (ủf) will be:
Bottom ủfb 13.5398 x 0.8500=11.5088m/s
Top ủft =11.2352 x 0.8500=9.55m/s
318
V
ύ  ………………………………………………………………………..(10)
V
Where V = vapour rate, kg/s m3
Base ύ = (6962.6182/5.59)
=124.55488 m3 / hr
Top ύ = (6961.0305/7.61)
=91.7215 m3 / hr
15.3 Area required
AC  ύ/ ủf ……….…………………………………………………………..(11)
Where:
AC = column area
ủf = maximum flooding flow rate
Bottom
319
AC  (124.5548/11.5088)=10.8225m2
Top
AC  (91.7215/9.55)
=9.5120m2
15.3.1 Determination of column diameter, dc
Column diameter:
DC 
 4  AC  ……………………………………………………………….. (12)

Where:
AC = column area
Top
=(4 x9,51220/3.124)^0.5
=3.4801m =3.5m
Bottom
=(4 x 10.8225/3.142)^0.5
3.7120m
=3.7m
For the design
320
Dc =3.6m
Liquid flow pattern
LB
ύL = ………………………………………………………………………..(13)
L
Where:
ύL =(20457.4482/11.033)
=1854.2054 m3 /hr
=0.5151m3s-1
15.4 Summary of chemical engineering design
321
Feed Temperature (0C) -30
Feed Pressure (kPa) 1atm
Top Pressure (kPa) 0.999atm
Bottom Pressure (kPa) 1.001atm
Reflux Ratio(R) 4394
Minimum Reflux Ratio(Rmin) 3662
R/Rmin 1.2
Feed Stage 65
Minimum number of trays(Nmin) 110
Number of Actual Trays 129
Tray Efficiency 85%
Height of column(m) 78.2m
Condenser Heat Duty, QC, (MJ/h) -32614
Reboiler Heat Duty, QR, (MJ/h) 29833
Ethylene purity 99.9999%
Column diameter, m 3.6
322
15.5 Choice of column tray
operating range, and ease of maintenance and cost factors. The sieve tray is the simplest
type of cross-flow plate.
Weir height
For columns operating above atmospheric pressure, the weir heights will normally be
between 40-90mm; 40-50mm is recommended, (R.K. Sinnot, 1986).
Since the column is operated at 1 atmosphere, weir height, hw, of 0.050m is used.
Tray area
Ad =10.1672 x 0-05=0.5084m2 at 12 per cent
Net area, AN = AC-Ad =10.1672-0.5084
AN =9.6588m2
Ad l
Using 100  12 , equivalent w  0.76 is read from Fig.11.31 (R.K. Sinnot, 1986).
AC DC
Where lw = length of weir
lw =0.76 x 3.6m =2.7720m
Value of hole diameter, d h and plate thickness are 0.05m and 5mm respectively.
323
dh =0.05m
Active area, Aa = AC -2Ad =9.1504m2
Hole area, Ah =0.1Aa
Ah=0.91504m2
Checking weeping
The hole area must be chosen so that at the lowest operating rate the vapour flow velocity is
still and well above the weep point.
Maximum liquid rate ύL = 1854.2054m3/hr
Minimum liquid rate =70% of ύL (minimum liquid rate at 70% turn –down)
=1297.9438m3/hr
=1.3535m3s-1
How =750(LW/  L lw) 2/3
Where;
LW =liquid flow rate, kg/hr
Lw =weir length,m
how =weir crest, mm
Maximum how
LW=1.9336kg/s
324
How =750(1.9336/(17.2132 x 2.772))2/3
=88.48mm
Minimum how = 750(1.3535/17.2132 x 2.772)2/3
=69mm
Hence at minimum rate,hw + how =120mm
From Fig. 11.30, the weep-point correlation Eduljee (1959), K2 = 31.4
Also;
= minimum vapour velocity through the holes at weep point
dh = hole diameter.mm
=(31.4-0.90(25.4 -0.05)/(5.59) 0.5)
=8.63m/s
minimum vapour rate

Actual minimum vapour velocity = ……………………… (16)
Ah
=18ms-1
325
Dry Plate Drop
Maximum vapour velocity through holes:
=38m/s
through orifices given as:
2
u  
hd  51  h  V ………………………………………………………………. (17)
 CO   L
Where the orifice coefficient CO is a function of the plate thickness, hole diameter, and the
for plate thickness/hole diameter =1 and Ah/Ap  Ah /Aa = 0.1, CO = 0.84. Hence hd can be
estimated as:
2
 37.8  0.74
= 51   69.5mm liquid
 0.84  1100
Residual Head
12.5  103
hr 
L
12.5  103
hr   11.4mm liquid...........................................................................(18)
1100
326
Total plate pressure drop, ht
ht  hd   hw  how   hr ……………………………………… ……………….(19)
= 69.5   50  15  11.4  145.9mm liquid
ht  9.81145.9 103  23  32.92 Pa
Downcomer design
Downcomer pressure loss
Assume the height of apron, hap = hw – 10 = 40mm
Then area under apron, Aap = lw x hap = 1.22 x 0.04 = 0.049m2
As this is less than Ad =0.5084m2 the head loss in the downcomer, hdc can be estimated
using the equation given by Cicalese et at, (1947)
 L 
hdc  166  wd  .................................................................................................(20)
  L Am 
where:
L wd  liquid flow rate in downcomer, kg/s
A m  either the downcomer area Ad or the clearance area under the downcomer A ap :
whichever is the smaller, m 2
 3.91 
hdc  166   12.0mm
1100  0.049 
327
hb   hw  how   ht  hdc ...................................................................................(21)
hb   50  15  145.9  12
 222.9mm
= 0.22m
Residence time
Ad hbc  L
tr  .....................................................................................................(22)
Lwd
where:
tr  residence time
h bc  clear liquid back-up
0.06  0.22 1100

tr   3.7 s
3.91
Determination of entrainment
un actual velocity  based on net area 

Percentage flooding = ………………… (23)
uf
Actual percentage flooding for design area
5.59
un   3.63m / s
1.54
328
3.63
Per cent flooding   87, FLV  0.05
4.24
From Fig. 11.28 (R.K. Sinnot, 1986), fractional entrainment   0.08 which is less than the
upper limit of 0.1, hence satisfactory.
Estimation of perforated area
lw
From Fig. 11.32 (R.K. Sinnot, 1986), at  0.76
DC
C  990
Where C  angle subtended by chord
angle subtended at plate edge by unperforated strip = 180 – 99 = 810
Mean length, unperforated edge strips =  2.04  50 103   

81
 2.81m
180
Area of unperforated edge strips = 50 103  2.81  0.141m2
Area of calming zones 2  50 103   1.22  2  50 103   0.117m2
Total area available for perforation AP  1.48   0.141  0.117   1.222m2
Ah 0.148
  0.121
Ap 1.222
lp
From Fig. 11.33 (R.K. Sinnot, 1986),  2.7, satisfatory, within 2.5 to 4.0
dh
Where:
329
lp = the hole pitch (distance between the hole centers)
l p  d h  2.8  5  2.7  13.5mm
Calculation of the Number of Holes
Area of one hole = 1.963 x 10-3m2
Number of holes =AC/ Area of a hole
=48989
Table 15.2: Plate Specifications
Plate I.D. 3.6m Length of weir, lw 2.772m
Weir height 0.5m Hole diameter, d h 50mm
Net area, (An) 9.6588m2 Active area, Ac 10.1672m2
Hole area, Ah 0.00196m2 Hole pitch, lp 13.5mm
Plate spacing 0.6m Active holes 48989
Turn-down 70% max. rate Plate pressure drop 146mm
liquid=32.92Pa
Plate material Mild steel Downcomer material Mild steel
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15.6 Mechanical design of binary distillation column
15.6.1 Design pressure
design pressure is taken as 10% of the operating pressure.
10
  101.3  10.13kPa
100
hence Design Pressure =10.13 + 101.3 =111.43 kPa
15.6.2 Design temperature
temperature was 45oC. For design purposes, a tolerance of about 20oC is allowed. The
maximum operational temperature could therefore be pegged at 55oC.
15.7 Material for construction
A material suitable for the fabrication must be selected. The material selected must be
compatible with the process conditions. Carbon and alloy steel are generally good for use
as constructional material for pressure vessels. (Sinnot,1993). Stainless steel is therefore
used for the construction.
Corrosion allowance
Corrosion or Scaling in equipments such as this is inevitable. An additional thickness
(corrosion allowance) is therefore added to the constructional material to allow for material
lost by scaling or corrosion. The allowance is based on experience with the material of
construction under previous service conditions similar to that intended for the design.
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Design load
The column must be designed to overcome gross plastic deformation and collapse under all
conditions of loading. Two main categories of loads are identified. The major loads
include:
 Design pressure: including any significant static head of liquid.
 Maximum weight of the vessel and content under operating conditions.
 Maximum weight of the vessel and contents under hydraulic test conditions.
 Wind loads
Weight Loads
 The major sources of dead weight are:
 the column itself
 the column fittings : manways, nozzles
 the internal fittings: plates and insulation
 external fittings: ladders
 weight of the in the column
W v  240Cv Dm  H c  0.8( Dm ) t
Where:

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Hc = Column height = 78.2m
Dm = mean diameter of column = t + diameter of column = 0.005 + 3.6 = 3.605m
WV =240 X 1.15 X 3.605[78.2 +(0.8 X 3.605)] X 5 =403.3847kN
Weight of plates
Plate Area = πd2/4
=10.1788m2
Weight of a plate =1.2kN/m x 10.1788m2
=12.2146N
Total weight of plates =129 X 12.2146 =157.56782kN
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for insulating distillation columns. (Nelson, 1963).
Approximate volume of insulation =3.142 X 3.6 X 78.2 X 0.075
=66.34m3
Weight of insulation =66.3400 x 130 x 9.81 =84.60364kN
Therefore weight of insulation together with fittings is taken as 2 X 84.6036 =169.2073kN
= 403.3847 +157.5682 + 169.2073
= 730.1602kN
Wind loading
Column loading is a very important factor which must be considered since the column
would be sited in an open. Usually, columns are free standing and mounted on skirt
support. The column under these conditions under wind loading acts as a cantilever beam.
Pw = 0.05Uw 2
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Average Uw of Takoradi = 150km/h (Meteorological Department, Takoradi). To allow for
tolerance, a value of 160km/h will be used.
 pw  0.05  1602  1280 N / m2
The load per unit length of the column, Fw, is obtained from the wind pressure multiply by
the effective diameter, Deff, (i.e. the outside diameter + an allowance for the thermal
insulation).
Fw = Pw Deff
Deff = 3.6 + 2(0.075 + 0.005) = 3.76m
FW = PW Deff
1280 x 3.76 = 4812.8N/m
Wx 2
Mx =
2
x = column height
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Wx =Fx
Mx =(4812.8 )2 /2 =11581521.92Nm
Wall thickness
To ensure that column is sufficiently rigid to withstand its own weight, a minimum wall
thickness is allowed. For column with diameter between 0.5-2m a minimum thickness of
10mm is required. (R.K. Sinnot, 1993) Since the column diameter is 3.6m, wall thickness
of 10mm is used.
Design stress
It is necessary to decide a value for the maximum allowable stress that can be acceptable in
the material of construction.
It is determined by applying a suitable design stress factor (factor of safety) to the
maximum stress that the material is could be expected to withstand failure under standard
test conditions. The design stress factor allows for any uncertainty in the in the design
methods, the loading, the quality of the materials and the workmanship.
For materials not subject to high temperatures, the design stress is based on the yield stress
(proof stress) or the tensile strength of the material at design temperature.
Primary stress
PDi
The longitudinal stress is given by:  h 
2t
 h = longitudinal stress, N/mm2
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P = Design pressure, N/mm = 111.43kPa = 1.4bar = 0.14N/mm2
Di = internal diameter of column = 3600mm
t = wall thickness = 5mm
 h = (0.14 x 3600)/(2 x 5) =50.4N/mm
…………………………………………… (Sinnot 1993)
=(0.14 x 3600) /(20) =25.2Nmm-2
Stress is calculated as;
…………………………………………(sinnot,1993)
W=Total weight of the column
(t)=residence time
Di =column diameter
and it is given by:

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IV = Seccond moment of area of te vessel obout the plan of bending and is given as
DO =3600 +(2 X 5) =3610mm
IV =9.1991 X 1010
227.2466N/mm2
The total longitudinal stress;
= -12.8924+ 25.2 +227.2466
=239.5542N/mm2
= -12.8924 +25.2000- 227.2466
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= -214.939N/mm2
According to Sinnot, 1993; the greatest difference between the principal stresses will be on
the down-wind side and this should be below the maximum allowable of 11581N/mm2.
The greatest difference between principal stresses =239.5542-(-214.939)= 454.4932N/mm2.
This far below the maximum and it is therefore allowable.
Elastic Stability
The critical buckling stress  c is given by:
The maximum compressive stress = 5.95 + 19.17 = 25N/mm2. This is far below the critical
and therefore acceptable.
15.8Column Supports
Horizontal vessels are usually mounted on two saddle supports whilst tall vertical vessels
like distillation columns are mounted on skirt supports. The supports must be designed to
carry the weight of the vessel and contents, and any superimposed loads such as wind
loads. Supports should also be designed to allow easy access to the vessel and fittings for
inspection and maintenance. The height of the skirt is usually between 2-3m. For this
design a height of 2m is used.
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Skirt thickness
The resultant stresses, in the skirt will be:
 s   bs   ws
Where:  bs = the bending stress in the skirt given by
4M s
 bs  .............................................................................(Sinnot, 1993)
 ( Ds  ts )ts Ds
 ws = the dead weight stress in the skirt given by:
W
 ws  ..........................................................................(Sinnot, 1993)
  Ds  ts  ts
Ts = skirt thickness
The skirt thickness should be such that under worst combination of wind and dead weight
loading the following design criteria should not be exceeded;
 ts 
 ws  0.125E   sin s .....................................................................(Sinnot, 1993)
 Ds 
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E = Young‟s modulus = 200,000N/mm2
s = base angle of the conical skirt, normally 80o-90o
The maximum dead weight load on the skirt that would occur when the column is full of
water. (Sinnot, 1993)
Approximate weight =7808.5544kN
Weight of column = 730.160kN
Total weight =8538.7146kN
Wind loading = 48.128kN
As a first trial, take skirt thickness to be 17mm.
The maximum stress (compressive), ðs is calculated as: ðs
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=934.4826.N/mm2
Maximum stress (tensile), ðs = 44.2023 +3.7798 =47.9821N/mm2
Criteria test for design
Maximumallowablestress
2mm is added to the skirt thickness to cater for corrosion. Design skirt thickness is
therefore taken as 19mm.
Base ring and anchor bolt
Where
Ab=Area of the Bolt at the root of the thread,mm2
Nb =number of Bolts
Fb=maximum allowable bolt stress also equal to the design stress of 11581.521N/m
Db =bolt circle diameter,m
Ms =bending moment at the base,Nm

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The diameter of the column including insulation =3.675ms
Circumference of bolt =3675π
According to Scheim (1963), bolt spacing should not be less than 600mm and the total
Number of bolt =3675π/600=20
Assume bolt diameter = 32mm
Bolt root diameter
Lb =79766.569/5x 103 =16mm
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This is the minimum required; actual width  Lr  ts  50mm (Scheiman, 1963)
Where Lr is the distance from the skirt to outer edge of the ring.
Actual width = 76 + 13+50 = 139mm
given by:
3 f c'
tb  Lr .......................................................................................( Scheiman, 1963)
fr
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Table 15.3: Mechanical Engineering Design Specifications
Weight of shell, Wv 403.4000kN Resultant longitudinal 240N/mm2

stress (upwind),  z
Critical buckling stress, 28N/mm2 Resultant longitudinal -13 N/mm2

c stress (downwind),  z
Weight of plates 8kN Circumferential stress 23N/mm2
Skirt height 2m Bending moment at skirt 891kN

base
Number of bolts 20 Load per unit length of the 4813N/m

column, Fw
Weight of column 703kN Bending moment, Mx 154780.6kNm
Wind pressure,N/m2 1280 Total weight 731kN
Maximum 934.4826N/mm2 Maximum stress(tensile), 48N/mm2

stress(compressive), ðs ðs
Bolt area 724mm2 Bolt root diameter 30.4mm
Total compressive load, 79766kN/m Minimum width of base 16mm

Fb ring, Lb
Actual width of base ring 22mm Actual pressure, 0.8N/mm2
Minimum thickness of 9mm Total weight of column 731kN

base ring, tb
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CHAPTER 16
16.0 PLANT LOCATION AND SITING OF THE PLANT
The location of the plant is a very important factor to consider when designing a chemical
industrial plant. It does not only affect the profitability of the project but can give way for
future expansion. The plant should therefore be located where minimum cost of production,
as well as distribution could be obtained. Also, an environmental impact analysis needs to
be performed to determine the expected effect of the plant and its by-products on the
surrounding areas.
16.1 CHOICE OF LOCATION
The yard stick for choosing an appropriate location for the plant was an analysis of
industrial areas in Ghana such as Kumasi, Takoradi and the Tema heavy industrial area,
which was chosen for the following reasons: close to the shore (in case of import and
export), constant power supply in the industrial area, and proximity of some raw materials
(from TOR). However, this site had to be dropped because of lack of available land in the
Tema industrial area for lease by Tema Development Corporation (TDC). [source: TDC
personnel]
After detailed analysis of the various locations appropriate for the siting of the ethylene
plant, cape three points, close to the jubilee oil field, Western Region was chosen.
16.2 FACTORS CONSIDERED FOR SELECTION OF AREA
The following are some of the important considerations when selecting the plant site:
1. Proximity to the raw materials supply.
2. Location, with respect to the marketing area.
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3. Availability of utilities: water, fuel, power, etc.
4. Availability of labour.
5. Transport facilities.
6. Availability of suitable land.
7. Environmental impact and waste disposal.
8. Local community considerations.
16.2.1 Proximity of Raw Material
The raw material for our ethylene production is ethane gas. There will be proximity of the
raw materials from the off-gases from the oil drilling at the jubilee oil grounds and hence
the decision to site the plant in the western region since it will provide a cheaper means of
transporting the raw materials. Also, in case of import it would be easier to transport to the
plant site via the harbour.
16.2.2 Marketing Area
The major market for the ethylene produced is the foreign market. The export is the
primary focus for production and hence the product would be exported out of the country.
This is one of the reasons why our plant will be situated in the western region closer to the
sea port to facilitate the transport of our product to the foreign market via shipping. The
local market is also targeted and can be served. Our target market is the food industries,
plastics industries, paints, packaging, and for use in welding. Examples of such industries
are Qualiplast, Duraplast, Interplast, Blue Skies Ghana, and Ezzy Paints.
16.2.3 Transport Facilities
The transport of materials and products to and from the plant is a major factor in the plant
location. If practicable, a site should be selected that is close to at least two major forms of
347
transport: road, rail, waterway (canal or river), or a sea port. The town‟s proximity to the
port serves as a good means of easily transporting the raw materials and products by sea.
The western region also has good road networks for transport of materials, products and
equipments to and from the site. Rail transport is also available in the region.
16.2.4 Availability of Suitable land
Sufficient suitable land must be available for the proposed plant and for future expansion.
The land should ideally be leveled, well drained and have suitable load-bearing
characteristics. The western region has a vast array of land and its gentleness in level or
topography becomes an added advantage. There is also good drainage system.
16.2.5 Availability of labour
Labour will be needed for construction of the plant and its operation. There must be an
adequate pool of labour available locally, and labour suitable for training to operate the
plant. Unemployment among the youth in most developing areas in Ghana is high, thus
labour especially unskilled labour will not be a problem in our chosen plant site. Skilled
labour can also be brought in for special purposes.
16.2.6 Availability of utilities
Ethylene plants require large quantities of water for quenching, washing, and for the
production of steam as well as other non-production related purposes such as drinking and
sanitary purposes among others. Power and steam requirements are high, as in most
industrial plants, and fuel is ordinarily required to supply these utilities. In view of this,
power and fuel can be combined as one major factor in the choice of a plant site. Takoradi
has a reliable water supply from the Ghana Water Company and electricity supply from the
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Electricity Company of Ghana since there exist a power line network connecting Takoradi
to the national hydroelectric source of energy (Akosombo). Thus uninterrupted electricity is
assured.
16.2.7 Environmental Impact and Waste Disposal
Many legal restrictions have been placed on the methods for disposing of waste materials
from the process industries. The disposal of toxic and harmful effluents will be covered by
local regulations, and the appropriate authorities must be consulted during the initial site
survey to determine the standards that must be met. All industrial processes produce waste
products and full consideration must be given to the difficulties and cost of their disposal.
The site selected for a plant should have adequate capacity and facilities for correct waste
disposal. The location of our plant meets all the specifications and conditions afore
mentioned.
Even though the area has minimal restrictions on pollution, it should not be assumed that
this condition will continue to exist. In choosing our plant site, the permissible tolerance
levels for various methods of waste disposal have been considered carefully, and attention
will be given to potential requirements for additional waste-treatment facilities.
16.2.8 Local community consideration
The proposed plant must fit in with and be acceptable to the local community. Full
consideration must be given to the safe location of the plant so that it does not impose a
significant additional risk to the community. The local community must be able to provide
adequate facilities for the plant personnel such as schools, banks, housing, and recreational
and cultural facilities. Our chosen plant location is favoured by this factor.
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16.1 PLANT LAYOUT
1. Size requirements
50 acres of land including transportation and tanks.
2. Ghanaians with Disabilities Act compliance
All our structures will be built (stairs, ramps, parking lots, etc.) to comply fully with this
act.
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CHAPTER 17
17.0 SAFETY AND POLLUTION CONTROL
Any organization has a legal and moral obligation to safeguard the health and welfare of its
employees and the general public. Safety is also good business; the good management
practices needed to ensure safe operation will also ensure efficient operation.
All manufacturing processes are to some extent hazardous, but in chemical processes there
are additional, special hazards associated with the chemicals used and the process
conditions. The designer must be aware of these hazards, and ensure, through the
application of sound engineering practice, that the risks are reduced to acceptable levels.
[43]
Plant engineers must ensure the quality of the environment both inside and outside the
facility as well as the safety and health of the employees and the reliability of its systems
and equipment. And they are expected to do all of this in a cost-effective manner.
17.1 PLANT SAFETY
Fire, toxic chemicals, mechanical equipments and electrical faults are the major health and
safety hazards usually encountered in the process industries. To avert these, the following
measures will be taken;
1. All electrical wires are to be insulated with PVC while the use of fuses and earth
leakage breakers would be employed to break off power automatically in times of
overload.
2. Periodic and regular maintenance or checks will be made on mechanical equipment
and electrical installation.

351
3. The use of safety equipment such as gloves and helmets by workers is to be
employed wherever needed in the plant.
4. Where the equipment produces a lot of heat, for example the furnace, adequate
ventilation will be provided to prevent long-term damage to the workers. Also
workers will be adequately clothed to shield them from the heat.
5. Personnel working in the plant will be trained on plant hazards and how to control
and avoid them.
6. Proper working clothes, tools and equipments will be provided and management
will ensure that it becomes a prerequisite before any work is under taken.
7. Fire hydrants, extinguishers and alarms will be provided at vantage points due to the
inflammable nature of materials being handled(lube oil, liquefied propane)
17.1.1 Equipment Safety
Guards or metal cases will be provided for machines with external moving parts. All
underground tanks will be covered. All ladders in the factory will be provided with safety
guards. The pipe will be laid such that it will allow easy access to any part of the plant.
17.1.2 Personnel safety
With the exception of the administrative staff, all the workers will be provided with work
clothing (overall). Operators will be provided with rubber (Wellington) boots and heavily
solid boots for supervisors and those of higher ranks. There will be specific days every
quarter of the year when workers will be lectured on the importance of safety. Also, there
will be an award scheme established for the most safety conscious worker.
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17.1.3 Product Safety
In order to ensure that, the product is free from impurities, the workers at the storage and
transportation units will be required to observe strict handling practices.
17.1.4 Work Conditions and Welfare
The plant will be well illuminated. Basic amenities like washing and drying rooms will be
provided. A cafeteria will be built for the workers. The workers will also enjoy some
medical services.
17.2 ENVIRONMENTAL HAZARDS
The main hazards of concern in the ethylene industry are the storage of the produced gases
and handling operations. The hazards also include emissions of flue gases from the furnace.
This can be curbed by the application of capture collection systems of the gases and any
particulate matter. Acetone is also an extremely flammable liquid and extreme precaution
will be taken to avoid any spillage or leakage.
17.3 POLLUTION PREVENTION AND CONTROL
The effect of all forms of pollutions namely air, water and environmental pollution to man
and his environment cannot be over-emphasized. Thus all possible measures are taken to
minimize if not eliminate any form of pollution. The waste products include spent caustic,
oily waters, and gas emissions. As much as possible, workers should avoid contacts with
these waste products and all workers who come into contact with them should be provided
with suitable protective clothing.
17.3.1 Liquid emissions
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Spent caustic is derived from scrubbing ethylene gas and typically contains a range of
various components namely NaOH, Na2CO3 and some soluble oil. In addition to soluble
components, insoluble polymers resulting from the condensation of olefins during
scrubbing are present in the liquor. Spent caustic is intensely malodorous, toxic, and highly
alkaline. It contains high chemical oxygen demand (COD), some total organic carbon
(TOC), and high total dissolved solids (TDS). These insoluble polymers have a lower
specific gravity than the spent caustic and can be removed from the spent caustic stream by
gravity separation and decanting from a quiescent tank or separator. (Wet Air Oxidation of
Ethylene Plant Spent Caustic, Ellis et al). A spent caustic oxidation unit, which is a wet air
oxidation (WAO) system, will therefore be built to treat the wastewater by oxidizing a
majority of the COD. This allows the oxidized spent caustic to be further treated by
conventional biological treatment prior to discharge.
17.3.2 Gas emissions
Gaseous and particulate emissions to air that are produced primarily come from the flue
gases from the furnace during the steam cracking of the hydrocarbon feedstock. Typical
gases include carbon dioxide (CO2) and oxygen (O2). The temperature of the furnace is
regulated so that NOx emission is reduced to the barest minimum. Methane (CH4) is burnt
completely to avoid CH4 emission.
17.4 NOISE POLLUTION
Excessive noise is a hazard to health and safety. Long exposure to high noise levels can
cause permanent damage to hearing. At lower levels, noise is a distraction and causes
fatigue. Permanent damage to hearing can be caused at sound levels above about 90 dB
(A), and it is normal practice to provide ear protection in areas where the level is above 80
354
dB(A).(sinnott).Noise from the plant will result from the operations and movement of
equipment such as the quench tower, absorbers, strippers, and the furnace.
17.4.1 NOISE POLLUTION CONTROL
The plant will be sited well away from residential areas to prevent the unavoidable noise
levels generated by some of the process units. Ear plugs will be worn by all employees
operating any of the heavy equipments to prevent the harmful effect of noise on the human
ear. Sound absorbing materials will be used in constructing all plant buildings for
equipments that cause a lot of noise, thus minimizing significantly the noise levels in the
plant.
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CHAPTER 18
18.0 INSTRUMENTATION AND PROCESS CONTROL
In the chemical processing industry, controllers play a crucial role in keeping the plants
running by controlling process variables.
A typical control system consist of
 Sensor
 Transmitter
 controller
The primary objective of any control system in the operation of the plant is to monitor and
stabilize process parameters. The objectives in installing control devices and other
instrument in the plant are;
1. It keeps the process variables within safe operating mode.
2. To ensure that effluents are within acceptable limits as prescribed by environmental
regulations.
3. To attain the production rate and product quality in terms of product specification.
4. To minimize operational cost as much as possible
5. Dangerous situations are detected as they develop and alarms and automatic
shut-down systems are provided.
18.1 INSTRUMENTATION
A central control computerized panel will be located in the plant and it will be responsible
for indication, recording, and regulation of process variable and indication of a signal when
a process variable exceeds its set point.

356
The following process variables will be measured and monitored by the control systems.
1. Temperature
2. Pressure
3. Flow
4. Level
5. Concentration
These variables play vital roles in their respective places and recording continuously will
enable personnel to control them within limit.
18.2 Process Variable Control System
18.2.1 Flow meters
Flow rate is checked by the help of a valve and flow meters. Overflowing is undesirable in
any chemical plant hence the control valve and flow meters are to ensure that the set flow
of material moves from one equipment to another. The flow meters in this case acts as the
measuring device which measures the errors in the flow. Error signal is sent through the
transmitter to a controller. An actuating signal from the controller then causes a variance in
the orifice of the valve. The flow meters will therefore be used to indicate the volume of
liquid pumped from the different units. It will also be used to control their flow rates as is
required in the process. The flow control system will thus operate by closing and operating
valves to check overflowing and emptying of holding vessels.
18.2.2 Temperature control system.
Temperature control is quite essential in process design for some equipment such as the
furnace, heat exchanger, stripper and distillation column temperatures. The reason is that
357
any deviation from the required temperatures will result in the production of undesirable
by-products or products that do not meet specifications.
18.2.3 Pressure Control system
Excessive pressure can lead to explosion and destruction of equipment and it is usually
necessary for equipments handling vapour or gas. The pressure control system will
maintain operating pressures within required limits so that any excessive pressure that
builds up will be relayed to pressure releasing valves to open in order to let out excessive
pressure. This will specifically be employed to check the pressure of the compressor,
different absorbers, stripper, and the various distillation columns in order to obtain good
products.
18.2.4 Level control system
This will be used to monitor the settling tank, flash drum, stripper, vacuum distillation
column and storage tanks to prevent entrainment in the case of columns.
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CHAPTER 19
19.0 ECONOMIC ANALYSIS
Ideal for every investment, the chemical engineering process must be economically viable.
To access the profitability of a project, an estimate of the required investment and cost of
production must be made. An acceptable plant design must present a process that is capable
of operating under conditions which will yield a profit.
Basis of economic analysis:
Start of construction: January, 2012
Completion of construction: December, 2014
Commencement of processing: January, 2015
Plant operation: 3 shifts per day
Process: continuous
Plant life: 19 years
Plant production rate: 100,000 tons per annum
Working period: 300 days
Production capacity: 333 tonnes per day
Selling price of ethylene: $0.53/Kg
Exchange rate of dollar: GH¢1.5
19.1 Project cost estimation
Once the process plant has designed and approved for construction then the chemical
engineer has to estimate the amount of capital required for the construction, operation of
the plant and sale of products.
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19.1.1 Fixed capital investment
This is the capital needed to purchase and install the manufacturing facilities and it includes
the design, engineering, construction and supervision, all items of equipments and their
installation, all piping, instrumentation and control systems, buildings and structures, and
site preparation.
19.1.2 Working Capital
This is the additional investment (capital) needed over and above the fixed capital
investment to start the plant, and operate it to the point when income is earned. It includes
start-up, raw materials and supplies carried in stock, finished and semi-finished products,
cash kept on hand for monthly payment of expenses such as salaries and wages, accounts
payable and taxes payable. It is estimated that working capital is approximately 5% of the
fixed capital investment.
19.1.3 Total capital investment
The total capital investment is the sum of the fixed capital investment and the working
capital. Some sources of total capital investment for a process plant are loans (banks, rich
relatives, etc), operating company‟s reserves, bond market (treasury bills), and stock
exchange (for companies listed on the stock exchange. All sources of capital have to be
paid back with interest therefore interest rates must be compared before settling for any
source of funding.
19.2 ESTIMATION OF DIRECT FIXED CAPITAL INVESTMENT
The method usually used to update historical cost data makes use of published cost indices
according to the equation below:
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Cost index in year A
Cost in year A = Cost in year B x ………….. (Eqn 19.1)
Cost index in year B
The latest Marshall and Swift cost index available is for the year 2010.
Table 19.1 Cost Index
Year 2006 2007 2008 2009 2010
Chemical cost index 1302.3 1373.3 1449.3 1468.6 1457.4
Table 19.2 Cost of equipments
Total Equipment cost
Unit Unit Cost Gross cost
Equipment Quantity Cost($)2007 ($)2010 ($)2010
Cracking furnace 1 4,400,000.000 4,669,453.142 4,669,453.142
Trasfer line
exchanger 1 120,000.000 127,348.722 127,348.722
Storage tank 4 90,000.000 95,511.542 382,046.166
Quench tower 1 130,000.000 137,961.116 137,961.116
Caustic tower 1 160,000.000 169,798.296 169,798.296
Reboiler 4 90,000.000 95,511.542 382,046.166
Condenser 4 84,000.000 89,144.105 356,576.422
Compressor 4 120,000.000 127,348.722 509,394.888
cooler 2 100,000.000 106,123.935 212,247.870
Dryer 1 105,000.000 111,430.132 111,430.132
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Demethanizer 1 110,000.000 116,736.329 116,736.329
Ethylene column 1 150,000.000 159,185.903 159,185.903
Deethanizer 1 110,000.000 116,736.329 116,736.329
C2- splitter 1 95,000.000 100,817.738 100,817.738
centrifugal pump 3 10,000.000 10,612.394 31,837.181
Asorber 1 90,000.000 95,511.542 95,511.542
Truck 1 70,000.000 74,286.755 74,286.755
Pick up 1 30,000.000 31,837.181 31,837.181
Bus 3 60,000.000 63,674.361 191,023.083
stripper 1 95,000.000 100,817.738 100,817.738
PCE 6,584,990.170
Spear parts (15% 0f PCE) 987,748.525
Total Equipment cost 7,572,738.695
19.2.1 Purchased equipment installation cost
The installation of the equipment includes cost of labour, platforms, insulation,
formulation, construction expenses and other factors directly related to the erection of
purchased equipment such as painting). This component is estimated to be 35% of the
purchased equipment cost.[43]
19.2.2 Instrumentation and control cost
This component is estimated to be 15% of the purchased equipment cost. Instrument cost,
installation-labour cost and expenses of auxiliary equipment and materials constitute the
major portion of the capital investment required for instrumentation.[43]

362
19.2.3 Piping cost
This includes cost for valves, fittings, pipe, support and other items involved in the
complete erection of all piping used directly in the process. It also includes process piping
for raw materials, products, steam, water, and chemicals. The piping cost is estimated to be
45% of purchased equipment cost.[43]
19.2.4 Cost of electrical systems
This includes the cost of the power wiring, lighting, instrument and control wiring,
installation labour, etc. This component is estimated to be 10% of the purchased cost.
19.2.5 Cost of building structures
This involves cost for the erection of all buildings connected with the plant (labour,
materials and supplies), including cost for plumbing, heating, lighting, ventilation, and
similar building services. This component is estimated to be 47% of the purchased
equipment cost.
19.2.6 Cost of site development and improvement
Costs for fencing, roads, side walks, rail road sidings, landscaping and similar items
constitute the portion of the capital investment included in yard improvements. Yard
improvement cost for chemical plant is estimated to be 5% of the purchased equipment
cost.
19.2.7 Service facility and utility cost
This involves the utilities for supplying steam, water, power and fuel in the plant. This also
includes the cost involved in waste disposal, fire protection, and miscellaneous service
363
items such as shop, first aid and cafeteria equipment among others. This component is
estimated to be 30% of the purchased equipment cost.
19.2.8 Cost of land
The plant will be sited in the western region. As a rough average, land cost for industrial
plants amounts to 6% of purchased equipment cost.
19.3 ESTIMATION OF INDIRECT FIXED CAPITAL INVESTMENT
19.3.1 Engineering and supervision cost
This cost consist of the cost for construction design and engineering, drafting, purchasing
accounting, construction and cost engineering, travel, reproductions, communications and
home office expenses including overhead. This component is estimated as 25% of the total
direct costs of the process plant.
19.3.2Construction expenses
This cost component involves the cost for construction or field expenses. It involves
temporal construction and operation, construction tools and rentals, construction payroll,
taxes, insurance and other overheads. This component is estimated as 10% of the total
direct cost.
19.3.3 Contractors’ fee
The contractors‟ fee can be taken as 5% of the total direct cost.
19.3.4 Contingency fees
364
A contingency fee is included in the total capital investment in recognition of the fact that,
experience show that, there will be unexpected events and changes that will inevitably
increase the cost of the project. These events may include strikes, price changes, small
design changes, storms, floods etc. this component is estimated as 10% of the total direct
cost.
Table 19.3 Total capital investment
1 Total Purchased Equipment cost 7,572,738.695
2 Purchased Equipment Installation 0.400
3 Instrumentation and Controls 0.200
4 Piping 0.700
5 Electrical equipment and materials 0.100
6 Utilities 0.500
7 Storages 0.150
8 Buildings (including services) 0.150
9 Site Development 0.050
Total Direct Costs (I) 3.250 24,611,400.759
Indirect fixed capital investment Costs
10 Design and Engineering 0.300
11 Contractors Fee 0.050
12 Contingency 0.100
Total Indirect Costs (I) 1.450 35,686,531.101
Fixed Capital Investment (FCI), D + I 60,297,931.860
Working Capital (WC) 18,089,379.558
365
Total Capital Investment (TCI) 78,387,311.418
19.4 ESTIMATION OF TOTAL PRODUCT COST
This involves the estimation of cost for operating the plant and selling the products. Total
product cost is broken down into two broad categories:
Total product cost = manufacturing cost + general expenses
Manufacturing cost = direct production cost + fixed charges + plant overhead cost
General expenses = administrative expenses + distribution and marketing expenses
The fixed charges are costs that do not vary with production rate. These are mainly
depreciation, taxes, insurance and rent.
Plant overheads consists of medical bills, packaging, payroll overhead, control laboratories,
general plant maintenance, storage facilities, etc.
19.5 ESTIMATION OF TOTAL OPERATING LABOUR COST
Table 19.4 Operating labour cost
Operating Labour cost
Direct labour cost
Staff Number Annual Salary per Total Annual Salary, $
head, $
Plant manager 1 35,000 35,000
Production manager 1 20,000 20,000
366
Chemical Engineer 3 15,000 45,000
Mechanical Engineer 2 15,000 30,000
Supervisors 5 13,500 67,500
Electrical Engineer 2 15,000 30,000
Occupational health and 2 20,000
safety specialists 10,000
Quality Controller 3 10,000 30,000
Chemist 3 13,000 39,000
Chemical equipment 24 9,000 216,000
operators
Total Direct Labour Cost (DLC) 532,500
Indirect Labour Costs (ILC)
Personnel Number Annual Salary/Head, Total Annual Salary,
($) ($)
Managing Director 1 30,000 30,000
Personnel Manager 1 20,000 20,000
Human Resources 2 18,500 37,000
Sales Manager 1 18,000 18,000
Accountant 1 18,000 18,000
Accounts Clerk 1 10,000 10,000
Store Keeper 1 9,000 9,000
Secretary 3 4,000 12,000
Receptionist 1 3,200 3,200
367
Drivers 5 3,000 15,000
Cleaners 3 1,600 4,800
Security men 3 1,600 4,800
Total (ILC) 181,800
Operating Labour (DLC + ILC) 714,300
Social Security contributions(5.5% of total operation labour 39,287
coct)
Operating Labour (DLC + ILC) 753,587
TOTAL LABOUR COST 753,587
19.5.1 Operating labour
Operating labour may be divided into skilled and unskilled labour.
19.5.2 Determination of Raw material
In the chemical industry, one of the major costs in production operation is for the raw
materials involved in the process. The amount of the raw material which must be supplied
per unit of time can be determined from process material balances.
368
Table 19.5 Raw material cost
RAW MATERIAL COST
Raw Annual Quantity kg Unit Cost,$ Annual Cost ($)
Material
Ethane 11,470,625.000 0.864 9,910,620.000
Methane 566,347.860 4.000 2,265,391.440
Acetone 13,646,835.400 1.000 13,646,835.400
NaOH 645,681.220 0.870 561,742.662
Total 26,384,589.502
19.5.3Maintenance and repairs
If a plant is to be kept in efficient operating condition, a considerable amount of expenses is
necessary for maintenance and repairs. Since the annual cost for the plant is high, this
component is estimated as 6% of the fixed capital investment.
19.5.4Operating supplies
This includes the cost of items such as lubricants, test chemicals, charts etc, required to
keep the plant functioning efficiently. It is assumed to be 15% of maintenance and repairs.
19.5.5 Laboratory Charges
This involves cost of laboratory tests for control operation and product quality control. It is
taken as 20% of operating labour.
19.5.6 Patents & Royalties
This is taken to be 4% of total product cost.
369
19.6 DETERMINATION OF FIXED CHARGES
Certain expenses are always present in an industrial plant whether or not the manufacturing
process is in operation. Costs that are invariant with the amount of production are
designated fixed charges. These include cost for depreciation, local property taxes,
insurance and rent. Expenses of this type are a direct function of the fixed capital
investment
19.6.1 Annual depreciation charge
Several methods may be used for determining the rate of depreciation, but for engineering
projects, a straight line method is assumed. In applying this method, a useful life period and
salvage value at the end of the useful plant life is assumed. The difference between the
initial cost and the salvage value divided by the total years of useful life gives the annual
cost due to depreciation (peters et al). From the above, the formula below is deduced
C f  S1
AD 
S
AD = annual depreciation charge = $3,040,327.647
Cf = fixed capital investment
S = plant useful life
S1 = salvage value
The plant life will be 16years (Peters et al) on a foreign land).
Assumption
Salvage value is 10% of the fixed capital investment (peters et al)
370
19.6.2 Insurance
The insurance cost paid on the plant and general site is estimated as 1% of the fixed capital
investment (peters et al).
19.6.3 Local taxes and royalties
Local taxes are estimated as 1% of the fixed capital investment (Peter et al, 1990).
TOTAL PRODUCTION COST
Description Cost, ($)
Manufacturing Costs
Direct Production Costs
Variable costs
1 Raw Materials from flow sheet 26,384,589.52
2 Miscellaneous 10 per cent of Maintenance and Repairs 361,787.591
materials
3 Power and 10% of the total equipment cost 757,273.870
Utilities
Fixed costs
4 Operating from manning estimate 753,586.500
Labour
5 Operating 20% of operating labour. 150,717.300
Supervision
6 Maintenance and 6% of the fixed capital investment 3,617,875.912
Repairs
7 Laboratory 20% of operating labour. 150,717.300
371
Charges
8 Royalties 1% of the fixed capital investment 602,979.319
9 Local Taxes 2% of the fixed capital investment 1,205,958.637
10 Insurance 1% of the fixed capital investment 602,979.319
11 Capital Charges 10%of the fixed capital investment 6,029,793.186
12 Total Plant 50% of the total cost of operating labour, 2,261,089.856
Overhead Costs supervision and maintenance
Total Direct Production Costs (M) 42,879,348.29
General Expenses
12 Administrative 15% of the Total Manufacturing Costs 6,431,902.244
expenses
13 Distribution and 10% of the Total Manufacturing Costs 4,287,934.829
Marketing
14 Research and 5% of the Total Manufacturing Costs 2,143,967.415
Development
Total General Expenses (G) 12,863,804.47
Total Production Cost, M + G 55,743,152.77
Production cost $ /kg of product 0.463
19.6.4 Plant Overheads
These are costs associated with operating the plant such as the general management, plant
security, medical, canteen, general clerical staff and security. This is 30% of the total cost
of operating labour, supervision and maintenance.

372
19.7 GENERAL EXPENSES (INDIRECT PRODUCTION COST)
General expenses comprise of administrative expenses, distribution and marketing
expenses, and research and development expenses.
19.7.1 Administrative expenses (general overheads)
This includes executive salaries, electrical wages, engineering and legal cost, office
maintenance and communication. It is estimated as 20% of operating labour cost (peters et
al).
19.7.2 Distribution and marketing expenses
Expenses associated with selling the products, sales office and salaries of salesmen,
advertising cost, container cost and shipping expenses. It is estimated as 15% of the total
product cost.
19.7.3 Research and development
In order to remain in a competitive industrial position, research and development (R&D) is
essential. This component is estimated as 3% of the total product cost.
19.8 PROFITABILITY ANALYSIS
Before capital is invested in any project, one must estimate its profitability. Besides, a
manufacturing process must earn more than the cost of capital in order to make it attractive.
Profitability analysis attempts to proof the desirability of taking risk and also serves as a
measure of attractiveness of this project in comparison to the other competing projects. It is
also a qualitative measure of profit with respect to the investment required to generate that
profit. The analysis of profitability will be based on the following standards:
373
a. Break-even point (BEP)
b. Turn over Ratio (TOR)
c. Return on Investment (ROI)
d. Discounted Cash Flow Rate of Return (DCFRR)
e. Net Present Value (NPV)
f. Payback Period
19.8.1 Break Even Point (BEP)
Breakeven point is the time of plant life where there is neither net profit nor net loss. It is
the level above which the production rate must exceed in order to make profit. The
breakeven point would vary as the sales and manufacturing cost varies over the years.
Mathematically;
Fixed cost = General expenses + Fixed Charges = $42,879,348.290
Variable cost =$ 27,503,650.96
Total Sales = =$ 62,420,221.360
42,879,348.290
62,420,221.360  27,503,650.96
19.8.2 Turn over ratio
This is a rapid method suitable for order of magnitude estimates. In other words, it could be
the ratio of gross annual sales to the fixed capital investment.
That is,
374
62,420,221.360
 0.796
78,387,311.418
19.8.3 Annual Cash Flow
The average selling price for ethylene is $0.53 per kilogram (VAT exclusive). The aim of
our project is to produce high quality product at a lower cost. The tax rate now is at 15%.
19.8.4 Rate of Return (ROR)
Rate of return which is a ratio of annual profit to investment is a simple index of the
performance of the money invested. It does not consider the time value of money and it
does not account for the fact that profit and cost may vary significantly over the life of the
project. [43]
CNCF
 100%
LP  OI
Where
CNCF is the cumulative net cash flow at the end of project
LP is the life of the project
OI is the original investment
383,808,042.486
 100%  30.60%
16  78,387,311.418
19.8.5 Discounted Cash Flow
The net cash flow in each year of the project is brought to its present worth at the start of
the project by discounting it at some chosen compound interest rate.
375
( NFW )n
The Net Present worth (NPW) of cash flow in year n =
(1  r ) n
Where
(NFW) n is the net future worth in year n
r is the discount rate (interest rate) per cent /100 and
n t
NFW
Total NPW of project =  (1  r )
n 1
n
The discount rate is chosen to reflect the earning power of money. It would be roughly
equivalent to the current interest rate that the money could earn if invested. (Coulson and
Richardson, Volume 6). From the figure 19.2 the discounted rate is 22.12%
19.8.6 Pay-back Time
Payout period is the minimum length of time theoretically necessary to recover the original
capital investment in the form of cash flows to the project based on total income minus all
cost except depreciation. The Figures 19.1a,b below depict that, break even will occur at
the end of the 5.3 rd year.
376
$50.00 A Graph of Cummulative Annual Cash Flow,$
Cummulative cash flow ,$ x 10000000

$40.00
$30.00
$20.00
$10.00
$0.00
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20
Time, yrs
-$10.00
Figure 19.1 A Graph of Cummulative Annual Cash Flow
377
Discounted cash flow rate of return(DCFRR)
0.450
0.400
0.350
0.300
Interest rate
0.250
0.200
0.150
0.100
0.050
0.000
0.000 0.200 0.400 0.600 0.800 1.000 1.200 1.400 1.600
Ratio: PV/TCI
378
CHAPTER 20
20.0 CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATIONS
20.1 DISCUSSION
The prevailing price of the raw materials needed to operate the plant allows for a one-
year break-even point and is an exciting investment prospect. From the economic
analysis, the rate of return is a profitable 30.6% on the invested value. The issue of
fluctuating market prices of some of the process inputs can however alter the
profitability of this project. Challenges as to the constant profitability can be accurately
overcome by continued vigorous research and extensive market surveillance.
Environmental analysis shows that sodium carbonate sludge is one of the predominant
and problematic wastes produced. This is sent to a wet-air oxidation unit or regeneration
unit for regenerating NaOH from the sludge. Noise, thermal and gaseous pollution are
present but minimal.
The major feedstock being used in this project is ethane. This was chosen after
considering its availability, and high yield and selectivity of ethylene. Its processing is
relatively simple, involving lower capital costs. Also ethane is again produced in large
quantities as a by-product from the process and can be reused as a feedstock. This is of
key importance to the project. This is because failure to get your constant supply
(needed quantity) would cripple the project.
Again, cape three points in the western region was considered to be the area where the
project would take place. After considering factors such as availability of needed raw
materials, cost of labour, roadwork, and tax rate among others, it was prudent to
establish the industry at the said place.
379
20.2 CONCLUSION
From the economic analysis, our ethylene plant is economically viable. The ethylene
plant will have an enormous impact on the Ghanaian economy. Among such positive
impacts are the creation of capital for investors, reduction in unemployment, and
provision of foreign exchange for Ghana.It also does not pose very serious threats to the
environment. The steam pyrolysis process using ethane as feedstock to obtain our
product is also very economical since it does not involve the use of catalysts and other
expensive raw materials. Due to the location of the plant, our raw materials can be
easily acquired or imported. The products of the plant also have an already established
market in the country and in the world at large.
The conclusion drawn is that, the establishment of an emerging ethylene-producing
plant that uses steam pyrolysis process is feasible under the current technological and
economic development of Ghana, and would come with a lot of advantages.
20.3 RECOMMENDATION
From the economics, the plant is feasible, and we recommend that this plant design
should be given a favorable consideration. We also recommend that, the issue of safety
and control should be enforced at all levels and times to ensure the safe and smooth
running of the plant, to protect lives and the environment as a whole. It is again
recommended that the possibility of mixing ethane and propane as feedstock is
considered since propane will be produced as a by-product and can be reused.
380
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385
APPENDIX A
CALCULATIONS FOR MATERIAL BALANCES
Molecular weights
Component Molecular weight
Ethylene 28
Acetylene 26
Water (steam) 18
Methane 16
Hydrogen 1
Ethane 30
Propane 44
From our stated capacity, ethylene to be recovered at the end of the process is 100 000
tonnes/year.
8 1x10 8 kg 1yr 1day

Ethylene to be produced = 100,000TPA = 1 x 10 kg/yr = x x
1yr 300day 24hr
=13888.89kg/hr
Basis: 1hr of operation
Total weight of ethylene produced = 13888.89kg
Assuming 2% of the ethylene is lost during the production and coke was also assume to
be negligible but CO2 formed is assume to be 0.05% of the ethane that reacted
386
2
Ethylene lost during production = x 13888.89 = 277.778kg
100
Total ethylene to be produced = 13888.89 + 277.778 = 14166.667kg/hr =
505.952kgmol/hr
Assuming ethane conversion to be 65% and out of that 80% conversion for ethylene and
0.5% conversion for acetylene.
Ethane supplied = Ethane reacted + Ethane unreacted
Ethane reacted × conversion = ethylene produced
505.952
Therefore Ethane reacted = = 632.4405 kmol/hr
0.8
0 .5
Acetylene produced = × ethane reacted
100
0 .5
Therefore acetylene produced = ×632.4405 = 3.1622 kmol/hr
100
Ethane supplied × 0.65 = ethane reacted
632.4405
Ethane supplied = = 972.985 kmol/hr
0.65
Unreacted Ethane = Ethane supplied – Ethane consumed
= 972.985 – 632.4405 = 340.545 kgmole/hr
Chemical reactions in the furnace
C2H6 C2H4 + H2 ............................... (a)
2C2H6 C3H8 + CH4 ................................ (b)
C3H8 C2H2 + CH4 + H2 ................................ (c)

387
C + 2H2O CO2 + 2H2 …............................ (d)
Nsout = Nsin + λɛ................................................. (e)
Where Ns = flowrate of the species
ɛ = extent of reaction
λ = stoichiometric coefficient
C2H6 out C2H6 in - ɛ1 - 2ɛ2................................. (1)
C2H4 out ɛ1 .......................................................... (2)
H2 out ɛ1 + ɛ3 + ɛ4.............................................. (3)
C3H8 out ɛ2 - ɛ3...................................................... (4)
CH4 out ɛ2 + ɛ3...................................................... (5)
C2H2 out ɛ3........................................................... (6)
CO2 out ɛ4........................................................... (7)
From equation (2), C2H4 out = ɛ1 = 505.952 kgmole/hr
From equation (1), 2ɛ2 = 972.985 – 340.545 – 505.952
ɛ2 = 63.244 kgmole/hr
From equation (6), ɛ3 = C2H2 out = 3.1622 kgmole/hr
388
Hence:
C2H6 out = 340.545 kgmole/hr
H2 out = 509.1142 kgmole/hr
CH4 out = 66.4062 kgmole/hr
CO2 out =0.3162 kgmole/hr
Steam to Ethane (supplied) ratio = 0.3: 1
Steam used = 0.3 x Ethane supplied = 0.3 x 972.985 = 291.8955 kgmole/hr
Total output from furnace = 340.545 + 505.952 + 509.1142 + 60.0818 + 66.4062 +
3.1622 + 291.8955+0.3162 = 1777.4731 kgmole/hr
The mole percentages of the individual components leaving the furnace are as follows:
340.545
C2H6 = x 100% = 19.16%
1777.4731
505.952
C2H4 = x 100% = 28.46%
1777.4731
509.1142
H2 = x 100% = 28.64%
1777.4731
60.0818
C3H8 = x 100% = 3.38%
1777.4731
389
66.4062
CH4 = x 100% = 3.74%
1777.4731
3.1622
C2H2 = x 100% = 0.18%
1777.4731
291.8955
H2O = x 100% = 16.42%
1777.4731
0.3162
CO2 =  100
1777.4731
=0.02 %
390
APPENDIX B
CALCULATIONS FOR ENERGY BALANCE
Reactions in the furnace:
C2H6 C2H4 + H2 ………………….Reaction 1
2C2H6 C3H8 + CH4 …………………..Reaction 2
C3H8 C2H2 + CH4 + H2 ………………...Reaction 3
C + 2H2O CO2 + 2H2 ……………………Reaction 4
Since there are a series of reaction in the furnace the four
391
Reference: CO2, C2H2, C2H4, C3H8, CH4, H2O, C2H6, H2 at 25 oC 1 atm
Nout × 103
mol/hr
CO2 - - 3.555 H3
C2H2 - - 3.199 H4
C2H4 - - 505.869 H5
C3H8 - - 60.79 H6
CH4 - - 66.477 H7
392
H2O 291.896 H1 291.265 H8
C2H6 972.985 H2 340.564 H9
H2 - - 509.068 H10
Estimation of the enthalpy of the inlet stream
mol
CAUSTIC TOWER
Reference: CO2, C2H2, C2H4, C3H8, CH4, H2O, C2H6, H2 at 35oC for gas and 25oC for
NaOH solution 1 atm
393
Nout × 103
3
mol/hr
CO2 3.1622 - 3.1662 H8
C2H2 3.1622 - 3.1660 H5
C2H4 505.952 - 505.952 H6
C3H8 60.0818 - 60.0818 H3
CH4 66.4064 - 66.4064 H1
H2O 0.29189 - 0.29189 H7
C2H6 340.545 - 340.545 H2
H2 509.1142 - 509.1142 H4
NaOH 3981.535 H9 3987.1098 H10
Estimation of the enthalpy of the inlet and outlet streams
394
∆H= 212827.5891
QUENCH TOWER
A balance around water
Reference: H2O, at 25oC 1 atm
Nout × 103
mol/hr
H2O 1492.490 H1 7874.283 H2
∆H=323794.543
DEMETHANIZER
Reference: C2H2, C2H4, C3H8, CH4,C2H6, H2 at 25oC 1 atm
Substance Nin × 103 Hin KJ/mol
C2H2 2.9762 H1
C2H4 505.9520 H2
395
C3H8 59.5238 H3
CH4 68.4523 H4
C2H6 330.3569 H5
H2 520.833 H6
Flows Distillate (D) Bottoms (B)
Nout × 103 mol/hr Hout KJ/mol Hout KJ/mol
2.9762 - H11
505.9520 H9 -
59.5238 - H10
68.4523 H8 H14
330.3569 - H13
520.833 H7 -
mol
mol
396
,
∆H= -11244.9174
C2 SPLITTER
Reference: C2H2, C2H4, CH4, C2H6, at 35oC, 25oC 1 atm
Substance Nin × 103 Hin KJ/mol
C2H2 2.9516 H1
C2H4 498.3786 H2
CH4 0.6658 H3
C2H6 330.3148 H4
397
Flows Distillate (D) Bottoms (B)
Nout × 103 mol/hr Hout KJ/mol Hout KJ/mol
497.1149 H5 -
2.9516 H6 -
0.6558 - H7
330.3145 - H8
Estimation of the enthalpy of the inlet and outlet
398
∆H=1609.18309
ACETYLENE ABSORBER
A balance around the gas Reference: C2H2, C2H4, 25oC,1 atm
Nout × 103
3
mol/hr
C2H2 3.0725 H1 3.1660 H3
C2H4 481.9578 H2 505.952 H4
Estimation of the enthalpy of the inlet and outlet
399
∆H=
400
APPENDIX C
CALCULATIONS ON TANK DIMENSIONS
Tank volume 1
The volume of the tank is determined by the volume of fluid stored
Operation storage volume
Volume of acetylene required for a day‟s operations
Where,
= volume of acetylene required for a day‟s operations
= the mass of acetylene for a day = 1896 kg/day (material balance calculations)
= density of acetylene = 1.091 kg/m3 at 21oC and 1 atm (Perry, 1999)
The total storage volume for at most 7 days of supply cut off
Over fill protection
There should always be a small ullage (the air space between the water surface and the
top of the tank) remaining when the contents gauge registers full. Thus equivalent to 5%
of the total contents of the tank (Mobley, 2001).
Volume of the storage tank
Ullage =
m3 = 3,374,331.513 gal (US)
401
TABLE 18.2. Storage Tanks, Underwriter or API Standard, Selected Sizes (wallas, pg
622)
Internal diameter of acetylene storage tank =
Length of acetylene storage tank = 42.05 in =106.807cm =1.068 m
Tank volume 2
Volume of ethylene required for a day‟s operations
Where,
= volume of ethylene required for a day‟s operations
= the mass of ethylene for a day = 333,333.36 kg/day (material balance calculations)
= density of ethylene = 1.115 kg/m3 at 20oC and 1 atm (Perry, 1999)

402
Ullage =
= 4,063,274.222 gal (US)
622)
Internal diameter of ethylene storage tank =
Length of ethylene storage tank = 43.43in =110.3122cm = 1.103m
Tank volume 3
Volume of propane required for a day‟s operations
Where,
= volume of propane required for a day‟s operations
= the mass of propane for a day = 63254.28 kg/day (material balance calculations)
= density of propane = 1.83 kg/m3 at 94oC and 1.0130bar (Perry, 1999)
403
Ullage =
= 3,537,431gal (US)
622)
Internal diameter of propane storage tank =
Length of propane storage tank = 42.376in =107.64cm = 1.076m
Thickness of tank = 28.18mm
Tank volume 4
Volume of ethane required for a day‟s operations
Where,
= volume of ethane required for a day‟s operations
= the mass of ethane for a day = 700,549.20 kg/day (material balance calculations)
= density of ethane = 1.282 kg/m3 at 21oC and 1atm (Perry, 1999)
404
Ullage =
= 7,427,160.362gal (US)
622)
Internal diameter of ethane storage tank =
Length of ethane storage tank = 50.1667 in =127.423cm = 1.274m
405

Ethylene Production via Steam Pyrolysis

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Ethylene Production via Steam Pyrolysis

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CHAPTER 1

1.1 Relevance of work

polyethylene. Other significant uses of ethylene include chlorination to ethylene dichloride,

benzene, an intermediate in the manufacture of polystyrene [23].

virtually all large-scale chemical synthesis. However, acetylene itself is a by-product of

modern ethylene production [50].

be described as the heating of a mixture of steam and hydrocarbon to the necessary

minimize secondary reactions. [2]

choice of feedstock and processes of ethylene production.

of raw materials and the viability of process.

compression/separation, ethylene purification, and an integrated refrigeration section.

pyrolysis process on an industrial scale.

2.0 LITERATURE REVIEW

2.1 Chemistry of ethylene and acetylene

useful reactivity. [12]

Ethylene has a boiling point temperature of -103.7°C, a melting point temperature of -

angles of 180°. [16]

Acetylene is an extremely reactive hydrocarbon. It is moderately soluble in water or alcohol

a boiling point temperature of -84°C. Physical properties include:

 It has a distinctive odour

2.1.3 Uses of ethylene and acetylene

used in such applications such as construction, communications, packaging, and

manufacturing of industrial and domestic products.

manufacture of the polyvinyl chloride (PVC), oxidation to the ethylene oxide, an

ethylbenzene, an intermediate in the manufacture of polystyrene [16]. In addition, ethylene

additives, pesticides, and pharmaceuticals. [12]

plastics. Acetylene is also used for artificial ripening of fruits.

2.2 Chemistry of the Ethylene Process

multi-intermediates and end-products on a large scale industrially. The thermal cracking

hydrocarbon. In reality, the choice of starting material is narrowed by economical

2.3 Market survey

2.3.1 Global market

Although many economic uncertainties surround the petrochemical industry, ethylene

synthesis materials [26].

€840/tonne in Europe. [9]

2.3.2 Local market

Duraplast, Interplast, Blue Skies Ghana, and Ezzy Paints.

can also be used as feedstock. The choice of feedstock is a compromise of availability,

increases, ethylene yield decreases.

2.4.1 Methane (CH4)

2CH4 C2H4 + 2H2 …………………………… (1)

2.4.2. Ethane (CH3-CH3)

methane by liquefying it at cryogenic temperatures. Various refrigeration strategies exist,

chemical industry, mainly, in the production of ethylene by steam cracking. Ethane is

ethylene. Ethane may be cracked alone or as a mixture with propane. [2]

The net dehydrogenation reaction of ethane is

C2H6 C2H4 + H2 …………………………… (2)

Propane is normally a gas, but it is compressible to a liquid that is transportable.

C3H8 C2H4 + CH4 …………………………………. (3)

C3H8 C2H6 + H2 …………………………………... (4)

2C3H8 C2H8 + 2CH4 ………………………………. (5)

2C3H8 C2H6 + C3H6 + CH4 ……………………….. (6)

Naphtha, an important feedstock for ethylene production, is a collective of liquid

hydrocarbon intermediate oil refining products. It is a mixture of hydrocarbons in the

(C6-C8 raffinates) [29]. Naphtha is obtained in petroleum refineries as one of the

ethylene is similar to the ethane and propane processes.

in remote areas. It is also used as a fuel for heating purposes. [17]

2.4.6 Gas oil

for light olefins and LPG. [17]

2.4.7 Natural Gas

2.4.8 Choice of feedstock

feedstock, almost no propylene, butadiene and aromatics are formed as by-products.

Products,% mass Gaseous feed Liquid feed