Andrew P.

Magbanua BSCE – 5 CE515 – Assignment February 14, 2018

INTERSECTION APPROACH CAPACITY

1. Different types of vehicle resistances

1.1.Rolling resistance - The rolling resistance of tires on hard surfaces is due to hysteresis in the tire
material. When the tire rolls, the leading half of the contact area is loading and the trailing half is
unloading. Thus, the pressure on the leading half is greater than the pressure on the trailing half. This
phenomenon results in the ground reaction force shifting forward. The shift in the ground reaction
force creates a moment that opposes rolling of the wheels. On soft surfaces, the rolling resistance is
mainly caused by deformation of the ground surface. In this case the ground reaction force almost
completely shifts to the leading half.

1.2.Aerodynamic drag - A vehicle traveling at a particular speed in air encounters a force resisting its
motion. This force is known as aerodynamic drag. The main causes of aerodynamic drag are:
1.2.1. Shape Drag - The shape drag is due to the shape of the vehicle. The forward motion of the
vehicle pushes the air in front of it. However, the air cannot instantaneously move out of the
way and its pressure is thus increased. This results in high air pressure in the front of the
vehicle. The air behind the vehicle cannot instantaneously fill the space left by the forward
motion of the vehicle. This creates a zone of low air pressure.
1.2.2. Skin Effect - The air close to the skin of the vehicle moves almost at the speed of the vehicle
while the air away from the vehicle remains still. Between these two layers (the air layer
moving at the vehicle speed and the static layer) the molecules move at a wide range of
speeds. The difference in speed between two air molecules produces friction. This friction
results in the second component of aerodynamic drag and it is known as skin effect.

The aerodynamic drag is expressed as:

1.3.Grading resistance - When a vehicle goes up or down

a slope, its weight produces a component of force that
is always directed downwards. This force component
opposes the forward motion, i.e. the grade climbing.
When the vehicle goes down the grade, this force
component aids the vehicle motion.
Andrew P. Magbanua BSCE – 5 CE515 – Assignment February 14, 2018
The grading resistance can be expressed as:

1.4.Acceleration resistance - In addition to the driving

resistance occurring in steady state motion, inertial forces
also occur during acceleration and braking. The total mass
of the vehicle and the inertial mass of those rotating parts
of the drive accelerated or braked are the factors
influencing the resistance to acceleration:
The rotational component is a function of the gear ratio.
The moment of inertia of the rotating drive elements of
engine, clutch, gearbox, drive shaft, etc., including all the
road wheels are reduced to the driving axle. The
acceleration resistance can be expressed as

1.5.Total Vehicle Resistance - The traction force (Ft) required at the drive wheels is made up of the
driving resistance forces and is defined as

Substituting the values of all the forces in equation

The equation may be used to calculate the power required (Preq):

Sample Problems:

a) Rolling Resistance
Example - The Rolling Resistance of a Car on Asphalt
The rolling resistance of a car with weight 1500 kg on asphalt with rolling friction
coefficient 0.03 can be estimated as,
Fr = 0.03 (1500 kg) (9.81 m/s2)
= 441 N
= 0.44 kN

b) Aerodynamic Drag
Example - Air Resistance on a Normal Car
Andrew P. Magbanua BSCE – 5 CE515 – Assignment February 14, 2018
The force required to overcome air resistance for a normal family car with drag
coefficient 0.29 and frontal area 2 m2in 90 km/h can be calculated as,
Fd = 0.29 1/2 (1.2 kg/m3) ((90 km/h) (1000 m/km) / (3600 s/h))2 (2 m2)
= 217.5 N

c) Grading Resistance
A car with a mass of 900 kg climbs a 20° incline at a steady speed of 60 km/hr. If the
total resistance forces acting on the car add to 500 N, what is the power output of the car
in watts?
F - Fr - mg sin20° = 0
F =Fr + mg sin20° = 500 + 3017 = 3517 N
Converting the car's speed to m/s gives 16.67 m/s. The power output can then be found
from;
P = Fv = (3517) (16.67) = 58620 W.
d) Acceleration Resistance
Example - Motorcycle Acceleration
If a motorcycle accelerates from 0 km/h to 100 km/h in 3 seconds, the acceleration can be
calculated as
a = ((100 km/h) - (0 km/h)) (1000 m/km) / (3600 s/h)) / (3 s)
= 9.26 (m/s2)
or close to acceleration of gravity 1 g = 9.81 (m/s2).
The time from 0 - 100 km/h for an acceleration equal to gravity can be calculated by
modifying the equation above to
(9.81 m/s2) = ((100 km/h) - (0 km/h)) (1000 m/km) / (3600 s/h)) / dt
or
dt = ((100 km/h) - (0 km/h)) (1000 m/km) / (3600 s/h)) / (9.81 m/s2)
= 2.83 s

2. Traffic Signs
Traffic signs warn you of possible dangers and provide information. They tell you what the rules are and
what the road conditions are like.
Different functional classes of traffic signs:
2.1.Regulatory Signs - Regulatory signs tell you about laws that must be obeyed.
Except for STOP, GIVE WAY and ROUNDABOUT signs, most regulatory signs are rectangles.
They are usually black on a white background. Sometimes they also have a colour such as red. Some
parking signs are green on white. Some of the most common regulatory signs:
Left image: Image Keep to the left of this
sign. Centre image: Do not drive beyond
this sign. Right image: You must not turn
right or make a U turn.
Andrew P. Magbanua BSCE – 5 CE515 – Assignment February 14, 2018
2.2.Warning Signs - Warning signs tell you that there may be dangers ahead. They are usually black on
a yellow background and are mostly diamond shaped.
Pictures, diagrams and symbols are used to alert you to danger.

Left image: Crossroads ahead. Centre image: The road you are travelling on ends, you must give way to all traffic.
Right image: Road conditions will change ahead to two lanes of oncoming traffic.
2.3.Advisory Signs - Advisory speed signs are sometimes used together with other signs. They show the
maximum speed that is safe in good conditions. Sometimes other signs are used together with
warning signs to advise on how long you should look out for a particular hazard.
(Road bends to right. 55 km/h maximum speed in good conditions)
2.4.Stock Signs - When you see a sign with a picture of an animal, or words such as 'stock
crossing', you may be approaching animals on or near the road. You must slow down or stop to
avoid crashing with them. Fines apply if you do not obey these signs.

Stock may be crossing ahead

2.5.Warning Triangles for Crashes and Breakdowns - Vehicles with a GVM over 12 tonnes must
place a minimum of three warning triangles in breakdown situations.

2.6.Variable Message Signs - Variable Message Signs are

large electronic signs placed on the side of some roads.
They display messages to warn motorists of changes in
normal traffic conditions on the road ahead, such as fog,
crashes, road works, congestion and road closures. These
early warnings help provide a safe and efficient traffic flow.
Andrew P. Magbanua BSCE – 5 CE515 – Assignment February 14, 2018

2.7.Motorway Signs - Motorway signs give information about the start and end of a motorway and the
exits from a motorway.

2.8.Priority for Buses - In a built-up area a bus that has a GIVE WAY sign displayed and signals its
intention to pull out from its stopping place, has priority over other traffic, travelling in the left lane
or left line of traffic.

2.9.Temporary Roadwork Signs - These signs are used at roadworks. Slow down, look out for any
hazards and be prepared to stop. You must obey any signal from a traffic controller and give way to
any worker.

Left sign:Traffic controller ahead be prepared to stop(night).Centre sign:Traffic controller ahead be prepared to
stop. Right sign:Workers ahead (day)

3. Bank Curves

 To keep an object moving in uniform circular motion, something must exert a centripetal
force on it. In the case of cars driving around a race track, that centripetal force must come
from the roadway surface.
 If the roadway is flat, then friction between the tires and the road must supply all the
centripetal force.
 But if the roadway is banked, then some of the normal force from the roadway can supply
all (or some) of the needed centripetal force.
Andrew P. Magbanua BSCE – 5 CE515 – Assignment February 14, 2018
 One can derive the bank angle  which is just right for cars driving at speed v around a
track of radius r: