Professional Documents
Culture Documents
Medical Imaging
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Techniques
Dr. K. Adalarasu
KA – MIT – Unit II – Jan, 2018, Sastra University
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Textbook and Materials
Rafael C. Gonzalez, Richard E. Woods,
“Digital Image Processing”, 2nd Edition,
Pearson Education, 2003
Digital Image Processing by Jayaraman,
Veerakumar, 2012
Khandpur R.S, Handbook of Biomedical
Instrumentation, 3/e, Tata McGraw
Hill,New Delhi, 2014
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Reference
William K. Pratt, “Digital Image Processing” ,
John Willey ,2001
Steve Webb, The physics of medical imaging,
Adam Hilger, Bristol, England, Philadelphia,
USA, 1988
Jain A.K., “Fundamentals of Digital Image
Processing”, PHI, 1995.
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X-Ray Imaging
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X-rays Machine
X-rays were discovered by the German
physicist Wilhelm Konrad Röntgen in
November 1895
Called the ‘new kind of ray’ or X-rays, X for the
unknown
Today, imaging with X-rays is perhaps the most
commonly used diagnostic tool with the
medical profession
Chest radiography to a digital subtraction
angiography or computer tomography depend
on the use of X-rays
KA – MIT – Unit II – Jan, 2018, Sastra University
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Basics of Diagnostic Radiology
Radiological examination is one of the most
important diagnostic aids
Various anatomical structures of the body have
different densities for the X-rays
When X-rays from a point source penetrate a
section of the body
The Internal body structures absorb varying amount of the
radiation
Radiation that leaves the body has a spatial intensity
variation
i.e. an image of the internal structure of the body
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Basics of Diagnostic Radiology
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Basics of Diagnostic Radiology
X-ray intensity distribution is visualized by a
suitable device like a photographic film
Shadow image is generated
Corresponds to the X-ray density of the organs in the
body section
Main properties of X-rays
Capability to penetrate matter coupled with differential
absorption observed in various materials
Ability to produce luminescence and its effect on
photographic emulsions
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Chest X-ray 13
Negative contrast
X ray easily penetrate
Medium – air, oxygen, carbon dioxide
Area appear dark in film
Positive contrast
High atomic number, either barium sulphate or iodine
Absorbs x ray
Appear light in film
Bones
Absorb much of the X-ray radiation
While lung tissue (which is filled with mostly air)
Absorbs very little
KA – MIT – Unit II – Jan, 2018, Sastra University
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Chest X-ray
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Basics of Diagnostic Radiology
Evaluation is performed
Partly by calculating the total heart volume
Partly on the basis of any changes in shape
Visualization of the rest of the circulatory system
Use is made of injectible, water-soluble organic
compounds of iodine
Contrast medium is injected into an artery or vein
Usually through a catheter placed in the vessel
All the larger organs of the body can be examined by
visualizing the associated vessels and this technique is
called angiography
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Nature of x-rays
X-rays are electromagnetic radiation
Located at the low wavelength end of the electromagnetic
spectrum
Wavelength of the order of 10-10m
Propagate with a speed of 3X1010 cm/s
Unaffected by electric and magnetic fields
Electromagnetic radiation consists of photons
‘packets’ of energy
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Properties of X - rays
X-rays are able to penetrate through materials
which readily absorb and reflect visible light
X-rays are absorbed when passing through matter
Absorption depends upon the density of the matter
X-rays produce secondary radiation in all matter
through which they pass
Secondary radiation is composed
Scattered radiation
Characteristic radiation and electrons
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Properties of X - rays
Diagnostic radiology
Scattered radiation which is of practical importance
X-rays produce ionization in gases
Influence the electric properties of liquids and
solids
Ionizing property is made use of in the
construction of radiation-measuring instruments
X-rays also produce fluorescence in certain
materials to help them emit light
Fluoroscopic
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Production of x-
rays
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Production of x-rays
X-rays are produced
Whenever electrons collide at very high
speed with matter
Thus suddenly stopped
Energy possessed by the electrons
Parcel of energy in the form of highly
penetrating electromagnetic waves (X-rays)
of many different wavelengths
Which together form a continuous spectrum
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Production of x-rays
X-rays are produced in a specially
constructed glass tube
A source for the production of electrons
A energy source to accelerate the electrons
A free electron path
A means of focusing the electron beam
A device to stop the electrons
Stationary mode tubes and rotating anode
tubes are the two main types of X-ray tubes
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Stationary Anode Tube
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https://www.tes.com/lessons/RnryLgKjh7ZrMQ/x-ray-generator
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Stationary Anode Tube
Tube will emit X-rays in all directions
Protection needs to be provided except where the
useful beam emerges from the tube
Lot of heat will be generated by the tube
Hence this heat will cause the oil temperature to rise, the
oil will expand
Being a liquid, oil is incompressible
Either of oil resistant
Rubber or thin metal, is provided to accommodate the
expansion
Stationary anode tubes are employed mostly in small
capacity X-ray machines
KA – MIT – Unit II – Jan, 2018, Sastra University
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Rotating Anode Tube
More penetrating X-rays, requiring higher tube
voltages and current
X-ray tube itself becomes a limiting factor in the
output of the system
Due to the heat generated at the anode
Heat capacity of the anode
Function of the focal spot area
Absorbed power can be increased if the effective
area of the focal spot can be increased
Accomplished by the rotating anode type of X-ray tubes
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Rotating Anode Tube
Tubes with rotating anode are based on the removal
of the target from the electron beam before it
reaches too high a temperature under the electron
bombardment
Rapid replacement of it by another cooler target
Anode is a disk of tungsten or an alloy of tungsten
and 10% rhenium
Alloy helps to reduce the changes in the anode track due
to stress produced in the track as a result of the rapidly
changing temperature
Anode rotates at a speed of 3000–3600 or 9000–
10000 rpm
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Rotating Anode Tube
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Rotating Anode Tube
Tungsten disk that represents the anode has a
bevelled edge that may vary from 5°–20°
Typical angles are around 15°
Keeping with the line focus principle
With the rotating anode
Heat produced during an exposure is spread over a
large area of the anode
Thereby increasing the heat loading capacity of the tube
Allowing higher power levels to be used which produces
more intense x-radiation
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X - rays
Diagnostic applications
It is usual to employ high milliamperes and
lower exposure time
Therapeutic
High kV and relatively lower mA
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x-ray Machine
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X-ray Machine
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Collimators and Grids
Grids are
inserted
between the
patient and the
film cassette
Order to reduce
the loss of
contrast due to
scattered
radiation
Radiography
Switching element are controlled via corresponding
address lines in the row direction
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Radiography
Signal from the individual sensors is led to pre-
amplifiers, amplified and given to analog-to-digital
converters
All the sensors are read out until the whole X-ray
image has been completed
Pixel size in the X-ray image is determined by the
size of the sensors
In the a-Si detector, it is 143 µm X 143 µm
Detector size of 43 cm x 43 cm, a matrix of 3000 x
3000 pixels is created on the flat a-Si detector
Radiography
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Computed
Tomographic Imaging
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Computed Tomography (CT)
Two main limitations of using conventional X-rays
to examine internal structures of the body
Super-imposition of the three-dimensional information
onto a single plane makes diagnosis confusing and
often difficult
Photographic film usually used for making radiographs
has a limited dynamic range
Only objects that have large variations in X-ray absorption
relative to their surroundings will cause sufficient contrast
differences on the film to be distinguished by the eye
It is difficult to discern the shape and composition
of soft tissue organs accurately
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Computed Tomography (CT)
CT
Invented and developed by G.N. Hounsfield at the Central
Research Laboratories of EMI Ltd, UK, and introduced on
a commercial scale in 1972
Tomography is a term derived from the Greek word
‘tomos’, meaning ‘to write a slice or section’ and is
well-understood in radiographic circles
Conventional tomography was developed to reduce
the super-imposition effect of simple radiographs
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Computed Tomography (CT)
Computed tomography involves the determination of
attenuation characteristics for each small volume of
tissue in the patient slice
Which constitute the transmitted radiation intensity
recorded from various irradiation directions
Calculated tissue attenuation characteristics
Monochromatic X-ray beam, the tissue attenuation
characteristics
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Computed Tomography (CT)
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Contrast Scale
Attenuation coefficient of tissue is represented by
the scanner computer as integers that usually range
in values from –1000 to +1000
‘Hounsfield units, and are abbreviated as H
They are also denoted by CT numbers
Relationship between the linear attenuation
coefficient and the corresponding Hounsfield unit is
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Contrast Scale
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System
Components
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System Components
Four major sub-systems
Scanning system
Takes suitable readings for a picture to be reconstructed,
and includes X-ray source and detectors
Processing unit
Converts these readings into intelligible picture information
Viewing part
It presents this information in visual form and includes other
manipulative aids to assist diagnosis
Storage unit
This enables the information to be stored for subsequent
analysis
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Scanning System
To acquire enough information to reconstruct a
picture for an accurate diagnosis
Sufficient number of independent readings must be
taken to allow picture reconstruction with the
required spatial resolution
Density discrimination for diagnostic purposes
Readings are taken in the form of ‘profiles’
Higher the number of profiles obtained, the better is
the resulting picture
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Geometry
Collimated X-ray beam passes through the body
Its attenuation is detected by a sensor that moves
on a gantry along with the X-ray tube
Tube and detector move in a straight line
Sampling the data 180 times
At the end of the travel, a 1° tilt is made and a new linear
scan begins
Assembly travels 180° around the patient’s position
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First Generation—Parallel Beam Geometry
This arrangement is known as ‘Traverse and Index’
and was used in the earliest commercial system
EMI MKI Brain Scanner
Fairly slow procedure and requires a typical scan
time of 5 minutes
Early scanners were limited in their use to only brain
studies
This type of system is slow
Its picture quality and hence its diagnostic utility, is
exceptionally good
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Geometry
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First Generation—Parallel Beam
Geometry
Chances of blurring the reconstructed image
caused by movement of the patient or of internal
organs
Which necessitates reduction of the examination
period to within breath-holding times
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=fNaCxhhhZTE
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Multiple Detectors
An improved version of the traverse-index
arrangement consists in using a bank of detectors
and a fan beam of X-rays
System effectively takes several profiles with each
traverse and thus permits greater index angles
Using a 10° fan beam
It is possible to take 10 profiles
At 1° intervals
With each traverse and then index through 10°
before taking the next set of profiles
KA – MIT – Unit II – Jan, 2018, Sastra University
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Second Generation—Fan Beam, Multiple
Detectors
A full set of 180 profiles can be obtained with 18 traverses
Permitted a reduction in the scan time
At the rate of approximately 1 s for each traverse
It has led to the systems operating in the 18–20 s range
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Ni4Hsi3GhXo
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Third Generation—Fan Beam, Rotating
Detectors
Linear scanning movement can be avoided by using
a sufficiently wide fan-shaped X-ray beam
Which encompasses the whole object cross-section
Multiple detector system mechanically tied to the tube
Which permits a simultaneous measurement of the whole
absorption profile in one projection direction
X-ray tube and detectors
Rotational movement must not be stepwise but continuous
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Third Generation—Fan Beam, Rotating
Detectors
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=bdf0kXn5Eeg&list=PL
f13HXeCb7OYmjfjojg03N3dzs1fy2uaR&index=3
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Rotating Detectors
X-ray source and detectors mounted on a
common frame
Rotate around the patient, usually through 360
System gives a wide fan beam, typically
between 30° and 50°
Frame can be made to travel quite fast
So that a complete rotation takes only a few
seconds
Rotating Detectors
Two major disadvantages
First
It has a fixed geometry
With a fan beam set for the largest patient
Arrangement proves to be inefficient for smaller objects,
particularly heads
Secondly
Calibration of the detectors during scanning is not
possible since the patient is always within the beam
Therefore, any drifts or faults in the detection system tend
to produce a significant degradation in the picture quality
KA – MIT – Unit II – Jan, 2018, Sastra University
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Detectors
Rotational machines have been designed in which
Only the X-ray source rotates within a full circle of
stationary detectors arranged around the patient
As 2000 detectors to maintain a good spatial
resolution
Individual detectors are lined up practically without
gaps
So that the radiation which has penetrated the patient is
optimally used
Detectors
System permits calibration during scanning
Which eliminates the problem of detector drift
However, the cost of such machines would obviously
be high
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=AWVz3yke_bY&lis
t=PLf13HXeCb7OYmjfjojg03N3dzs1fy2uaR&index=4
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Beam
0.7 to 1 second time resolution limit of mechanical
CT scanners makes phase-resolution imaging of the
beating heart
Electron beam tomography (EBT) scanner
Electron beam computed tomography differs from
conventional CT in terms of speed and the method of
generating the X-ray
In conventional CT scanning
An X-ray tube and an X-ray detector are mounted across
each other on a circular frame and rotate around the
patient
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Fifth Generation—Scanning Electron
Beam
EBT
Electron beam sweeps back and forth through a magnetic
field
Impact of the electron beam on a semi-circular tungsten
array underneath the patient generates the X-rays
X-ray detectors are mounted on a semi-circular array
above the patient
Because an X-ray tube and X-ray detector are heavy
moving parts, weighing as much as 250 kg
Takes one second or more to take all the snapshots
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Beam
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=wvw2TZBagDc&index=5&list=PLf1
3HXeCb7OYmjfjojg03N3dzs1fy2uaR
KA – MIT – Unit II – Jan, 2018, Sastra University
Beam
Time for scanning a slice can be of the order of 50
ms with electron beam tomography
When combined with ECG triggering, EBCT can
permit a comprehensive cardiac imaging
Examination including the quantitation of flow rate over
multiple heart beats
Cardiac images obtained with a conventional CT
may be blurred due to motion artifact
In contrast, images of the heart obtained with
electron beam tomography are precise and
reproducible
KA – MIT – Unit II – Jan, 2018, Sastra University
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Beam
Detector array consists of two continuous ranges of
216° with 432 channels each
Luminascent crystals coupled to silicon photo-diodes are
used
Scanning electron beam emitted by an electron gun
is accelerated by 130–140 kV
Electromagnetically focused and deflected over a
target in a typical time of 50–100 ms
It was originally designed for cardiac examinations
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Fifth Generation—Scanning Electron
Beam
Four anode rings and two detector rings which
enabled eight contiguous slices
An area of approximately 8 X 8 mm
Scanned without movement of the patient
Basic difference between an electron beam scanner
and conventional units is that the patient is encircled
by stationary anode rings
Which can thus be cooled directly
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Scanner
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Magnetic Resonance
& Radio Isotope
Imaging
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Magnetic Resonance
(MR)
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Magnetic Resonance
Magnetic resonance
Absorption or emission of electromagnetic radiation by
electrons or atomic nuclei in response to the application of
certain magnetic fields
MRI scanners use
Strong magnetic fields
Electric field gradients
Radio waves to generate images of the organs in the body
MRI does not involve X-rays and the use of ionizing
radiation
Magnetic resonance imaging is a medical application
of nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR)
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Magnetic Resonance
MRI was originally called 'NMRI' (nuclear magnetic resonance
imaging) and is a form of NMR
Certain atomic nuclei are able to absorb and emit radio
frequency energy when placed in an external magnetic field
In clinical and research MRI
Hydrogen atoms are most often used to generate a detectable radio-
frequency signal that is received by antennas in close proximity to the
anatomy being examined
CT provides details about the bone and tissue structure of an
organ
NMR highlights the liquid-like areas on those organs and can
also be used to detect flowing liquids, like blood
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Principle of MRI System
Magnetic Moment
All materials contain nuclei that are either protons or
neutrons or a combination of both (Show, 1971)
Nuclei containing an odd number of protons or neutrons or
both in combination
Possess a nuclear ‘spin’ and a magnetic moment which has
both magnitude and direction
Magnetic moments of the nuclei making up the tissue are
randomly aligned
Have zero net magnetization (M = 0)
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Principle of MRI System
Material is placed in a magnetic field B0
Some of the randomly oriented nuclei experience an
external magnetic torque
Which tends to align the individual parallel or anti-parallel
magnetic moments to the direction of an applied magnetic
field
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Principle of MRI System
Slight excess of nuclei aligned parallel with the
magnetic field
This gives the tissue a net magnetic moment M0
With the magnetic moments being randomly oriented
with respect to one another
Components in the X-Y plane cancel one another out
While the Z components along the direction of the applied
magnetic field add up to produce this magnetic moment M0
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Principle of MRI System
Electromagnetic theory
Nucleus such as a hydrogen proton which possesses a
magnetic moment attempts to align itself with the magnetic
field in which it is placed
Applied magnetic field with a resonant angular
frequency, w0 (called the Larmor frequency)
Determined by a constant ᵞ (the magnetogyric ratio) and
the strength of the applied magnetic field B0
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Basic MRI Components
A magnet
Which provides a strong uniform, steady, magnet
field B0
An RF transmitter
Which delivers radio-frequency magnetic field to
the sample
A gradient system
Which produces time-varying magnetic fields of
controlled spatial non-uniformity
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Basic MRI Components
A detection system
Which yields the output signal
An imager system
Including the computer, which reconstructs and
displays the images.
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Basic MRI Components
Sub-systems of a
typical NMR
imaging system
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Basic MRI Components
Functions such as gates and envelopes for the
NMR pulses
Blanking for the pre-amplifier and RF power
amplifier
Voltage waveforms for the gradient magnetic fields
are all under software control
Computer
Various data processing tasks including the Fourier
transformation, image reconstruction, data filtering, image
display and storage
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Basic MRI Components
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Basic MRI Components
Magnet
Base field must be extremely uniform in space and constant
in time
Its purpose is to align the nuclear magnets parallel to each other in
the volume to be examined
SNR increases approximately linearly with the magnetic field
strength of the basic field
It must be as large as possible
Four factors characterize the performance of the
magnets used in MR systems
Field strength
Temporal Stability
Homogeneity
Bore size
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Magnet
Temporal stability is important
Since instabilities of the field adversely affect resolution.
Gross non-homogeneities result in image distortion
While the bore diameter limits the size of the dimension
of the specimen that can be imaged
Magnetic field can be produced by means of four
different ways
Permanent magnets
Electromagnets
Resistive magnets
Super-conducting magnets
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Magnet
Permanent magnet
Patient is placed in the gap between a pair of
permanently magnetized pole faces
Permanent magnet materials
High carbon iron alloys such as alnico or neodymium iron
(alloy of neodymium, boron and iron)
Ceramics such as barium ferrite
Advantages of producing a relatively small fringing
field and do not require power supplies
Produce relatively low fields of the order of 0.3 T or
less
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Magnet
Electromagnets
Make use of soft magnetic materials such as pole
faces
Which become magnetized only when electric
current is passed through the coils wound around
them
Require external electrical power supply
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Magnet
Resistive magnets
Use of large current-carrying coils of aluminium
strips or copper tubes
Electrical power requirement increases
proportionately to the square of the field strength
Which becomes prohibitively high as the field strength
increases
Total power in the coils is converted into heat
which must be dissipated by liquid cooling
0.2 T, the power requirement is nearly 70 kW
Used except for very low field strength
applications, generally limited to 0.02 to 0.06 T
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Magnet
Modern NMR machines utilize
superconductive magnets
Which lose their electrical resistance fully below a
specific temperature
Commonly used superconducting material is Nb
Ti (Niobium Titanium) alloy
Which the transition temperature lies at 9 K (–264°C)
Superconductive magnet coils are cooled with
liquid helium
Which boils at a temperature of 4.2 K (–269°C)
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Magnet
Superconductive magnets
Helium container with its superconductive
windings is enclosed in a vacuum
To keep the evaporation rate low
Internal shields cooled with liquid nitrogen prevent
heating due to radiated heat passing through the
vacuum vessel
Connection to a current supply is only necessary
for energizing up to the required field strength
After this, the coils are short-circuited and require
no further electrical energy
Magnetic field is temporarily stable
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102
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Magnet
NMR imaging systems usually incorporate magnets with a
maximum flux density of 0.5 T to 1.5 T
In the system of international units (SI units), the ‘Tesla’ (T) is
the unit of magnetic flux density
In some countries, the unit ‘Gauss’ (G) is also used
For conversion 1 T=10,000 G = 10 kG
Image quality of NMR scans depends upon
Uniformity of the static magnetic field
On its stability over a long period of time
Short periods
Uniformity of this magnet must be at least 20 ppm
Stability at a level of 2 ppm
Long periods
10ppm
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RF Transmitter System
Transmitter Function
To activate the nuclei
So that they emit a useful signal
Energy must be transmitted into the sample
Element
RF transmitter
RF power amplifier
RF transmitting coils
RF transmitter
RF crystal oscillator at the Larmor frequency
To generate RF pulses that excite the resonance
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RF Transmitter System
RF power amplifier
Pulses are amplified to levels varying from 100 W
to several kW depending on the imaging method
Fed to the transmitter coil
RF coils
Either a single coil serving as both transmitter and
receiver or
Two separate coils that are electrically orthogonal
In both cases, all coils generate RF fields
orthogonal to the direction of the main magnetic
field
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RF Transmitter System
Saddle-and solenoidal-shaped RF coils are typical geometries
for the RF coils
Magnetic fields in the range of 0.05 to 2 T used for imaging of
the human body
Resonant frequencies fall in the radio-frequency band
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RF Transmitter System
Example, in a field of 1 T
1H resonates at 42.57 MHz
19F at 40.05 MHz
31P at 17.24 MHz
13C at l0.71 MHz
Resonance is extremely sharp
Widths in the range of 10 Hz are typical of biological
systems
Function
To detect the nuclear magnetization and generate an output signal for
processing by the computer
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Detection System
Receiver coil usually surrounds the sample
Acts as an antenna to pick up the fluctuating nuclear
magnetization of the sample
Converts it to a fluctuating output voltage V(t)
Where
M(t, x) is the total magnetization in a volume
Bc(x) -sensitivity of the receiver coil at different points in
space
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Ultrasound &
Thermal Imaging
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Diagnostic Ultrasound
Ultrasound has become increasingly important in
medicine and has taken its place along with X-ray and
nuclear medicine as a diagnostic tool
Non-invasive character and ability to distinguish
interfaces between soft tissues
X-rays
Respond to atomic weight differences
Often require the injection of a more dense contrast medium
for visualization of non-bony tissues
Nuclear medicine techniques
Measure the selective uptake of radioactive isotopes in
specific organs to produce information concerning organ
function
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Diagnostic Ultrasound
Radioactive isotopes and X-rays are, thus, clearly
invasive
Obtaining images of almost the entire range of
internal organs in the abdomen
Kidney, liver, spleen, pancreas, bladder, major blood
vessels and of course, the foetus during pregnancy
To present pictures of the thyroid gland, the eyes, the
breasts and a variety of other superficial structures
Ultrasonic diagnostics has made possible the
detection of cysts, tumours or cancer in these organs
Diagnostic Ultrasound
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Ultrasound
Piezoelectric effect
Quartz, tourmaline and Rochelle salt
Converting electrical energy into mechanical energy and
vice versa
Natural crystals
It is difficult to establish the appropriate axis and cut the
crystal in the required form
Quartz has generally been replaced by synthetic
piezoelectric materials namely
Barium nitrate and lead zirconate titanate
Ultrasound
Materials with high mechanical Q factor
Suitable as transmitters
Low mechanical Q and high sensitivity are
Preferred as receivers
Lead zirconate Titanate (PZT) crystals
Much better than quartz crystals upto a frequency of about
15 MHz
High electro-mechanical conversion efficiency and low
intrinsic losses
Operate at temperatures up to 100°C or higher and it is
stable over long periods of time
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Ultrasound
Polyvinylidene difluoride (PVDF)
Ferro-electric polymer that has been used effectively in high
frequency transducers
Three parameters that are important in optimizing
transducers
Frequency, active element diameter and focusing
Higher frequencies (10-15 MHz) are used for
superficial organs, such as the eye, where deep
penetration is not required
Ultrasound
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Generation and Detection of Ultrasound
Patients’ body the transducer is to be positioned
Depth in the body to the structures of interest
Focusing
Minimizing the beam width and adjusting the focal zone to
give optimum results for a particular examination
Acoustic lenses can be used to shape the ultrasonic beam
pattern
Modern transducers are internally focused and externally
are of flat face
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Basic Pulse-echo
Apparatus
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Basic Pulse-echo Apparatus
Probe
Pulse Repetition Frequency Generator
Transmitter
Receiver
Transmitter-Receiver Matching
Wide Band Amplifier
Swept Gain Control
Detector
Video Amplifier
Time Delay Unit
Display
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Basic Pulse-echo Apparatus
Pulse-echo technique of using ultrasound for
diagnostic purposes in medical field
Transmitter
Generates a train of short duration pulses at a repetition
frequency determined by the PRF generator
Converted into corresponding pulses of ultrasonic
waves by a piezoelectric crystal acting as the
transmitting transducer
Echoes from the target or discontinuity are picked up
by the same transducer and amplified suitably for
display on a cathode ray tube
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Basic Pulse-echo Apparatus
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Basic Pulse-echo Apparatus
X plates of the CRT are driven by
Time base which starts at the instant when the transmitter
radiates a pulse
Probe
Transducer consists of a piezo-electric crystal which
generates and detects ultrasonic pulses
Barium titanate and lead zirconate titanate
Crystal is cut in such a way that it is mechanically resonant of
an increased efficiency of conversion of electrical energy to
acoustic energy
Transducer is excited at its resonance frequency
It will continue to vibrate mechanically for some time after the
electrical signal ceases
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Basic Pulse-echo Apparatus
Transducer must have a good transient response
Consequently a low Q is desirable
Backing material is made thick enough for complete
absorption of the backward transmitted ultrasonic
waves
Probes are designed
To achieve the highest sensitivity and penetration
Optimum focal characteristics and the best possible
resolution
Single quarter wavelength design, however
Provides optimal transmission of ultrasonic energy at a
particular wavelength only
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Basic Pulse-echo Apparatus
Single quarter wavelength matching layer transducer
Concave curvature
Lead to air bubble entrapment or patient contact problems
Multi-layer matching technology overcomes these
problems by interposing two layers between the
piezo-electric element and body
Two materials are chosen with acoustic impedances
between the values for ceramic and tissue
Stepwise transition of impedance from about 30 for
ceramic to about 1.5 for tissue
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Pulse Repetition Frequency Generator
Produces a train of pulses which control the
sequence of events in the rest of the equipment
PRF is usually kept between 500 Hz to 3 kHz
Blocking oscillator or some form of the astable multi-
vibrator
Width of the output pulse
Order of a micro-second
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Basic Pulse-echo Apparatus
Under normal conditions
SCR is non-conducting
Capacitor C1 can charge through the resistance R to the +V potential
Short triggering positive pulse is applied to the gate of the
SCR
It will fire and conduct for a short time
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Basic Pulse-echo Apparatus
Voltage at ‘A’ will fall rapidly resulting in a short
duration
High voltage pulse at ‘B’
This pulse appears across the crystal which
generates short duration ultrasonic pulse
SCR 2N4203 can be used because
Its high peak forward blocking voltage (700 V)
High switching current capability (100 A)
Fast turn-on time (100 ns)
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Basic Pulse-echo Apparatus
Receiver
Function of the receiver is to obtain the signal from the
transducer
To extract from it the best possible representation of an
echo pattern
Receiver bandwidth is about twice the effective transducer
bandwidth
Transmitter-Receiver Matching
A common source-receiver of ultrasound - sensitive input
stage of the receiving amplifier must be protected from the
high voltage transmission pulse
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Basic Pulse-echo Apparatus
During reception, the presence of Rs degrades the signal-to-
noise ratio due to signal attenuation
Johnson noise and increased receiver amplifier noise due to
raised source impedance
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Basic Pulse-echo Apparatus
Improved circuit to provide more effective transmitter/
receiver switching
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Basic Pulse-echo Apparatus
Wide Band Amplifier
Echo-signals received at the receiving transducer are in
the form of modulated carrier frequency and may be as
small as a few microvolts
Sufficient amplification before being fed to a detector
circuit for extracting modulating signals which carry the
useful information
Desirable gain of wide band amplifier is of the order of 80-
100 dB
Amplifier does not operate in the non-linear regions with
large input signals
Low noise level to receive echoes from deep targets
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Basic Pulse-echo Apparatus
Wide Band Amplifier
A dual gate MOSFET which is very suitable for high
frequency signals and provides a high input impedance to
the signals from the transducer
Log amplifier is usually utilized
One can see small relative differences in both low amplitude and
high amplitude echoes in the same image
Swept Gain Control
Stronger echoes are received from the more proximal
zones under examination than from the deeper structures
Receiving amplifier can only accept a limited range of
input signals without overloading and distortion
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Basic Pulse-echo Apparatus
Swept Gain Control
Reduces the amplification for the first few centimetres of
body tissue and progressively increases it to a maximum
for the weaker echoes from the distal zone
Detector
After the logarithmic amplification, the echo signals are
rectified in the detector circuit
Conventional diode-capacitor type with an inductive filter to
have additional filtering of the carrier frequency
Demodulator circuit - synchronous demodulation intended
for FM sound demodulation in television receivers
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Basic Pulse-echo Apparatus
Video Amplifier
Signal requires further amplification after its demodulation
in the detector circuit before it can be given to the Y-plates
of the CRT
Output of the detector circuit is typically around 1 V
But for display on the CRT, the signal must be amplified to
about 100 to 150 V
Amplifier must have a good transient response with
minimum possible overshoot
Video amplifier is the RC coupled type
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Basic Pulse-echo Apparatus
Time Delay Unit
SCR is fired
Start of the trace can be delayed by the time delay unit so
that the trace can be expanded to obtain better display
Time Base
Time base speed is adjusted
So that echoes from the deepest structures of interest will appear on
the screen before the beam has completely traversed it
Speed of ultrasound in soft tissue to be about 1,500 m/s, a
time of 13.3 µs must be allowed
Horizontal sweep generator is controlled by the PRF
generator
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Time Marker
Produces pulses that are a known time apart
Therefore correspond to a known distance apart
in human tissues
Marker pulses are given to the video amplifier and
then to the Y plates for display along with the
echoes
Display
CRT is not only a fast-acting device but also gives
a clear presentation of the received echo signals
‘Reject’ and ‘Damping’ controls
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Thermal Imaging
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Medical thermograph
Sensitive infrared camera which presents a video image of
the temperature distribution over the surface of the skin
Providing fairly good evidence of any abnormality
Thermography still cannot be considered as a
diagnostic technique comparable to radiography
Radiography
Provides essential information on anatomical structures and
abnormalities
Thermography
Indicates metabolic process and circulation changes
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Medical Thermography
Human body absorbs infrared radiation almost
without reflection
Emits part of its own thermal energy in the form of
infrared radiation
Intensity of this radiant energy
Corresponds to the temperature of the radiant surface
Normal healthy subject
Body temperature may vary considerably from time to time
Skin temperature pattern - characteristic features, and a
remarkably consistent bilateral symmetry
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Medical Thermography
Thermography
Science of visualizing these patterns and determining any
deviations from the normal brought about by pathological
changes
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Medical Thermography
Advantages
Completely non-invasive
No contact between the patient and system as with
ultrasonography
No radiation hazard as with X-rays
Real-time system
Mammary glands were the first organs that
thermography was clinically applied
Cancer tissue metabolizes more actively than other
tissues and thus has a higher temperature
Heat produced is conveyed to the skin
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Medical Thermography
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Medical Thermography
Application
Assessment and monitoring of inflammatory joint diseases
Diagnosing deep vein thrombosis
Problem of peripheral circulation
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Thermographic Equipment
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Digital Analysis System
Analog outputs from the camera are converted into
digital thermo-profiles by the A-D converter of a
computer
Control processing unit of the computer
Converts digital values into true temperature values
based on the calibration data stored in the memory or
magnetic tape
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Pyroelectric Vidicon
Camera
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Pyroelectric Vidicon Camera
Pyroelectric vidicon is a thermal imaging tube
Glass envelope
Fitted with a germanium faceplate, matching the 8 to 14
mm atmospheric window
Pyroelectric target mounted on a metal backing
plate
That also acts as the video output electrode
An electron gun and beam shaping electrodes like
those of a standard vidicon
Gas reservoir heated by a tungsten filament
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Pyroelectric Vidicon Camera
Tube is surrounded by focusing and deflection coils
Incoming thermal radiation
Focused by an infrared transmitting lens through the
infrared transmitting face plate of the tube onto the target
Target is a triglycine-sulphate (TGS) pyroelectric
High sensitivity in the 8 to 14 µ mm range of the spectrum
Certain types of crystals (ferro-electric) get polarized
in a well-defined direction, known as the polar axis
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Pyroelectric Vidicon Camera
Slice of such a crystal will create an accumulation of
charge (on the faces normal to the polar axis)
That is proportional to the variation in polarization caused
by the temperature change
Called the pyroelectric effect
Increase in pyroelectric coefficient with temperature
Accompanied by a very rapid increase in the dielectric
constant of the material
That reduces the efficiency with which the pyroelectric
changes can be read by the electron beam
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Pyroelectric Vidicon Camera
Video amplifier has a voltage gain of 60, its
output signal will be 3.3 X 60 = 200 mV
Clipping circuit is provided in the pyricon camera
Pyricon camera provides 0.5°C resolution at
ambient temperature
Common errors
Noise and thermal blurring
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