Professional Documents
Culture Documents
1\ Thesis submitted in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the award of the degree
of Masters of Science in Electronics and Instrumentation in the School of Pure and
Applied Sciences of Kenyatta University
April 2015
DECLARATION
1 declare that this thesis is my original work and has not been submitted or published
156/17707/2002
Recommendation by supervisors
•
We confirm that the work reported in this thesis has been submitted for review with our
Supervisors
Department of physics
DEDICATION
This work is dedicated to my sons Edwin, Jeff, Charles and wife Hannah
iii
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
First, and foremost, I would like to graciously thank my supervisors Dr. M. Munji of
Kenyatta University and Prof .. LN. Nderu of Jomo Kenyatta University of Agriculture
and Technology for the inspiration and guidance they have given me during my work.
than only a pursuit of more knowledge, I would not have reached this far. I value the
freedom i have had in choosing the research topic. It has been frustrating when leading
into points of dead-end, but valuable for my future: a reminder that temporary setbacks
Systems group. I would especially like to thank Mr. Derrick Khamali, J. Kamunge,
S.Mwichuri, Dr. G. Mugeni and Ema for their tremendous technical and logistical
support during the research period. I am grateful to the Director General of CCK Mr.
-Francis Wangusi, Director Frequency Spectrum Management Mr. S. Kibe for allowing
Special thanks also to Madam Rachel Abiah of Kenya Bureau of Standard (KEBS), Mr.
Moses Kinyanjui of Radiation Protection Board of Kenya (RPB) and Mr. Benson
providing 'me both with valuable insights into related technical fields, and with
Getting this far has only been possible thanks to my wife Hannah, my sons Edwin, Jeff
and Charles, who have provided so much warmth and support through the years.
Finally, I would like to acknowledge the academic support by the teaching staff of
TABLE OF CONTENTS
DECLARATION
DEDICATION ii
ACKNOWLEDGMENT iii
TABLE OF CONTENTS v
LIST OF TABLES ix
LIST OF FIGURES xi
ABSTRACT xvii
1 INTRODUCTION 1
1.3 Objectives 3
2 LITERATURE REVIEW 6
2.1 Introduction 6
3 RESEARCH METHODOLOGY 24
3.1 Introduction 24
3.5.2 Method 30
4.1 Introduction 41
5.2 Recommendations 82
REFERENCES 83
ix
LIST OF TABLES
Table 3.1 Location coordinates and category of the selected base stations 33
Table 4.2 Ground Floor maximum RF Radiation for site 001 (Sarit Center) 46
Table 4.3 First Floor maximum RF Radiation for site 001 (Sarit Center) 47
Table 4.4 Second and Third Floor maximum RF Radiation for (Sarit Center) 48
LIST OF FIGURES
Fig 3.6 Selected Base station locations within Nairobi and its environs 32
Fig 4.1 GSM 900 Spectral scans taken from 001 (Sarit Centre) 43
Fig 4.2 . GSM 1800 spectral scans taken from 001 (Sarit Centre) 44
Fig 4.3 UMTS 2100 spectral scans' taken from 001 (Sarit Centre) 44
Fig 4.4 GSM 900 Spectral scans taken from 002 (Kilimani) 49
xii
Fig 4.5 GSM 1800 Spectral scans taken from 002 (Kilimani) 49
Fig 4.6 UMTS 2100 spectral scans taken from 002 (Kilimani) 50
Fig 4.7 GSM 900 spectral scans taken from 004 (Aga Khan) 54
Fig 4.8 GSM 1800 spectral scans taken from 004 (Aga Khan) 55
Fig 4.9 UMTS 2100 spectral scans taken from 004 (Aga Khan) 55
Fig 4.11 Comparison of Radiations from site (001) Aga Khan Hospital 72
LIST OF APPENDIXES
Appendix 1 86
Appendix 2 89
Appendix 3 91
xiv
MHz Megahertz
RF Radio Frequency
ABSTRACT
CHAPTER ONE
INTRODUCTION
Since the introduction of mobile phone in Kenya the health implication of radio fre.quency
(RF) radiation from cellular base station has been a subject of great debate and concern
among the Kenyan citizens. Some interested groups opine that radiations from cellular
base station are harmful to health. Some believe that exposure to these radiations for long
period may lead to diseases like cancer, congenital anomalies, epilepsy, and persistent
headache and may destroy reproductive organs. Some international bodies believe that
certain areas of the body like eyes and testicles are particularly vulnerable to RF heating
because of the relative lack of available blood flow to dissipate the excessive heat load
(Hyland, 2000).
At relatively low levels of exposure to RF radiation, that is, levels lower than those that
~ould produce significant heating; the evidence for harmful biological effects is
ambiguous and unproven. Such effects have sometimes been referred to as "non thermal"
effects. It is generally agreed that further research is needed to determine the effects and
their possible relevance, if any, to human health (Loque et al., 2004). Others believe that
there is risk of RF radiation to pregnant women. A pregnant woman and the foetus are both
vulnerable because of the fact that these RF radiation continuously react with the
developing embryo. When a pregnant lady either uses mobile phone or when illuminated
with RF radiation, the developing child can be affected. The developmental malformation
may affect the child's brain. Human brain is said to be the most vulnerable portion to the
2
enzymes and free radicals decreasing the brain metabolism (Persson, 1997; Thomas et ai.,
2007).
The proliferation of wireless antennas across Kenya may have created a human health
hazard for the public. Members of public stay or work in close proximity to RF radiation
is tasteless, odorless and invisible. Many times, members of public do not even know the
Although some mobile phone system manufacturers and GSM operators across the world
insists that there are no discernible effects from the base station radiation, the International
emission levels there are health consequences. It is due to these health consequences that,
this work aimed at investigating the intensity of the RF emission from some selected
cellular base stations in Nairobi (Kenya) area and environ. It is important to note that, since
the introduction and use of cellular networks in Kenya we have witnessed mushrooming of
base stations than never before. Base stations have been erected in green fields, on top of
buildings and inside buildings; this has raised concern about RF and health.
3
1.3 Objectives
The objective of this study was to measure radio frequency radiation levels at selected
cellular base station transmitters, and to evaluate the results against the internationally
recommended levels.
1. To carry out the radio frequency radiation measurements in GSM 900, GSM 1800
and UMTS 2100 frequency bands at selected base stations within Nairobi and
environ.
II. Determine the highest RF levels at each base station as a percentage of International
It is important to note that, since the introduction and use of cellular networks in Kenya we
have witnessed mushrooming of base stations than never before. Base stations have been
erected in green field, on top of buildings, inside buildings etc. In this regard people live
often essential to chart the prevailing electromagnetic fields and to localize possible
sources of hazardous emissions. There has been lack of empirical data on RF radiation
from cellular base station transmitters that can inform policy designers in Kenya. There has
been no locally published research that could inform policy designers, mobile operators
and members of public whether RF radiation from cellular base station transmitters in
In some areas mobile phone operators meet a lot of opposition from the residents when
they plan to erect a base station. Residents usually demand to know if the base station in
their proximity will have effect on them. Mostly the answer given is not convincing
because of lack of data in public domain for reference. This research will make a major
contribution to the body of knowledge on the non-ionizing RF radiation from cellular base
stations in Kenya. The analysis of the data obtained from the measurements carried out has
Future researchers and stake holders could use the results of this research to develop an RF
The scope of the research was to generate data that can be used to conclusively draw
position of radio frequency emission from cellular base stations in Kenya. This data was
5
captured from existing cellular base station transmitters within Nairobi and outside
Nairobi. Measurement from sixteen cellular base stations were taken and then evaluated
against ICNIRP 1998 Maximum Public Exposure (MPE) limits to give a clear picture of
the RF exposure contributed by cellular base stations. Twenty base stations were targeted
and choice of the sites was random but selective with main focus on areas with high
population and hence high concentration of base stations. The choice was also made to
capture emissions from all the licensed cellular operators in Kenya. The categories of the
base stations were also considered when selecting the sites. We were however able to
conduct measurements in sixteen base stations due to time limit allocated by the CAK
engineers.
6
CHAPTER TWO
LITERATURE REVIEW
2.1 Introduction
Radio spectrum refers to the part of the electromagnetic spectrum corresponding to radio
frequencies that is; frequencies lower than around 300 GHz (wavelengths longer than
about I mm). Electromagnetic waves in this frequency range are called radio waves and
are commonly used for radio communication and various other technologies. Because of
the potential for electromagnetic interference between users, the generation of radio waves
standards body called the International Telecommunications Union (ITU). Different parts
of the radio spectrum are allocated for different radio transmission technologies and
applications. In some cases, parts of the radio spectrum is sold or licensed to operators of
private radio transmission services (for example, cellular telephone operators or broadcast
provisioned use for example, cellular spectrum (Colin, 2003). Table 2.1 shows the three
I'
main cellular frequencies sub bands used in Kenya and the frequencies within the bands
Table 2.2 and Table 2.3 show the cellular frequency spectrum allocation in Kenya.
Downlink frequencies refer to the frequencies that base stations use to transmit information
7
to the mobile phone while the uplink refers to the frequencies used by the mobile phone to
transmit to the base station. Communication Commission of Kenya (CCK) has allocated
the frequencies to different mobile phone operators as shown in the tables 2.2 and 2.3.
GSM (Global System for Mobile Communications, originally Groupe Special Mobile), is a
describe protocols for second generation (2G) digital cellular networks used by mobile
8
phones. It became the de facto global standard for mobile communications with over 80%
market share.
The GSM standard was developed as a replacement for first generation (l G) analog
for full duplex voice telephony. This was expanded over time to include data
communications, first by circuit-switched transport, then packet data transport via GPRS
(General Packet Radio Services) and EDGE (Enhanced Data Rates for GSM Evolution).
10
Silberhorn (Germany), Stephen Temple (UK), Philippe Dupuis (France), and Renzo Failli
(Italy). In 1989 the Groupe Special Mobile committee was transferred from CEPT to the
In parallel, France and Germany signed a joint development agreement in 1984 a~d were
joined by Italy and the UK in 1986. In 1986 the European Commission proposed reserving
Phase I of the GSM specifications were published in 1990. The world's first GSM call was
made by the former Finnish prime minister Harri Holkeri to Kaarina Suonio (mayor in city
of Tampere) on July 1, 1991, on a network built by Te1enokia and Siemens and operated
by Radiolinja. The following year in 1992, the first short messaging service (SMS) was
sent and Vodafone UK and Telecom Finland signed the first international roaming
agreement. Work began in 1991 to expand the GSM standard to the 1800 MHz frequency
band and the first 1800 MHz network became operational in the UK by 1993. That year,
Telecom Australia became the first network operator to deploy a GSM network outside
Eurcpe and the first practical hand-held GSM mobile phone became available.
In 1995, fax, data and SMS messaging services were launched commercially, the fir t
1900 MHz GSM network became operational in the United States and GSM subscribers
worldwide exceeded 10 million. In the same year, the GSM Association was formed. Pre-
paid GSM SIM cards were launched in 1996 and worldwide GSM subscribers passed 100
million in 1998.
11
In 2000, the first commercial GPRS services were launched and the first GPRS compatible
handsets became available for sale. In 2001 the first UMTS (W-CDMA) network was
launched and worldwide GSM subscribers exceeded 500 million. In 2002 the first
Multimedia Messaging Service (MMS) were introduced and the first GSM network in the
800 MHz frequency band became operational. EDGE services first became operational in a
network in 2003 and the number of worldwide GSM subscribers exceeded billion in
2004.
By 2005, GSM networks accounted for more than 75% of the worldwide cellular network
market, serving 1.5 billion subscribers. In 2005 the first HSDPA capable network also
became operational. The first HSUPA network was launched in 2007 and worldwide GSM
subscribers exceeded two billion in 2008. The GSM Association estimates that
technologies defined in the GSM standard serve 80% of the global mobile market,
encompassing more than 5 billion people across more than 212 countries and territories,
making GSM the most ubiquitous of the many standards for cellular networks (Moulyand
Marie, 2002).
Figure 2.1 shows the four discrete sections of a GSM network. The four sections are Base
Station Subsystem, Network and Switching Subsystem, GPRS Core Network and
Operations support system. Figure 2.1 shows the structure of a GSM network.
12
i. Base Station Subsystem (BSS) - the base stations and their controllers as explained in
section 2.4.2
ii. Network and Switching Subsystem (NSS) - the part of the network most similar to a
iii. GPRS Core Network - the optional part which allows packet-based Internet
connections
GPRS PS
BSS
EIR
Fig 2.2 shows a typical Base Station subsystem setup' with panel antennas, a tower mount
GSM is a cellular network, which means that cell phones connect to it by searching for
cells in the immediate vicinity. There are five different cell sizes in a GSM network macro,
micro, pico, femto, and umbrella cells. The coverage area of each cell varies according to
the implementation environment. A Macro cell can be regarded as cell where the base
station antenna is installed on a mast or a building above average rooftop level. A Micro
cell is a cell whose antenna height is under average rooftop level; it is typically used in
urban areas. Picocells is a small cell whose coverage diameter is a few dozen meters; it is
mainly used in indoors. Femtocells are cells designed for use in residential or small
business environments and connect to the service provider's network via a broadband
internet connection. Umbrella cells are used to cover shadowed regions of smaller cells and
A Cell horizontal radius varies depending on antenna height, antenna gain, and
propagation conditions from a couple of hundred meters to several tens of kilometers. The
longest distance the GSM specification supports in practical use is 35 kilometers. There are
14
several implementations of the concept of an extended cell, where the cell radius could be
double or even more, depending on the antenna system, the type of terrain, and the timing
advance.
Indoor coverage is also supported by GSM and may be achieved by using an indoor
picocell base station, or an indoor repeater with distributed indoor antennas fed through
power splitters, to deliver the radio signals from an antenna outdoors to the separate indoor
distributed antenna system. These are typically deployed when significant call capacity is
needed indoors, examples can be found in shopping centers or airports. However, this is
not a prerequisite, since indoor coverage is also provided by in-building penetration of the
In some parts of the world where GSM900, GSM 1800 and UMTS2100 bands were
already allocated, the 850 MHz and 1900 MHz bands were used instead (for example in
Canada and the United States). In rare cases the 400 and 450 MHz frequency bands are
assigned in some countries because they were previously used for first-generation systems.
individual phones. This allows eight full-rate or sixteen half-rate speech channels per radio
frequency. These eight radio times lots (or burst periods) are grouped into a TDMA frame.
Half-rate channels use alternate frames in the same timeslot. The channel data rate for all 8
lS
channels is 270.833 Kbitls, and the frame duration is 4.615 milliseconds. The transmission
power in the handset is limited to a maximum of 2 Watts in GSM 850/900 and 1 Watt in
GSM 180011900.
GSM has used a variety of voice codecs to squeeze 3.1 kHz audio into between 6.5 and
13 kbitls. Originally, two codecs, named after the types of data channel they were
allocated, were used, called Half Rate (6.5 kbitls) and Full Rate (13 kbitls). These used a
system based on linear predictive coding (LPC). In addition to being efficient with bitrates,
these codecs also made it easier to identify more important parts of the audio, allowing the
air interface layer to prioritize and better protect these parts of the signal.
GSM was further enhanced in 1997 with the Enhanced Full Rate (EFR) codec, a
12.2 kbitls codec that uses a full-rate channel. Finally, with the development of UMTS,
EFR was refactored into a variable-rate codec called AMR-Narrowband, which is high
quality and robust against interference when used on full-rate channels, or less robust but
still relatively high quality when used in good radio conditions on half-rate channels
(Salgues, 1997)
One of the key features ofGSM is the Subscriber Identity Module, commonly known as a
SIM card. The SIM is a detachable smart card containing the user's subscription
information and phone book. This allows the user to retain his or her information after
16
switching handsets. Alternatively, the user can change operators while retaining the
handset simply by changing the SIM. Some operators will block this by allowing the phone
to use only a single SIM, or only a SIM issued by them; this practice is known as SIM
locking.
Mobile phone use in Kenya has increased substantially, the number of subscribers having
reached 29.7 million by October 2012 (CCK, 2012). As a result, there has been a
corresponding rise in the public interest expressed with regard to health issues associated
with the exposure of humans to Electro-magnetic Fields (EMF). Both mobile phones and
their Base Transceiver Stations (BTS commonly known as 'base stations') emit
referred to as non-ionizing radiation (NIR). Ionizing radiation (such as X-rays and Gamma
Rays), on the other hand are capable of causing ionization and producing molecular
general-public exposure;
fully aware of the danger of such exposure and are supposed to take necessary
precautionary measures.
ii. Exposure that is not employment related such as radiation from mobile phones and BTS
Various organizations such as the United state of America based, Federal Communications
(lCNIRP) have set RF exposure limits. Exposure to Radio frequency radiation above the
reference limits is termed as hazardous. Accruing health effects due to such exposures are
biological tissues and the heating thereof is facilitated by electrical properties of bio-matter
and the body's thermoregulatory mechanism (Hyland, 2000). The amount of heat produced
in the exposed tissues depends primarily on exposure time and the intensity of radiation
penetrating the system. The World Health Organization (WHO) has associated brain
cancer with RF exposures and has determined that the most thermally vulnerable organs
include genitals and eyes (Maneesh et al., 2009). Other effects include a stinging sensation
and a feeling of heat in the facial skin (Sandstrom et al., 1998). Non-thermal effects such
as headache, dizziness, fatigue, stress, difficulties in concentrating and nausea have been
reported (Krewski , 2007). In this work, the intensities of RF radiation from selected BTS
,.
in Kenya were investigated and assessed based on the established safety standards on non-
ionizing radiation.
Due to the ever-increasing mobile-phone usage in Kenya, increasing numbers of BTS are
being setup to support the growing network coverage. Other wireless networks, such as
those that facilitate high-speed Internet access (such as WLANs) are also on the increase.
Such exposure, which is dependent upon the proximity of the human being to the BTS and
18
radio or Television-broadcast transmitters and if not properly checked can cause problems
to human and animal life. Under ideal conditions the strength of the RF field is at its
greatest in the immediate vicinity of the source and diminishes quickly in relation to
distance from the source. Network access in the immediate vicinity of a BTS should often
be restricted due to the fact that the RF signal may exceed the permitted exposure limits
(CCK,2012).
above ground) emit a fan-shaped transmission beam, which is typically vertically narrow
and horizontally broad, and whose intensity decreases rapidly in relation to the distance
from the BTS. The point at which the beam comes into contact with the ground is also
assumed to be sufficiently low as to render its strength significantly lower than the
Electromagnetic fields of all frequencies represent one of the most common and fastest
growing environmental influences, about which anxiety and speculation are spreading. All
populations are now exposed to varying degrees of EMF, and the levels will continue to
increase as technology advances. Extensive research has been conducted into possible
health effects of exposure to many parts of the frequency spectrum (Moni, 2010).
International scientific reviews were conducted mainly with the purpose of identifying;
ii. Biological effects that are suggestive of possible health effects but require further
World health organization (WHO), through its International EMF Project, has conducted a
series of in-depth international reviews of the scientific literature on the biological and
health effects of exposure to electromagnetic fields. The following are some of these
reports:-
Munich, 1996).
ii. Electromagnetic Fields and Non-Specific Health Symptoms (WHO Graz, 1998)
v. Guiding public health policy in areas of scientific uncertainty (WHO Ottawa, 2005)
""A number of international organizations have formulated guidelines establishing limits for
occupational and residential EMF exposure. The exposure limits for EMF fields developed
reviews of all the peer-reviewed scientific literature, including thermal and non-thermal
effects. The standards are based on evaluations of biological effects that have been
Gregory Nelson reported a measurement study conducted by the University of the West
(UK}(TRC). The study involved the measurement of the Radiofrequency Radiation (RFR)
levels in the British Virgin Islands (BVI). Measurements were taken at various sites on the
main Islands of Tortola, Virgin Gorda, Anegada and Jost Van Dyke at places- where
field strength meter for comparison to the general public exposure limits set by the
scans of cellular bands were also collected to clarify the contributions of cellular
taken with the broadband field strength meter, a spectrum analyzer was used to capture
data on cellular contributions. Overall measurements did not exceed 8%, where not more
than 6% was due to the cellular bands. In 52% of the cases, cellular radiation contributed
between 40% to 80% of the overall levels measured. The study revealed that the maximum
etal.,2010).
In New Delhi India Seven telecom operators, including RCom, Tata Teleservices
Maharashtra, Airtel and Vodafone, were found violating radiation norms laid down by the
Vodafone, Idea Cellular, Airtel and Loop Telecom were found radiating beyond
21
permissible limits of the new radiation norms when measurements were carried out in
some houses facing nearby BTS antenna. Orders were issued to the 7 operators to stop
radiating from these BTSs with immediate effect. Functioning of the BTSs was resumed
only after the sites are made compliant and information to that effect was verified by
Telecom Enforcement and Resource Monitoring (TERM) Cell. The new radiation norms,
applicable from September 2012, lowered limit of emission from telecom towers by one-
tenth compared to earlier ICNIRP MPE limits in India. Under the new guidelines,
frequency range in which the antenna operates. Like, an antenna operating in the frequency
range of 400 MHz will be allowed to emit 400 watt of energy per 2,000 square metre of
area. It sets minimum distance of a tower (with two antennas) to be 35 metres from a
A study of the electromagnetic environment on existing residential and rural land at Minto
(Australia) was performed to determine the impact on the Minto urban development
proposed by Landcom. The electromagnetic radiation (EMR) levels over the entire
redevelopment site emanating from the Mobile Phone Base Transceiver Site (BTS) on the
adjacent Sydney Water land, Eagleview Road, Minto and all other fixed radio transmitter
installations in the vicinity of the development area were measured. The power flux
densities due to all base station transmitters at each measurement location were calculated.
within the terms of the Campbelltown City Council Development Control Plan No. 107
Radiation was determined. Campbell town City Council Development Control Plan No.
(i) Should be setup at least 300 meters from any residential dwelling unless the annual
2
average exposure at the nearest residential dwelling is less than 0.2 uW/cm
(ii) Should be setup at least 300 meters from any school, childcare centre, hospital or aged
care centre and the annual average exposure at these land uses must be less than 0.2
2
uW/cm.
The combined EMR of all existing radio communications transmitters at selected measured
locations within the Minto urban development project were less than 30% of the Campbelt
town City Council Development Control Plan No. 107 requirements for siting of
communication facilities. The highest recorded level was 8.5% of the MPE limits of
Campbelt town council limit exposure (DCP 107). These levels also complied with the
Fig 2.4 summarizes some of the low level studies reviewed by working groups. The
columns shows the Authors, exposure conditions, test system used, the theme of the study
Kwee et al 960 MHz GSM or Cell culture Cell For GSM linear correlation
1998 ELF in a TEM of pro lifer between power level and
cell for 3 different transformed ation growth change. For ELF
power levels human linear correlation between the
epithelial length of exposure time to
amnion cells obtain maximum effect and
field strength
Velizarov 960 MHz (GSM) Cell line Cell No change in Cell proliferation
et al1999 in TEM Cell size not prolifer under different temperatures
specified ation
CHAPTER THREE
RESEARCH METHODOLOGY
3.1 Introduction
This chapter details the methods used to address the research problem. as outlined in the
previous chapter. It covers the methodology, the various research instruments used and
their rationale thereof, the procedure followed and the location where the research was
Preliminary investigations included indentifying the site location and inspecting the site to
note any relevant characteristics that may impact upon readings (e.g. the presence of
obstructions - trees, buildings; reflecting objects - cars, water, metallic structures). Next, as
necessary, the field strength m ter and isotropic broadband probe was used to determine
spatial variation of RF fields around the site in order to identify the position' of the
field of the transmitter. GPS coordinates w re recorded along with any other relevant
The field strength meter and isotropic broadband probe was used to measure radiation
within the range 300 kHz to 50 GHz, thus determining radiation levels of many possible
25
cellular radio frequency sources. At the identified measurement locations, the field strength
meter and probe was used to capture field strength data for 6 minutes, with I-second
sampling intervals. Within each sampling interval the maximum, minimum, and average
values for that I-second interval was logged in by the meter. The field meter was mounted
at approximately 1.5 meters above the local ground level using the non-metallic tripod
(ICNIRP, 1998). Multiple readings were taken at a sample point since at each site multiple
antennas exist to cover different sectors. Taking this into account, readings were taken for
each sector, provided that physical access to a suitable measurement point was possible. A
Spectrum Analyzer was used to measure radiation by frequency within the range 800 MHz
to 2200 MHz, thus determining radiation levels by frequency for many possible cellular
radio frequency sources in the area. While the Field strength meter logged in 300 kHz to
50 GHz RF radiation data for a site, spectrum analyzer was used to log RF radiation data
across the cellular frequency ranges being measured. The analyzer was placed on a
continuous sweep, and the data recorded for subsequent analysis. For this study scans were
collected to cover the GSM services and 3G services (where applicable) to confirm the
existing levels.
The secondary data constituted information from scholarly literature review of publications
publications and internet data. The secondary data played a vital part in the development
The research was conducted within the City of Nairobi and its environs using instruments
and other resources from Communication Commission of Kenya (CCK) and cellular
network operators. For the purpose of this study, the state of RF radiation in Nairobi City
developing countries and particularly Kenya presently and in the near future. The choice of
guidelines for observation (Crossman, 2004). A wide range of research instruments was
utilized for primary data collection. The choice of instrument depended on the situation
where measurements are being made. All instruments used for measuring RF fields had the
iv. Laptop/PC with the relevant software to process the measured results.
Fig 3.1 shows an RF spectrum analyzer and associated probe used for the RF radiation
the range 800 MHz to 2200 MHz, thus determining radiation levels by frequency for many
Fig 3.2 shows a Global Positioning System (GPS ) used to indentify the location of the
cellular base station. The GPS records the coordinates of the base station.
Fig 3.3 shows the field strength meter used to indetify the location of the highest
exposure .. The field strength meter and isotropic broadband probe was used to
measure radiation within the range 300 kHz to 50 GHz, thus determining radiation
Fig 3.4 shows the computer used to process the data collected by the spectrum
analyser.
3.5.2 Method
The primary aim of this study was to determine the RF radiation exposure levels resulting
from all signals frequencies produced by the particular cellular base stations under survey.
In this case measurements were taken for frequencies within the GSM 900, GSM 1800 and
UMTS 2100 bands. Mobile telephone communication signals are both transient and partly
determining the RF radiation levels at many locations and more particularly, we wanted to
estimate highest levels for each location in the area surrounding the base station. Relevant
spectrum analyzer data were recorded and subsequently analyzed. Measurements were
performed within all the sectors available at various locations close to the base station, by
continuously scanning the frequency bands and logging the signal level for the cellular
base station.
Where more than one carrier (Safaricorn, Airtel, Orange, and Essar) were detected
combined activity from all carriers was determined. Measurements were performed at
I'
sixteen different cellular base stations in Nairobi and environ. Measurements were taken at
distances ranging from 5 m to 350 m in areas around the base station accessible to the
public and the highest levels recorded. The RF radiation levels of cellular base stations
attributable to the major carriers were investigated, although not all were present at each
base station. There were various categories of base station considered i.e. Greenfield,
Rooftop and Indoor Micro. For the Greenfield and Rooftop the base station antennae were
directional panel antennae were used. Such antennae divide the area around the base
31
station into three sectors, with each sector usually covering a ] 20 degree arc in azimuth.
Hence, three sets of antennae are normally in use at a typical base station. Indoor Micro
Base stations were found to employ Omni-directional antennae at Sarit centre and Tuskys
A fixed antenna (Probe) was mounted on the spectrum analyzer and automated mobile
measurements were made whilst walking around the cellular base station under survey.
Both signal data and position information of the base station [using Global Positioning
System (OPS)] were recorded. For each sector we were able to make measurements of all
active frequencies at each particular measurement sample location using the spectrum
analyzer. All measurements were made at a height of 1.5 meters which is the average
height of a man above ground level. Measurement antennae were oriented to obtain
maximum signal strength for the particular frequency band being measured. Relevant
spectrum analyzer data were recorded automatically and saved in the analyzer memory and
Measurements were performed at 48 different locations from sixteen different base stations
within Nairobi and environ. At least three points of measurements were chosen around
each of the 12 Greenfield and 2 Rooftop sites. Two to four points of measurements were
chosen from each of the two indoor micro sites depending on the number of floors. The
32
measurements were performed between 19th Feb 2013 and 28th of April 2013 at the
locations shown in table 3.1 below. All measurements were made at a height of 1.5 meters
above ground level and at positions frequented by the public. Figure 3.6 is a map showing
the physical location of each sampl,e base station where radio frequency radiations were
measured. The coordinates in Table 3.1 were used to generate the Google map in Figure
3.6. Table 3.1 shows the base station identity, name, category and the base station location
II. Rooftop: The mast and the antennas used are mounted on a rooftop of a building
111. Indoor micro. Omni directional antennas are mounted on the ceiling In the
building.
Figure 3.7 shows a base station panel antenna mounted on a 45 m tall Greenfield structure
at Kilimani. Figure 3.8 shows a base station panel antennas mounted on a structure built on
Fig 3.6: Selected Base station locations within Nairobi and its environs
33
Figure 3.9 shows a sample of an indoor Omni directional antenna mounted on the ceiling
Table 3.1: Location coordinates and category of the selected base stations
011 Urnoja Greenfield 01u 16' 56.42" S, 36u 53' 11.95" E'
016 Tuskys pioneer Indoor Micro 01u 17' 18.11" S, 361}49' 36.84" E
When evaluating conformance of exposure limits, for these two categories usually only the
maximum signal is considered. This value was found using spectrum analyzer and an
isotropic antenna using the so-called panning approach (ICNIRP, 1998). The antenna had a
gain of 3dBi. The desired frequency ranges were chosen. In our case we have (GSM900
34
down link, GSM 1800 down link and UMTS 2100 down link. At each frequency band the
antenna was slowly tilted in all directions until maximum signal values were obtained.
Panel antenna
Parabolic antenna
Panel antenna
In the indoor however, walk test (measurements taken as one walks about the target area)
was done through the entire room. The highest reading was found by rotating the probe.
The logged data from each narrowband sweep was stored in dBm units. In order to
compare the values obtained to those for the ICNIRP 1998 recommendations it was
the exposure limits for the general public. Due to the amount of data collected, the
calculations were done via a computer program created for the measurements. An outline
For each set of measurements taken at a location, the logged data was retrieved by the
computer program. Data included antenna gains and cable insertion losses for all relevant
36
frequencies, as well as the actual scanned frequencies, and measured dBm values for
measurement intervals. The antenna parameters and insertion cable losses for the feeder
cable were provided by the manufacturer. This al 0 facilitated the conversion of the units
sweeps of each spectrum band. For each ingle sweep. at each frequency for which data
was stored. the dBm readings w 1'0 env rted to W/m,2. according to the formula,
where
3~6.4dllm definition
milliwatt (m W),
The power in decibel-milliwatts (p(c!Om») is equal to the base 10 logarithm of the power in
rnilliwatts (P(mW»):
The expression dBi is used to define the gain of an antenna system relative to an ideal
G = 10 log 10 (I A / I oJ -----------------.------------------------------------------------------------3.4
where I A is the current radiated by the antenna and
Additionally, at each frequency the exposure limit was determined and results were used to
express the exposure limits as percentages for the general public. This provided an idea of
The Electromagnetic radiation profiles within Base stations were generated using
tool consists of
i. TEMs handset (e.g. Ericsson TEMs phones complete with charger, data cable, & USB
hub)
Fig 3.9 shows the Telecommunication Expense Management System (TEMS) drive test kit
TEMS drive test kit has capability of collecting and analyzing the following data during
measurements
i. Signal field intensity (Rx levels and RSCP for 2 G and 3G respectively)
In this study the TEMs drive test kit wa used to measure the Signal field intensity, analyze
and generate the radiation profile within the base station. The system used had
iri, Acquisition time of 20 milliseconds (Typical: i.e. about 50 samples are measured each
second).
Fig 3.10 illustrates the procedure used to generate the electromagnetic levels pattern within
the cellular base stations. MRU (mobile receive unit) and MCG (mobile call generator) are
A call was made to mobile receive unit (MRU) by a mobile call generator (MCG). When
MRU receives a call, it answers automatically and starts to playa Perceptual Evaluation of
Speech Quality (PESQ) speech sentences that last for 1 hour. During the 1 hour period
TEMS pocket positioning tool records the downlink data in TEMS investigation log file as
one perform a drive /walk test. The profiles recorded are presented in section 4.4.
TEMS G
p
Investigation
S
Measurement of the emissions from cell towers presented particular technical challenges.
Protocols for the measurement of RF energy for the purpose of human exposure
assessment often recommend the use of an "isotropic broadband probe" because this type
of sensor responds equally to energy arriving from any direction, and over a broad
frequency range, as does the human body. These instruments were used because they
the isotropic broadband probe means that it measured any signals across a wide range of
frequencies. The readings produced by the instrument were a combination of all signals
present. In a large number of cases, the other signals present near the selected cell tower
were as strong as the cellular signals from the selected base station being measured.
40
One of the most significant RF measurement problems, and one responsible for some of
the greatest inaccuracy, involves an instrument erroneous response that could have
occurred when two or more strong signals were present at the same time. A very large
proportion of antenna sites (cell and broadcast) have multiple strong signals. Instrument
design can minimize this problem, but many of the commonly used isotropic broadband
meters perform very poorly in this multi-signal environment. The result is a reading that
A spectrum analyzer was used for identification of RF sources, and for assessment of the
relative magnitude of signals in different frequency ranges. The use of this instrument
with a calibrated antenna allowed a sensitive and precise "channel power measurement"
however the spectrum analyzer used could not identify the direction of the source of the
CHAPTER FOUR
4.1 Introduction
Mobile telephone communication signals are both transient and partly random in their
occurrence and distribution. In this context, the study aimed at determining the radio
frequency radiation levels at some selected cellular base stations within Nairobi and
evaluates the RF levels against the maximum exposure limits set by ICNIRP 1999.
Measurements were taken for frequencies within the GSM900, GSM1800 and UMTS2100
bands. Relevant spectrum analyzer data were recorded automatically and subsequently
analyzed. Measurements were performed within ail the sectors available, at various
locations near the base station, by continuously scanning the frequency bands and logging
the signal level for the cellular base station. Where more than one carrier (Safaricom,
Airtel, Orange, and Essar) were detected combined activity from all carriers was
Two factors were considered when choosing the distances i.e accessibility and how far the
I'
base station in consideration was from the neighboring base station. In most instances the
sites were randomly but selectively chosen focusing on the population density,
concentration of the base stations and the choice was also made to capture RF emissions
from all the licensed cellular operators in Kenya and possible categories of base stations.
The RF radiation levels of cellular base stations attributable to the major carriers were
investigated, although not all were pre ent at each base station. There were three categories
'of base station considered i.e. Greenfield, Rooftop and Indoor Micro. For the Greenfield
42
and Rooftop the base station antennae were mostly positioned on towers between 20 to 60
. meters in height. Most commonly, directional panel antennae were used. Such antennae
divide the area around the base station into three sectors, with each sector usually covering
a 120 degree arc in azimuth. Hence, three sets of antennae are normally in use at a typical
base station.
Indoor Micro Base stations were found to employ Omni-directional antennae at site
OOl(Sarit centre) and site 016 (Tuskys supermarket) base stations surveyed. An Omni-
directional antenna provides 3600 coverage of the area serviced by the base station. A fixed
antenna (Probe) was mounted on the spectrum analyzer and automated mobile
measurements were made whilst walking around the GSM base station under survey. Both
signal data and position information of the base station [using Global Positioning System
(GPS)] were recorded. For each sector measurements were made of all active frequencies
The RF radiation was measured for the four mobile phone operators i.e. Safaricom Kenya
Ltd, Airtel Kenya, Orange and Essar Kenya in sixteen different cellular base stations. All
the base stations measured were within Nairobi and environ. In addition to the radiation
levels measured, the location of each base station was taken using a GPS. The
measurement results recorded by the spectrum analyzer were presented as spectral scans.
The radiation levels in the spectral scans are recorded in dBm. Since the ICNIRP
Maximum Public Exposure (MPE) limits are expressed in W/m2, the power density in
43
mW/m2 were calculated and tabulated as shown for each base station below. For the intents
and purposes of this study spectral scans for the three categories of base stations (i.e.
Greenfield, rooftop and indoor micro) are presented only for three base stations (Sarit
These measurements were taken at The Sarit Centre in Westland, Nairobi within a
building. The base station coordinates are 01°15' 41.16" S, 36° 48' 06.85 "E. All
measurements were taken 2 meters above the ground and 3m to 5m from the antennas on
the ceiling using spectrum analyzer model FSH 18-100598 in peak mode. The following
figures are examples of Spectral scans recorded from an indoor cellular base station at Sarit
Center. Figures 4.1, 4.2 and 4.3 show spectrum scans with the highest RF radiation levels
for GSM 900, GSM 1800 and UMTS 2100 downlink bands recorded at Sarit Center.
Fig 4.~: GSM 900 Spectral scans taken from 001 (Sarit Centre)
44
The x-axis of the spectral scan represents the frequency range in the band with the start and
stop frequency indicated at the bottom of the scan. The y-axis of the scan indicates the
radiation levels detected by the spectrum analyzer. The highest levels in each band are
indicated by markers Ml, M2, M3 and M4 respectively in the scan. For example the
highest level in GSM 900 is -6.52 dBm at 958 MHz (marker Ml Fig 4.1). In GSM 18.00
the highest level is -21.18 dBm at 1833.5 MHz (marker Ml Fig 4.2). In UMTS 2100 band
the highest recorded level is -25.18 dBm at 2157.5MHz (marker MI Fig 4.3).
Fig 4.2: GSM 1800 spectral scans taken from 001 (Sarit Centre)
I'
Fig 4.3: UMTS 2100 spectral scans taken from 001 (Sarit Centre)
45
Table 4.1 represents the levels in dBm and in m W1m2 recorded at each floor of the building
in Sarit Center.
Table 4.2 summarizes the highest exposure levels at the ground floor of Sarit center
Table 4.2: Ground Floor maximum RF Radiation for site 00l(Sarit Center)
FLOOR RADIATION
Freq range Safaricom mxm Airtel mxm level Orange mxm level
(MHz) level
Ground 825-975 3.05 rnw/m? 74.66 ~W/m2 Undetected
1725-1875 1.17 mW/m2 2.96 mW/m2 325.55 mW/m2
2025- 2175 Undetected 7.65 mW/m2 2.21 mW/m2
The radiation measurements taken from site OOl(Sarit Center) at different frequency bands
indicate a number of variations among the three cellular phone operators. For instance at
the GSM900 frequency band, Safaricorn had the highest radiation measurement of 3.05
In the GSM1800 band Orange had the highest radiation measurement of325.55 mw/m- at
1825 MHz, followed by Airtel with 2.96 mW/m2 at 1819 MHz and Safaricom had the
lowest peak radiation measurement of 1.]7 mw/rn" at 1835 MHz. The highest level at
ground floor was attributed to the close proximity of the radiating antenna to the point of
measurement and the electromagnetic waves may have been scattered by walls and other
obstacles thus creating high radiation levels away from the base station antennas.
In the UMTS2100 band Safaricorn RF radiation was not detected while Airtel had the
highest RF radiation measurement of 7.65 mw/m? at 2127 MHz followed by Orange with
2.21 rnw/m" at 2163 MHz. It is clear from the above findings that each of the cellular
phone operators had at least one of the points where it had an RF radiation higher than the
rest.
47
Table 4.3: First floor maximum RF radiation for site 00l(Sarit Center)
FLOOR RADIATION
From the Table 4.3 it is evident that in the GSM900 band it is only Safaricom radiation of
80.31 mW1m2 that was detected at 938 MHz in the first floor. There were no radiations
Still on the first floor of site 00 I in the GSM 1800 frequency band, radiations from two
cellular phone operators were detected: Safaricom with strength of 15.10 11W1m2 at 1872
MHz and Orange with strength of 23.21 IlW/m2 at 1834 MHz. In this frequency band
Orange had the highest observed trength of radiation standing at 23.21 IlW/m2 whereas
In the UMTS 2100 frequency band the rad iations from all the three mobile phone
operators were detected. The highest radiation was that from Airtel with the strength of
183.78 IlW/m2 at 2129 MHz followed by Safaricom with radiation strength of 40.83
11W/m2 at 2116 MHz and finally Orange with a recorded radiation of 37.19 11W/m2 at 2164
MHz.
48
Table 4.4: Second and third floor maximum RF radiations for site 001 (Sarit Center)
FLOOR RADIATION
Freq range Safaricom mxm AirteJ mxm Orange mxm Essar mxm
(MHz) level level level level
Second 825-975 2.22 mW/m2 1.02 mW/m2 1.10 mW/m2 6.35 ~W/m2
1725-1875 Undetected 7.12 mW/m2 12.04 mW/m" Undetected
It is evident from table 4.4 above that in second floor in the GSM 900 band Safaricom had
the highest radiation with the power density of 2.22 mw/m" at 938 MHz while radiation
emission levels was lowest for Essar with peak radiation of 6.35 /..l W/m2 at 929 MHz. In
the GSM 1800 band, only radiations from Airtel and Orange with power densities of 7.12
mW/m2 and 12.04 mW/m2 at 1815 MHz and 1825 MHz respectively were detected,
whereas in the GSM2100 band Safaricorn, Orange and Airtel radiations were detected with
Airtel having the highest peak radiation of 2.43 mW1m2 and Safaricorn the lowest peak
power density of215.18 /..lW/rn2 at 2126 MHz and 2118 MHz respectively.
The RF radiation measurement was then taken at site 002 (Kilimani) with the following
location coordinates 010 IT 22.1" S, 36° 46' 53.7 "E. Site 002 which is a Greenfield kind
of base station located along Kilichwa Road in Kilimani Nairobi. The measurements were
taken 5 m away from the base station in the land lord's premise 50 m and 150 m points of
measurements inside the nearby residential flats. The findings are illustrated and explained
below. Figures 4.4, 4.5 and 4.6 show spectrum scans with the highest RF radiation levels
•
49
for GSM 900, GSM 1800 and UMTS 2100 downlink bands recorded at site 002
(Kilimani). The highest level in GSM 900 was -13.78 dBm at 942 MHz (marker Ml Fig
4.4). In GSM 1800 the highest level was -30.72 dBm at 1836.5 MHz (marker Ml Fig 4.5).
In UMTS 2100 band the highest recorded level was -19.87 dBm at 2111.3 MHz (marker
Ml Fig 4.6).
Fig 4.4: GSM 900 Spectral scans taken from site 002 (kilimani)
Fig 4.5: GSM 1800 Spectral scans taken from 002 (Kilimani)
.
50
Fig 4.6: UMTS 2100 spectral scans taken from 002 (Kilimani)
Table 4.5 represents the levels in dBm and in mW/rn" recorded at each distance from the
Kilimani base station while table 4.6 summarizes the highest exposure levels at each
distance from the base station radiated by each mobile phone operator in each frequency
band.
According to the findings in the above table 4.6 above , at 5 meters in the land lords
premise it is clear that Safaricom had overall highest radiation level in all the three
categories of cellular frequency bands. In GSM900 band Safari com had the highest RF
level of 6.96 mW1m2 followed by Airtel with 2.39 m W1m2 at 942 MHz and 960 MHz
respectively both at 50m away from the base station. There was no trace of radiation from
Orange and Essar mobile operators in the areas considered. Safaricom also had the highest
power densities in both GSM 1800 and UMTS 2100 frequency bands with levels of 1.31
mWzm? and 5.09 mWzrn'' at 1839 MHz and 2111 MHz respectively. Airtel trailed
Safaricom in both cases. It is also important to note that at 50 m in the GSM 1800
51
frequency band only Safaricom radiation that was detected. All the others could not be
traced.
DIST.(M) RADIATION
Freq range Safaricom AirteJ rnxrn level Orange Essar rnxm
(MHz) mxm level mxm level level
825-975 4.12 mWIl12 0.366 mW/m2 undetected undetected
5m 1725-1875 0.316 mW/m2 29.42 I-lW/rj1z undetected undetected
2025- 2175 5.09 rl1W/m~ 2.19 mW/m~ undetected undetected
825-975 6.96 mW/m= 2.39 mW/m2 undetected undetected
50m 1725·1875 1.31 mW/ll1z undetected undetected undetected
--~
2025- 2175 0.606 JlI W 1m3' 2.15 mW/mz undetected undetected
825-975
- 0.211 mW/m; 1.32 mW/m'z undetected undetected
200111 1725-1875 1.051l1Wltn2 0.216 mW/m2 undetected undetected
2025·2175 0.604 m W/m" 1.28 mW/m2 undetected undetected
In the distance of 200 m where measurements w re taken, it is evident that Airtel had the
highest radiations of 1.32 rnWltnl and 1.28 mW/m2 at 958 MHz and 2128 MHz
respectively. In both cases Safarieorn's highest radiation within the two frequency bands
was far much lower than those of Airtel, However in the GSM1800 frequency band,
afaricom had the highest power densiti s of 1.05 mW/rn" at iS3? MHZ compared to
Airtel' 215.87 ~ W/m2 at 1816 MHl. tt can also be observed that only afaricom and
Airtel radiations could be detected within the three distance of 5 m, 50 m and 200 m
re pectively in site 002. This means thai Lt ere was no nearby Orange and Essar cellular
base station.
This site is situated in Nairobi Kayole estate near a church, the ite location coordinates are
01° 16' 56.42" S, 36° 54' 32.9~·(E. In the areas around the base station where
measurements were taken there was no RF radiation detected from Orange, however all the
other three op rater wet' represented. Measurements were taken at 50 m and 200 m
points from the base station. At 50 m pint, mea urernents were taken in the church
compound. 200 m point taken at residential flats. It was not possible to take
53
measurements at 5 m from the base station because there was no access to the area where
the base station is installed. The findings are illustrated and explained next.
Table 4.7 summarizes the highest exposure levels at each distance considered from the
Kayole base station radiated by each mobile phone operator in each frequency band.
In the GSM900 frequency band at a distance of 50 m Safaricom had the highest peak
power density of 4.24 mW1m2 at 937 MHZ followed by Airtel with power density of 81..60
J.lW1m2 at 958 MHz, At the same point of measurements in the GSM 1800 frequency band
I'
Safaricom had the highest power density of 0.363 m'W/rn! at 1838 MHz while Airtel had a
peak power density of 20.79 J.l W1m2 at 1866 MHz. In the UMTS21 00 frequency band it
was only Safaricom RF radiation of 6.19 m W1m2 at 2 I 12 MHz which was detected at the
same 50 m point, At 200 m point of measurements, again Safaricom had the highest peak
radiation of 0.155 rnw/rn- at 937 MHz in the GSM 900 frequency band followed by Airtel
with power density of 24.92 J.lW/m2 at 958 MHz. Orange and Essar radiations were not
detected. In the GSM 1800 frequency band Safaricom radiation of 0.398 rnw/m" at 1837
MHz was the highest compared to the Essar radiation with power density of 24.43 J.lW1m2
54
at 1805 MHz? In the UMTS 2100 frequency band only Safaricom and Airtel RF radiation
were detected with the power densi-ties of 0.700 m W/m" and 15.08 JlW/m2 at 2118 MHz
and 2127 MHz respectively. From the results it is evident that the radiations from the
This site is Neighboring Aga khan Hospital. It is a rooftop type of facility. Measurements
were taken at 5 m from the base station on the rooftop of the building, 80 m point taken at
CGHU Secondary school, 200 m inside Aga khan Hospital. The site coordinates are 10 15'
_24.98" Sand 36048' 41.36"E.Fig 4.7, Fig 4.8 and Fig 4.9 shows spectrum scans with
the highest RF radiation levels for GSM 900, GSM 1800 and UMTS 2100 downlink bands
recorded at a rooftop base station at site 004 (Aga Khan). The highest level in GSM 900 is
-13.75 dBm at 949 MHz (marker Ml Fig 4.7). In GSM 1800 the highest level is -37.38
dBm at 1838 MHz (marker Ml Fig 4.8). In UMTS 2100 band the highest recorded level is
Fig 4.7: GSM 900 spectral scans taken from 004 (Aga Khan)
ss
Fig 4.8: GSM 1800 spectral scans taken from 004 (Aga Khan)
Fig 4.9:UMTS 2100 spectral scans taken from 004 (Aga Khan)
Table 4.8 represents the levels in dBm and in mW1m2 recorded at each distance from the
Aga Khan base station while table 4.9 summarizes the highest exposure levels at each
56
distance from the base station radiated by each mobile phone operator in each frequency
band.
RADIATION
DlST. (1\'1) Freq Range Safaricom mxm Airtel mxm Orange mxm Essar mxm level
(MHz) level level level
5m 825-975 0.478 mW/m2 Undetected 4.21 mW/m2 1.56 mW/m2
In GSM 900 band the highest radiation level was from Orange with a power density of
4.21 mW/m2 at 949 MHz within a distance of 5m from the base station. Within the same
distance Safaricorn registered 0.477 mW/m2 9.t 935 MHz, 1.56mW/m2 radiation of Essar
I'
In the GSM 1800 band only Safarlcorn was detected in all the distances from the base
station with the highest power density of 0,154 mW/m2 at 1839 MHz within a distance of
200 m from the base station. In this band Rf radiation rrom other operators were not
represented. In the UMTS 2100 band -a aricorn, orange and Airtel were represented with
Orange having tho highest power density of 1.32 mW/m1 at 2159 MHz within a distance of
5 m from the base station. Safaricom highest power density in this frequency band was
0.80 mW/m" at 2112 MHz within 200 m from th base station. In the same frequency band
58
Airtel had the lowest radiation level of7.39 IlW/m2 at 2128 MHz within 5m away from the
base station.
This is a Green Field type of facil ity with coordinates of 010 18' 2.41" Sand 360 46'
24.94"E. This base station is located in Jamuhuri high school compound. 50 m and 100 m
measurement points were taken at the neighboring residential flats while the highest levels
at the 200 m point were at the school compound. Table 4.10 summarizes the highest
exposure levels at each distance considered from the Jamuhuri base station radiated by
RADIATION
DIST. Freq Range Safaricom mxm Airtel mxm Orange mxm Essarmxm
(M) (Mhz) levels levels levels levels
50m 825-975 2.34 niW/ml 22.68 m W/m" Undetected 4.1 mW/m2
The results in Table 4.10 shows that Airtel had the highest power density of 22.68 mW/m2
in the GSM 900 band at a distance of 5 m from the base station followed by Essar with
power density of 4.1 mW/m2 the same distance at 958 MHz and 930 MHz respectively.
59
Orange had the highest radiation level of6.73 rnw/m" in the GSM 1800 band at 1834 MHz
100 m away from the base station, while Safaricom had the highest power density of 6.63
mWzrn"in the UMTS 2100 band at 2119 MHz at the same distance.
'These measurements were taken from a base Transceiver station situated in an area near
Ongata Rongai. This site lies next to Nairobi National park in an upcoming Olmuet
residential estate. All the measurement points apart from 300 m point were taken in the
residential estate. The 300 m point was taken at a nearby shop. The base station
J>~IATION
DIST.(M) Freq range Safaricom Airtel mxm Orange mxm Essarrnxm
(MHz) mxm level level level level
501 825-975 30.8 ~lW/m2 0.51 ~W/m2 Undetected Undetected
Table 4.11 summarizes the highest exposure levels at each distance considered from the
Olmuet base station radiated by each mobile phone operator in each frequency band. It is
evident from the findings that Safaricom has the highest radiations in the site at various
distances from the base station. It is also clear that in the GSM 900 band the strength of the
radiation seems to be decreasing with an increase in the distance from the base station.
and 300 m where the maximum radiation measurements are 30.8 IlW/m2, 24.5 IlW/m2, and
19.4 11W/m2 and respectively. Safaricom radiation is the most dominant followed by
Airtel. Orange and Essar RF levels were not detected. It is also important to note that
UMTS 2100 RF radiations were not detected; this is probably because 3G networks had
The measurements were taken from a roof top mobile base station situated at the River
road- Ndumberi road junction Nairobi. The area adjacent to the base of the mast was being
used by lodging workers as a laundry area even though the antennae were less than 12
meters above their heads. The coordinates of the site are 010 16' 52.9" S, 360 49' 34.0" E.
Table 4.12 summarizes the highest exposure levels at each distance considered from the
Ndumberi Rd base station radiated by each mobile phone operator in each frequency band.
RADIATION
DIST.( Freq Range Safaricom mxm Alrtel mxm Orange mxm Essar mxm
M) (MHz) level level level level
5m 825-975 2.82 mW/mz 1.00 mW/m2 3.16 mW/m- Undetected
At this base station, the highest radiations mea ured at 5 m distance was 3.16 mW/m2 at
948 MHz from Orange followed by Safaricorri's 2.82 mW/m2 at 937 MHz. Power density
The highest radiation within a distance of 144 m was 5.28 mW/m2 at 1822 MHz emitted by
Airtel. No RF radiation from Orange and Essar were detected. It is worth noting that 30
radiation was only detected from Safaricom at a distance of 5m from the base station. The
amount of the UMTS 2100 (30) detected was 0,13 mW1m2 at 2117 MHz.
62
This base station lies in the moderately populated Kitengela town. 100m measuring points
was in the Nomad Hotel, 208 m and 300 m points were in the Residential flats. The
recorded base station coordinates are 01038' 41.4" S, 0360 57' 30.1" E.
Table 4.13 summarizes the highest exposure levels at each distance considered from the
Kitengela base station radiated by each mobile phone operator in each frequency band.
I'
Within 100m from the base station Safaricom had the highest radiation levels in both GSM
900 and GSM 1800. The levels recorded were 4.11 mW/m:il and 3.38 m W/m2 at 938 MHz
and 1844 MHz respectively. Essar radiation was detected at 931 MHz with 0.598 mW1m2
power density.
At 208 rn Airtel recorded the highest radiation of 1.67 mW/m2 at 1824 MHz. Radiation
. from Essar was not detected at all frequency bands within the same distance. Within 300m
from the base station the radiation detected from Safaricom was 30.80 /lW/m2, Airtel 0.913
63
mw/m-and Orange 0.816 m'W/rn" at 937 MHz, 954 MHz and 946 MHz respectively all in
GSM900. In GSM 1800 only radiation from Safaricom was detected, other operators were
not detected. It is evident that there was no UMTS (3G) radiation detected from all the four
This base station is situated in Ruai near the Nairobi eastern bypass Kangundo road
junction. Measurements were made at several points where public are known to frequent.
All the measurement points were within the surrounding residential estate. It is a
Greenfield Cellular Base Transceiver station with the following coordinates 010 16' 33.42"
S, 36040' 30.94" E.
Table 4.14 summarizes the highest exposure levels at each distance considered from the
Ruai base station radiated by each mobile phone operator in each frequency band.
RADIATION
DIST.(M Freq Range Safaricom Airtcl mxm Orange mxm Essar mxm level
) (MHz) mxm level level level
150 m 825-975 0.J5 mW/rn2 Undetected 0.454 m'W/m" 1.18 mW/mz
The radiations from the above site how that Essar registered the highest radiation levels in
GSM900 of 1.18 m W/m" at 934 MHz within a distance of 150 m. At the same distance
there was no radiation detected from Essar in the GSM1800 band, Orange registered the
64
overall highest radiation level of 6.22 m W1m2 in GSM 1800 band at the same distance from
Radiation from Safaricom was the highest at a distance of 300m from the base station. The
maximum Safaricom radiation recorded level at this distance was 0.558 mW1m2 at 938
This is a Greenfield Cellular Base Transceiver station lays in Kahuho Village in Kabete.
The coordinates recorded for this base station were 010 12' 48,44" S, 36 40' 30.94" E. Q
Table 4.15 summarizes the highest exposure levels at each distance considered from the
Kahuho base station radiated by each mobile phone operator in each frequency band.
The highest radiation levels were recorded in two main areas at this base station. At this
base station, the deteriorating trend of the radiation strength as the distance from the origin
. increases is also evident. For instance Safaricorn has a radiation measurement of 0.123
mW/m2at 150 m, 0.96 mW/m:l at 194 In and 77.5 ~tW/m2at 335 m when taken in GSM 900
65
band. This confirms that ideally the radiation continues to degrade as the distance increases
No RF emissions were detected from Essar and UMTS 2100 in all the distance considered
at the time of measurements. This implies that there is nearby base station transmitting at
This Base station lies in the densely populated Umoja estate in Nairobi town.
Measurements were taken at 175m and 280m within the densely populated Umoja estate It
is a Greenfield cellular Base Transceiver station with the coordinates of 010 16' 56.42" S,:
36053' 11.95" E.
Table 4.16 summarizes the highest exposure levels at each distance considered from the
Umoja base station radiated by each mobile phone operator in each frequency band.
~ RADIATION
DIST. Freq Range Safaricom Airtel mxm Orange mxm Essarmxm
(M) (MHz) mxm level level level level
175 m 825-975 0.79 mW/m2 0.63 IlW/m2 Undetected 0.265 m'W/m"
1725-1875 1.63 mW/m2 Undetected 1.23 IlW/m2 Undetected
The radiation measurements from Umoja also indicate that highest recorded power density
at GSM 900 was 0.79 mW/m2 from Safaricom. It was recorded at a distance of 175 m
66
away from the Greenfield cellular Base Transceiver station. There was no recorded
radiation at GSM900 from Orange. At GSM 1800 Safaricom also registered the overall
highest radiation level of 1.63 m W1m2 at 1841 MHz within a distance of 175 m from the
base station closely followed by Orange with a level of 1.60 mW1m2 at 1827 MHz. This
highest level from Orange was measured at a distance of 280 m from the base station. No
radiation was detected for 3G from all the four cellular operators. The maximum level
taken was far much bellow the maximum exposure limit set by ICNIRP.
The radiation measurements from a Greenfield cellular Base Transceiver station based in
Kiandutu slum in Thika town w re also taken. Thika town is 42 kilometers from airobi
city and base station's coordinates are 0 I 08' 49.8" and 36057' 40.8" E. The findings are
Table 4.17 summarizes the highest »cposure levels at each distance considered from the
Kiandutu base station radiated by each mobile phone operator in each frequency band.
I'
RADIATION
DST. (M) Freq Range Safaricom mxrn Airtel Orange mxm Essar mxm level
(MHz) level mxmlevel level
102m 1725-1875 1.31 mW/n'i~ I Undetected 1.241J.W/m2 Undetected
i
211 m 1725-1875 1.18 flW/rni I Undetected 98.10 nW/m2 Undetected
From the above measurements results it is evident that both Safaricom and Orange uses
GSM 1800 frequency band to provide mobile communi ation at the area around the base
67
station. The highest overall Safaricom radiation had the power density of 1.31 mW1m2 at
1844 MHz compared to the Orange overall power density of 3.61 mWzrn" at 1829 MHz
Kiandutu so far is the only base station where radiation from GSM900 is not detected.
UMTS 2100 was also not available during the time of measurement.
The measurements were taken from a Greenfield cellular Base Transceiver station near
Ngong Township. Measurements were taken from two point's i.e. 100 m point lies in
residential estate while the 350 m point lies on the nearby earth road. The base station
Table 4.18 summarizes the highest exposure levels at each distance considered from the
Kibiko base station radiated by each mobile phone operator in each frequency band.
I'
RADIATION
DIST. Freq Range Safaricom mxm Airtel mxm Orange mxm Essarmxm
(M) (MHz) level level level level
100 m 825-975 0.455 mW/m2 81.60 I!W/m~ 31.00 I!W/m~ Undetected
It is evident that, in the above Greenfield cellular base transceiver station at Kibiko,
Safaricom has the highest radiations. For instance Safaricom has the highest recorded
.radiation of 0.65 mW1m2 at 1838 MHz closely followed by Airtel with power density of
68
0.40 m W1m2 at 952 MHz. Essar and Orange has the least radiation levels of 17.00 Jl W1m2
and 31.00 JlW/m2 at 933 MHz and 947 MHz re pectively. It is also evident that the
network coverage around this base station uses GSM 900 frequency band and GSM 1800
only.
This is a Greenfield mobile base transceiver station in the corner of the schools playing
ground. The school is located in the densely populated Zimmerman estate. Measurements
at the 150 m point was done in front of class 3E while the 100 m point was in the middle of
the playground. The coordinates of the base station are 0 I 0 12' 44.44" S, 360 53' 37.95" E
Table 4.19 summarizes the highest exposure levels at each distance considered from the
Zimman base station radiated by ach mobile phone operator in each frequency band.
,~~-
RADJATlON
DST. Freq Range Safaricom mxm Airtel mxm Orange mxm Essar mxm level
on (Mllz) level level level
150 m 825-975 0.0.66 mW/m2 1.38 mW/m~ Undetected 1.21 mW/m~ .
1725-1875 0.297 m'W/m" 2.81 mW/rn· 0.31 mW/m2 Undetected
At the above site, Safari com uses G 'M 900 and GSM 1800 bands with the highest power
density measured of 0.81 m W/m2 at 18 0 ~1Hz. Orange provide coverage in GSM 900 and
GSM 1800 with the highest p wer d nsity of 0.31 m WI! ,2 at 1878 MHz. Airtel radiation
wa the overall highest both in GSM 900 and GSM 1800 with the power density of 1.38
Some measurements were also taken from site 015 situated at Kijabe hilltop. The base
station coordinates are 0° 57' 38.2" Sand 36°49'36.84" E. Kijabe is a few kilometers
distance from Nairobi city. The measurements were taken at point of population 206 m
from a Greenfield cellular base Transceiver station at the hilltop. Findings are illustrated
Table 4.20 summarizes the highest exposure levels at each distance considered from the
Kijabe base station radiated by each mobile phone operator in each frequency band.
This base station lies off Kijabe Township in an extremely steep and bushy terrain within
I'
the escarpment. Only one metering point was available. It is evident from the above
findings that Safaricom had the highest radiation at Kijabe with power density of 1.30
mW/m2 at 959 MHz while Airtel had the lowest detected peak level of 0.83 mW/m2 at 957
MHz.
At the same distance of 206 m in GSM ] 800 only Safaricom was detected at 1837 MHz
with the power density of 0.37 /lW/n? In all the frequency bands no RF radiations were
This site is based at Tuskys Supermarket (Pioneer house) with coordinates of 1°17' 18.11"
S, and 36° 49' 36.84"E. It is an indoor micro type of facility situated in the busy Nairobi
CBD area. All measurements were taken at 2 meters above the ground and 3m to 5m from
Table 4.21 summarizes the highest exposure levels at floor of the Tuskys base station
RADiATION
Floor Freq Range I Safaricom Airtel mxm Orange mxm Essar mxm
(MHz) mxm level level level level
This base station is an indoor BTS situated in the Tuskys pioneer sup rmarket in Nairobi
CBD. The measurements taken at Tuskys also indicate the same trend of deteriorating
radiation levels as the distance from the origin increases. For instance at the first floor
where the facility is, the radiation is 3.04 m'W/m" and at the ground floor it is 2.22 m W/m"
This is a confirmation that the radiations actually reduce in strength a the distance from
the origin increases. Airtel is represented in all the frequency bands in both floors. Essar
After getting the various measurements, the study sought to compare the radiation levels
Protection for exposure limitation. In general it can be observed that the radiation
measurements taken in Nairobi and environs are far much lower than the ones
recommended internationally. For instance in The Sarit Centre building where the highest
exposures were 325.55 rnW/m~ at 1825 MHz radiated by Orange, the maximum
recommendation for maximum public exposure. This is an indication that the radiations
considered to be the highest in the ground floor of Sarit centre building are far much lower
For instance when we look at the graph in figure 4,11 illu trating the radiation
measurements taken from Aga Khan Hospital at a distance of 5m, all the mobile phone
I'
companies had radiations that are below 4.21 rnWzrn?compared to the 4.5 W/m2 limits that
This is an indication that the exposures are too low to cause harm to people. A close look
at another point in site 002 (Kilimani) with the highest radiation of 6.96 mW/m2 in GSM
900 compared to the recommended international standards shows the same trend as the one
mentioned above. The recommended international exposure under the same conditions is
4.5 W/m2. Converting 6.96 mW/m2 to W/m2 gives a value of 0.00696 w/m2 which is
In GSM 1800 the highest recorded RF radiation level was 1.31 mW1m2 from Safaricom at
1837 MHz this value translate to about 0.015% ofICNIRP limit of 4.5 W/m2.
In UMTS2100 band the highest recorded value was 2.19 mW1m2 which is approximately
0.022% oflCNIRP MPE limit of 10 W/m2. These values are still far much lower than the
experienced within the base station are still safe and far much less harmful to human. For
instance the measurements taken at a distance of 200 m from the site for all the mobile
phone companies indicate that the exposures are very small and negligible as shown in
figure 4.12. It is clear from figure 4.12 that the local exposure is still at a very low level at
Radiation levels
• • • •
• Radiation v'(/m2
W/III:J
• • • •
Mobile operators
Fig 4.11: Comparison of Radiations from site (001) Aga Khan Hospital
Comparison of the radiations from Kijabe Hill also exhibits the same features of being
lower than what is internationally considered to be the highest exposure. The highest
exposure at GSM 900 is 1.30 m W/m2 The recommended highest exposure for such a
73
distance of 206m is 4.5 W1m2 converting 1.30 mW/m2 gives a value of 0.0013 W/m2 This
is a very small and almost negligible figure that is unlikely to cause any significant harm to
people. In general, all the radiations that were measured at various points and locations
within Kijabe confirm that they are not high enough to measure up with the internationally
given thresholds.
Radiation levels
• • • •
w/m2
~Radiation w/m2
• • • •
Mobile operators
Figures 4.13, 4.14 and 4.15 show the graphical representation of maximum RF exposure in
GSM 900, GSM 1800 and UMTS 2100 respectively for the four main mobile operators in
Kenya. The horizontal axis represent sample base stations and vertical axis represent
maximum exposure levels at each base station for each mobile phone operator. For
example in GSM 900 band Safaricom radiated above 8 mW/m2 in Sarit center, Airtel and
Essar radiated above 8 mW1m2 at Jamuhuri . At Kiandutu no radiation was detected from
•• • ••• . ••
• • • _SFC
. I
• L
• • L.
_ART
_ORG
_ ESR
Sample BTSSites
In figure 4.14 Orange radiated above 8 mW1m2 in GSM 1800 band at Sarit and Turskys
pioneer. RF radiation from all the other operators were bellow 8 mW1m2 in all the base
stations
.
•
• 1. •••• •
1 _SFC
I 1 I. I I III LI 1 • • 1 I
_ART
_ORG
_ ESR
Sample BTSsites
In figure 4.15 the radiation levels detected for the four main operators at all the base
E
•....... 7
~ 6
.§. 5
III
~ 4
~ 3
III
~EI
:; 2
III
8. 1 • • I
~ 0
II I I
In general it is evident from the table 4.22 above that, all the RF radiation levels recorded
at yarious points and locations within Nairobi and it's environ had RF radiation strength
lower than 1% of the ICNIRP recommended exposure limits to the public. Only site 001
(Sarit center) that recorded above 1% of the ICNIRP recommendation. At Sarit Center
this is still very low. The tabulated values confirm that the RF radiations are not high
enough to measure up with the internationally given thresholds. This is a confirmation that
the mobile phone companies are operating within the recommended limits of ICNIRP
76
004 (Aga Khan) 950 -12.04 =*:3 -9,04 7.880 4.5 0.175
A TEMs drive test kit described previously in section 3.7 was used to generate profiles for
Figures 4.16, 4.18 and 4.19 show samples of 2G and 3G profiles generated at Upper hill
and BP Shell. The profiles give an idea of electromagnetic field distribution in the area
c=Jt c
t
,~
~
t. -
T_ Key
f. o BTS location
'~Rd UPI"',Hal
\f. Railway Yard c ~
i l'"
" ~
1 N9on9Rd /~ I
I
% .,/
I '/oG ~
; \ I.~~'(}
\t -:
••••• 06
I
"..,2
1OiI-= \,
NgurnoEstat! SUn Vi
Estate
,
d
!
~
R",.NoIoobGollC>.b i\ 0
/r/~
\ t
•.••.•~
••••s;/'••
~,"
.,.eRd ~
.<'
Makll\a
Estate I r$'
Madaraka
Estate
Golfe"", ••
Estate
.i ~'"
~ 1
J I i
1
e
1
~
1
i
·• Below -95 (1) D.D%
>= -95 to < -85 (14-4) 2.6%
·• >= -85 to < -75 (2264) 4D.5%
·• >= -75 to < -65 (2487) 4-4.5%
·• Above -65 (697) 12.5%
Fig 4.16: 2G RF radiation profile from Upper hill clusters of base station.
From figure 4.16 only one sample had level below -95 dbm which is approximately 0% of
the total samples. 44.5% (2487) of the samples had registered levels between -75 dbm and
-65 dbm. Only 12.5% (697) of the samples had levels above -65 dbm
78
RxLevSub Distribution
1200 ~----------------------------~~~~-----r
100%
90%
1000
80%
70%
800
60%
----------+ 50%
40%
400
30%
20%
200
10%
o 0%
-110 -106 -102 -98 -94 -90 -86 -82 -78 -74 -70 -66 -62 -58 -54 -50 -46 -42
dBm
I - I
o BTS location
• Ba_·105(O) 0.0"
• _.10510<·95(11)0.3'110
_·95 10<·85(1III!5jSO.1"
• --8510<·75(1013) ~.8"
__ .7510<.115(370) 111.7,.
• -'-'·115(151) 7.1"
15 ••
Fig 4.18: 2G RF radiation profile from first floor of BP Shell building (indoor BTS).
From figure 4.18: 45.8% (1013) of the samples had levels between -85 dbm to -75 dbm
and only 7.1% (158) of the samples had levels above -65 dbm.
79
Key
o BTS location
•
•
-
lni ~-·I
'--'- •
--~ ~
"';;1-
po 'f!o
L..-"I--I~.~
r
••I
•
T _.f
I-
. ~
(
~
~_I...
c
•••,- 4
• :......-
"
-
e IL
._"
,k4'4
I
-
r-I
I
,
I I I I I I I I .;Iir
.•...
UU_Ac::tNoeS.~RSCP_O
• a.&o.w -105.00 (3730) 2••.. 7••. r--
- - .-~='~~r·~
.-.
-.. .~
s.& ...
• >- -105.00 to < -95.00 (!SB!!S)
.•.
-- .. ....
>- -95.00 to < -.815.00 (1915) 1.2.... ~
• >- -8.5.00 to < -75.00 (2.045) 1e ....
a_l.
• >- -75.00 to < -05.00 (11'3) 7.5"
·0 0: ....••. ~
~..iI ' ••• !~
• Abovoo -es.oe {OJ 0.0"' '
• Ii. t!.1
I
! ~ ~ J ! ~ J !
, ,. no
I
Fig 4.19: 3G RF radiation profile from first floor of BP shell building (indoor BTS)
From the above profiles it is evident that most of the higher radiation levels are close to the
base station antennas, however the highest levels may not necessarily be near the base
station, this is because the electromagnetic waves maybe be scattered by walls and other
obstacles thus creating high radiation levels away from the base station antennas.
80
C APTER FIVE
The main purpo e of this study was to rovid data on the RF radiation emission levels at
selected cellular bas stations and e -aluate th r suits against the required limit for non-
occupational xpo ure with respect t the ICNIP . tandard for R xpo ure 1998. The
results clearly demcnstrat d that the RF emlsslena from the cellular base stations wer
In the GSM 900 Safaricorn worst case Rf' radiatlon emis ion was 80.30 mW/mt recorded
at Sari center (Site 001). This value is L78%1 of lCNIRP 4,5 W/m2 Maximum Public
Exposure limits (M PE). Airtel w< rst case RF radiation emission was 22.68 m W1m2
re orded at Jarm huri (site 00-). This value is 0.50% of 1 NIRP 4. - W/m2 maximum
public e 'po lire limits. range re orded the worst case RF radiation emi sion of 7.88
mW/ni' at Aga Khan (site 004). This I 'vel is 0.18% of lCNIRP 4.5 W/rn2 maximum public
xposure limits, Essars worst case RF radiation was 31,26 t11 W1m2 at Jamuhuri (site 005).
This tran late to 0.69% of ICNIRP . W/m~ maximum public exposure limits
In GSM 1800 Safaricom, Airtel, Orange and ~:sar recorded the wor t case RF radiation
emissions of 1.17 mW/m2, 7.J2 mW/m2~ 32~.55 mW/m2 and 0.024 mW/m'J. respectively.
Safaricom, Airtel and Orange r corded these worst case RF radiation levels at arit (site
00 I), while Essar recorded the lev I at Kayole (site 003). These RF radiation emissions
81
translate to 0.013%, 0.08%, 3.62%, and 0.0003% of ICNIRP 9.0 mW/m2 maximum
Safaricom, Airtel and Orange recorded 6.63 mW/m2, 5.91 mW/m2 and 2.21 mW/m2 in the
UMTS 2100 band respectiv ly. Safaricom had the wor t case RF radiation emission at
Jamuhuri (site 005), while Airtel and Orange recorded their worst levels at Sarit (site 001).
RF radiation emissions from Essar were not detected meaning that at the time of
measurement Essar had not deployed 3G technology in Nairobi. Only 7 out of 16 cellular
base stations recorded some values in UMTS 2100 band. Most of these values were from
afaricom. The worst case RF radiation levels in this cas ar over 1500 times less than the
It is evident from OUI' measurements results that the overall worst case RF radiation
emission of 325.55 mW/m2 (3.62% of ICNIRP MPE limits) was from an Orange cellular
base station at Sarit (site 001). Most of the other base station selected had RF radiation
levels of less than 1% of the ICNIRP recommended exposure limits to the public. The
values confirm that the RF radiations are not high enough to measure up with the
internationally given thresholds. This is a confirmation that the mobile phone companies
against ICNIRP (1998) maximum public exposure .limits, the public i afe from harmful
repres .ntation of what might be ~.'P cted at other base stations in Kenya urban and rural
areas.
82
5.2 Recommendations
Since there are other RF sources such as Broadcasting stations e.g. VHF TV, UHF TV,
AM radio, FM radio and Paging etc. It is recommended that other researchers can focus on
use equipment that have capabi lities of detecting the direction of the 'Duree of radiation
since there are several sources especially in urban areas that affect the accuracy of the
results.
Penal code Cap 243 only provide policy on ionizing radiation such as Xvrays, Gamma rays
ete leavlng out non-iontzing l'adiatitm; - '!jl therefere reeemrnend t~ policy to be put in place
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APPENDIX 1
APPENDIX 2
APPENDIX 3: