t

P.,0 lU(Y*l

t^H,Ã, m Ë R s F{ I p, Ë {.J {-T[.-I R A,{* \1Ak{""n H 6

ANM THE EXtsü*H

Got!'t grarc ì.r

fire sent in nll I'eopÌe and rultures.
,{.s ute suhntit oursr/'t,es Ío leantingft"ont other ur/tures, tue catch glitnpses

2f,Gatl's gra:e tltat wott/d be unavaiJab/e ìn or.i.r otuz ct't/hrre'

Duar.Íe Er,ruon, C ao s s- CutruRt L C aNF LICT

HaNs rs a SwIss MIssioNARy sERvINc rN Toco. tr-{e rvorks with Fastor

Luka planning an AIDS ministry in the capital city of Lomé. Tensions
appeaí right from the start. Hans has designed a trvelve-rnonth flon'
chart with a timeline for equipment, ftinding and personnel. Fastor
Luka wants the center to open next month. He assttmes that everl'-
thing will f"ril into place withoi-rt needing to plan every detail. Pastor
Luka wants to appoint a cousin to be the director-a man with a char-
ismatic personalíty who is cÌeeply respected by the community" [-Ians
insists they appoint a director with medlcal ancl administrative experi-
ence. Pastor Luka assumes that the director will need a new cal so that
the AIDS center will gain the respect of the comrnunity, while Flans
strongly gbjects to such extrâvâgant spending. The points of conflict go
on and on. \Mhat's more, both Hans and Pastor Luka are quick to cite
Bìble verses for theír positions.
 t: ,l I-ElniNc Àc ro.r s Ct'L'lu nrs LcorlcrshìV, Cu/turol [hitcs atttl tltc ]]íò/e
65

What is happening hereì Flans thintrrs tll:ut Pastor Ltrira doesn'í ingly to parts of Scriptrre that arc most in line with ou'subconscio*s
l<.r'.olu holv to plan airead, that he's not interer:l-ed in cofilpetent â{lmin- cultur:rl valr-ies' 1ve clon't consciousiy try to prooÊtext
Bible verses, but
istration and that he spends trÌoney urespoirsibh-. .Pastor l-uka tirinlçs c{tteir rve do. Iior insta.ce, rnany Bibre teachcrs r-rse Nerremiah as a'ìr1eai
l,ha.t I-ïans cioesn't tr!-rsi. the L,ord in his plairninu Lic tlocsn'1, titrdcr- of lea.d.ersiriir. So'-reone iooki*g íor biblical proof Íòr extLeme
'-iorÌei au-
sirnd rn hy tr--{ans v,.a11ts to pLìt ã cold, impersoil'.Jl ã.drrlinistrator in charge thcl'it;rria' leadcrship conld quote hJehemiah when he said. ,,I rebu.{<erl
.of th,c pr:oject <,'r
wby ir,:,-{oesn't want ti-ie centeí to l-ra.ve thc rcspect of íhe' a'd called c'rscs clorn n on trrem. I be 2Ì1. some of thern and puJlecJ
ihe cornmtinitl'. out thçìr hair" (NIch 13:25). on the othe'ha'cr, a person rvirh cgalita'ian
'The iilusturtion u.olild become e\ren lrore comllica,ted tf thìs team leadership va-l'es mÌght quore the apostle paLri, "I wilr
boast ali the more
in lFogo wer\i composed of míssionaries íi:oin Srvitzcrlanci, Chana, tire gladly abou. m)r ureâknesses. . n cleliglrt in weaknesses, in
insults. in
' [Jnited Sta.tes, ]irirnce" Etiriopi;r and A.usrralia-a iil<c1y scelrario il1 to- hnrclships, in perse cutiors, in cliÍTicurtie s. Forwhen
I am urealt, trre'I am
- clav's globalized rvoi:ld. Cultr.rraliy cliverse lea.delship expcctâticns are a sÍr'crn-e" Q. cor 129-10). Both authoritaria' and egalita'ian cultures c;rir
challengìng reality in crrrrent mission tc:tlns. Atr unclersiairding 9f cr-i1- fincl biblical c.ridence fbr-their opposing leadership vahres.
tural values anci ì:ibtrical leadershìp prir-rciples lna]i ilct gLì:Ìr'-lltee hâr- Biblícal pr-ir-rciples of leadership ro come Íìom the whole of
monious relationships, l:rrt it is a althl fìrst step' script're. 'eed
he Leacle.rs in i-rtilticult'rai situatio's have the opportlrnit), to
Thcse griÌ,3e1-iues cau help resoive leac1er..itip tcnsious ïn mi,rÌticul- explo'e Scripture from tire perspective of the other.rrlt,_,r..
A, we study
i nlal tea,ms: the r.r,hole of scripture rve wili fir.rd exarnples of leaclership
:ünrotter
values that
1. ltoltí" 01tïÌ r.r.rtrortsciotr.s ctt/fuirtt! t,lri.t,'.t.
l-'iltcc "we selclotn re- supÌro't difLering rtiern's. \4/e then seek a sy'thesis of principles
ratlrcr.
{1ect oL or,rr und.erl},ing r.al-'.res, tve âssuÍÌic evel}ront thlnks Like we c1o. tha' a prooÊtext of exampie s. I'rpiicit biblical pri^ciples are embeddecl
1\.ncl rve iniLgine thirt anyone u'ho reasoits difÍèr'errtiy is incompetent, beirind- explicit Bible stories. c)'e uniwrsat biblical pri'ciple
is rhar
r,-irle or no1. r'aisecl "pL'operly." As a neu' missionar'a T -was silting at a lea'ler"r should lorrc and care for trrose rn"üom they read.
Iesus co'r-
m.eal .r,,ith a gïcup of hTigerian pastol's, and realized that thel' dicln't mancleC us io love our neighbors as ourselr.es.
ra,ì<e off their hats. Ïrr ny mind, I could hear rny tnother's cl-riding, "No
eating, rvlti-r Jrour hatoni" X foolishly assi-rr.r-.-eci that all gooci mothers TII-IH Fì,ERAMOX OF BIELE AND CULTUI?E
iiisist thaf chilclren take off thcir hats diu:ing mca.ls and fou[rtr ml'5s]f ci'ossc'ltrlra1 leaders fâce a theologicar paraclox. God is at
work in
tliir-rhing my pir,stor fi-iends were impolite. I soon iearned othenvise. ei'er)r culture, but Sata'is too. so examples of both good and bad lea,l-
(And tocìay v'e live in a new era of nrtre s a.boLrt ha,fs at tbe talllç in m1' ersiripr are found in el,ery culture.
o,r,rn cullure.) Tire image of God can be founcl in ever1, culture, but the effects
of
2. Disca'ucr thc cultttraÌ rtnlues o.{othei-s. R.eaiize that othels aiso hold our clepra'it1' are a,lso e'iclent. Leadersrrip styJes i'every curture
ha'e
va-lues they nai.rely assunle to be ltniversal. F{ost Jikely people âre not potentiai of reflecting good ol evil in the healt of the learler. Leacì-
tl-re
trying to be iu<le rvireir they things diflèrentlr,'from 1-ou. I shcepishly
rJo ersi'errery culture ter-rcl. toward the sin of pride. Becanse of our fallen
1:rr.rghed inside a.s rt struck me tilat Ì{igerian motheis rnight have taught nàtuïe, "Porver tends to coÍrupt, and absolute power coírupts abso_
cliÍfcrent tablc rnanneis to titeir children, an,.1 m1z pastor friends might' lutely."t rhis ís tr'e in all cr.rltures. cornpeting principles of love
a'd
t',I:rtnk n're irnpolite Íbr eating with rny hat offl selfishness are at wori(in human irearts and are evidenced in varied
1r'irtiph of lmrh shì,n ìn alÌ af Sn'ipture. It's easv to
3. Lool.for biblical leadership styles. A paternalistic ieader rnight be selfless a'd lovi'g,
{ipd verses to prove anlr s;1-ls oÍtleadersirip.. 1Ã/r: atc all attracted unltnolÃ/- rvhiie an egalitaria'leader might be manipulzrtive and selÊseeking.
 r
(t6 LEnorNc Acnoss Crlr.rrnrs
Since we live in a fallen wodd, we must view with sr-rspïcion olir owil
âss!Ìmptions about leadership. Neither should we romanticize leader-
ship styles in other cultuÍes. I have heard missionaries declare that in-
dividualism is evil and collectivism is biblical. But the'opposite is
equally defensible-that collectivism leads to tribal conffict and stiÍ-les
tlre development of individuals. In reality, good and bad motivations
operate in both individualistic and collectivistíc cultures.
The theological paradox reminds us that neither ethnocentrism nor
cultural relativism is an aclequate ansv/er. Ethnocentrism âssumes that
one's own culture is the best and that other cultures are inferior. Cu1-
tural relativism presupposes that every culture is inherently noble. Both
ethnocentrism and relativism overlook sinfulness râmpant in every cr-rl-
ture. Both are clismally inadequate .
To begin to resolve dilemmas of multicultural leadership we need to dig
below the surface ofvisible external culture to investigate these questions:
" What are my underiying cultural assumptions about leadershipì
" What are the underlying assumptions of those frorn different cul-
turesì
" Which biblical principles of leadership mLlst be folbwed rn every
cultureì
' When does leaclership need to change in order to reflecr biblical
principlesì
' When does the Bible allow for flexibility in leadership styleì
The relationship between these questions can be seen in the Íbllow-
irrg cliagram. The diagram illustrates that
1. Ì{o culture can boast of le adership values that are compÌeteiy biblical.
2. A1l cultures are blessed with some biblical leadership values.
3. Cultures exhibit n-iany ciifferences in leadership vaiues.
4. Culrures have some leadership values in common r,vith other cultures.
5. Most cultules contain leadership values that intersect with those of
other cultures ancl also follow biblical principles.
LettÌer.rbì1', Cir/lrni tr't!uts nLì tÌt BiLlc 67
LeacÌcrship
vrlnes oí
oiher culturcs
lìigure 4,1
BIBtüCAI* FRIÍ{CIF[*Hg OF LËADERS}-{[P
It's not as eãsy as it'might seem to derive biblical principles of leadership
from bibÌical elrrínples. The Bible is filled with huncireds of examples
of leadershíp, anci most of ihern are bad. Are blbÌical cÌescriptions oíl
leadership prescriptions f'or leaders todayì2 No. Anyone can pro\/e â!.Ì)i
vierv of leadership rn itir this methoc{. It wouki be easy for Attila rhr:
Hun, Adolf FïitÌcr:, trdi -/\min and Cirairman lVfao to find biÌrlical ex-
ample s to srlppolt their leadership style s. Jesus cìemonstrated a dictato*
rial ie:ir.delship sti4e lvlii:n he overturned the tables of'rnoney chang'eil
as he dlor,e theni c;ut of the temple witii a whip $n 2:15). Too mân.i,- '
Chrisdan Ì-,ooks on leaclership are written írom a monocultural per*
spective interspersüd with Eible verses ancl marketed as universal bibi:i*
cal principies of leadership.
We all need a cÌeep sense of humility when it comes to propoundìng
biblical principles of Ìeadership for otirer culture s. The biblicai text is
inspired by God and is without error, but my interpretation is not. Bib-
lical principles of ÌeacÌersÌ'rip are always hypotheses râther than inerrant
truth. We rvill alrn'ays see biblical principles of Scripture through the
eyeglassesoíour eulture . Yet all hurnan beings are creâted in the im;Lp,e
of Ciod, end the Ìlibie is God-bre athed and Intended fbr all nation:;.
The Sp;rir oÍ God is at lvorlç in trelievers iri every cillture. So wlrile
6iì l-onnr;lc Across (lulrttnes L,ca,lership, CilÍuraÌ í.a/ucs attd thc Biblc
69

seehin€i to avoid crlltufa-1 arrogance, we are gíateft11 ro God lo-r: his le-
vealecl Worci to all people of all cuitules. Closscultural principles of
leadership, iaúi1e tentative, âre possible" \Ã/lthout the Bible-(]od's
renrelation to aii people-and. the l-{oli, $pi1i1, given to all believers, no
hope exists for the r.vorldrvide body of Clirist to work logether through
comÍnox1 pr incipìes of leadershíp.
Âs we stucly the bil:iical narrative and theology, we discover PrincÈ
ancl rebellio'. (we will iook more deepry at the theology of reacrership
in chapter eleven.) Tn the middie are principles af leatímhip. We can
safely hypothesize that all church leaclers in every culture need to
iove
and Íèa.- a holy God, need to intercede reguiarly fo... the people they
leari, and neeci to care deepl1' for their sinful foliowers who are create<Ì
in (]od's irnage witir infinite worth. Theology and readership pri'cipres
are deduced from the text ofscripture.

ples of leader:ship that are applicable across culttires. Tcr iilustrate, 1et's Just as sc.iptural principles lie behincr the biblical narrative, so cur-
iooi< a.t an Clcl'Iestatnent story in Exodus 32.We read that God is tural rialues hide behi'd the exterior trappings of cuiture. some cul-
a.bout lo destrol, Ïsrae1 for rnaking the golden calf ar-rd Moses is plead- tural values are oveÍt a'd open for all to see; other values are submerged
ing with God to forgive his peoples' sin. He even tel1s God to blot his at the innermost core of our understanding of 1ìfe.
oï/n name out of the book if he will oi'rly Íìrrg^ive his chosen people. lzvhile anthropoiogists have suggested niany levers of culture,
we u,il1
L,ater God promises l\4oses, "My Presence vri11 go r'tith you, and í will concentrate on three: ttor/dztiew, internal aalues and external pracfices.
give yor.r rest" (Ex 33;,1.4). All th'ee levels arc inte'cìependent, strongly inÍìrLencing .u.h otl,"r",
At least thrce le.,'els emerge in this story. l\t the rxtental ÌeaaÌtve see M/e'll brieffy look at the core a'd the outer layer first. Then rve r,vili
a, cliscouraged Moses pleacling and weeping foi sinful Israel. At the more tholoughly explore the middle layer of values.
cleepest core of theology rve learn about th,: nafure of God-a hoiy God
WORLMVIHW
u'ho punìshes sin, but is also loving and merciful. lVe also learn about
the na.ture of trrun-ran beings-created in thc ìmage of God, loved by At tlre core of culture is zuorldaievs-beliefs âbout the deepest meani'g
God, folgiven by Gori, and yet rryith a natural inclination toward evil of life and assumptions about the nature of reality.a Ail human beings

" Principles
ofLeadership

/ Corc \

\ h""ro*r f
\ --,

Figure 4.2 Figure,4.3

70 Lalnrnc Across Currunrs
have ways that they make sense of the world. Is the purpose of life to
âcquire indivídual we alth or fameì Is it to promote the repìltation of the
extended family? Is it to please Goàì Is it to be happy? trs it to live a
sacrificial 1iÍè for othersì
What about the nature of realityì Is there a God, and if so, does he
know me and care about me? Is there a heaven and helll Does the phys-
icalworld really exist, and if so, is it ordedy? Are people good or badì Do
people have free will, or is life controlled by the environmentì Do evil
spirits and angels existì Is there such a thing as absolute truthì These
philosophical and theological presuppositions sr-rbtly direct all otÌrer cul-
turalvalues thatinfluence the practice ofleadership. People are aware of
some aspects of their worldview, but most assumptions are implicit.
gULTURAL PRACTICES
Clothing fashions, food preferences, we cìding traditions, musical styles,
farming techniques and family traditions are a few of the millions of
external practices that are inffuenced by culture. Cultriral differences in
external prefelences aÍe pretty obvious. In the food categoÍy, weïe sa-
vored spicy curry in Indía, kimchi in Korea, and ìnjìra ba uat in Ethio-
pia. Weïe delighted in the variety of musical styles used to praise God
around the worÌd-froffì the minor melodies and syncopated rhythms
of l-atin America to the staid, pure choir music in l(orea.
External practices âre eãsy to spot, but we seldom think about the
underlying worldview they convey. What is the connection betr,veen
"u orl daì e v-t and pra c ti c e s?
I-et's imagine we live in a country where the worldview assun.ies that
seÌÊactr"ralization of the individual is tire highest purpose of life. F{ow
might the external values in this culture reÍlect this deep-seated r,vorld-
viewì \Me might observe that people spend most oí their tirne by them-
selves, working in private offices or cubicles. Even in a crowd, people
listen to music through personal earphones. On busy sidewalk-s people do
not stop to greet each other oÍ even make eye contact. Feople drive alone
in their cars. Parents ancl teachers give chilclren fi'ee<ìom, rvanting them
to be innovative and selÊconfider-rt. Schools encoliraqe creerivity, avoid-
ing competition, standardized testing or grades thlt could hurt thc feel-
Leaders,hí7, Cul/uralVniues antÌ Í/t Êitl" 71
ings of the child. Ât horne cirÌldren have seÌ:ar*te bedrooms' Foliticitns
in this interesting corlÌltry i;eel< to pÍomote inclividi-raÌ íreedorn I'vlthirr
limited goveÍnment. Psycirologists aÍe llot directive, but desile to be gooiì
listeners to help people overcome inferiority complexes. Teens who bre ak
the law.are not called criminals. Instead, they are described as "lzç111[
who have selÊesteem problems." We could go orr and on.
While this make-beÌieve country may souncl a bit far-fetched (or all
too familiar), it ilhistrttes the connection betlveel-i tÌre foundational
worlclvÍer'v and the perrrasìvc exterllaÌ pÍefel'ences of a culture' The ac-
tualization ofthe individuaÌ drives the visible prefereuces.
c {-J tru ft Ât- vAÍ-t-i H s
cuìture clescribes deep philosoph,ical assurr-rptioris
i1-he zuorld,uiezo o1'a
about the purpose ofiife and the nature ofreatrity' Cultutalprcctices are
the externals, the things we cân see, hear' srrieilr taste or touch: ârcl'li-
tecture, music, t-ood, ciothing, language, transportation and hair: styÌe.
But in be twe en &re valrtes, cultural ideals that línlE abstract philosopirl-
to concíete practices. For instanr:e, tf the wor/dvict',1 o{ a culture is nra-
terialism, we migl-it ol.,serve the practice of people in a trurry, doing a Ìot
of things to make ÌÌoÍìey. Xlzing together worÌdvicrv and prlctice v'"e
could hypothesizc innert,aiues o{ efficiency, time as mcne),, and btrsi-
ness goals trun-rping persor-ial relationships. A cuiture rvhere peapÌtr
practìce n-,editation rn'Õ' r'eÊlect a xuor/d'uie'iu of exisrei:rtial mvsticisü:
retlectin.g rt a Ì u t :; rtí inttrn ef iiar"rnony,
Cultui':rl. rralues lelaring r,,, i.etdership ar:e subconscious ;issr-tr:::ptiorr.l
irbout hor,v people thini< :rboüt poweÍ, handle aLmbigr-riiy, prize inciivid-
ualism, achieve srirtlÌs or plan Íbr the futr-rre. In tÌre lext severai chap-
tei.s we wilÌ i[vestïgate ways that internai values itnpact leaclership irr
the global cl-rurch.
From my expelierlce, the gre âtest difficulties in multicultural lea-d-
ershìp aÍise tì'om tensions growing out of internal r'alues" These val-
ues âre assut-ned, Ìridde1, sr-rbtie and ullspohen. Internal values abour
leadersÌrip câuse so many misunderstandings because they are belovr
the surtàce " Most oÍ-us iton'r ihink aborit tl:rern. We oíten âssume thãr:
cver,yoìlc h:rs simillr v:iÌues and are gulPíised when diítÍererrces be-
'71 Ls.rnr nrc .\cnoss Ctrr-tutas Lct,ltr.rhip, CuÌtrm/ IÌaiue.r'snl the Bìú/e 7\

trome tile ca.u,sl: oÍ mix-ìrps ancl tensions. Ïn the post-cold war r,vorld, the most impoÍtant distinctions among
is dangerolls, though, to overempi'tasize cultr"rlal differences. Ìn
It pe ople s aÌe not ideological, political oL economic. They are ci.rltural.
Feople and nâtions are attemptìng to answer the most basic question
tirc deepest serÌsc7 lf,trilìÂn beings arc more t-lilie than dìfGrent. Fhysi-
i*rrlans can face: \À,/ho are weì A'd they are a'swetinp; that ques_
caliy.,rre havr: sirnilar DÌ'lA, blood tvpe, boue stíucture, {ãcial features
tioi'r in the trzrditional way human bci'gs have a.swerecl it, by refer..
acci thor,lsâ-nds of olher: charactei:istics. Socìally we haye similar ne e ds
ence to the things tliat me*n the rnost to them. peoplc define ther-n-
iol ticlongingl ?rccepl;âitce, securitv ancl fLrlf:l.llrent CoEnitivcly our
seh'es in ternts of ancestry, religion, llnguage, history, vaiues,
riií1ìrence s a.le vatjatioii.s ü1 a liinitcd nunlber: of iilemes. Spiritua"llv we
customs and institutions.T
iri'e fìrnned i.n the irnage of God, with úre special breath of Gocl. We
i:'.n e the ability r,o kno,,o,' aud iove God. Thc palado;t is that all humatt Thornas Friedrnan makes an irnpressive case both Ítr the growing
br:ings are mostiy a.l-iÌre, vet eâch is distinct.
i*rpact of globalization as well as the enduring influence of local c'1-
'lhi"ee things thai. shape us are our colL-Ìmoll h,;nlan nattire' the cul- ture . I-Xe uses the metaphor of the Lexus and the olive tree.

tur:e that fashior-red us, r.ild individLlal personalities ihat make us utlique ' O1i'e trees are importa't. They represe't ei,erythirg th:rt roots us, an-
L4ost 1ïke1y tl-re fuur ancietli temperalnents-satguìne , choleric, phleg- chors us, ide'tifies us and locates us in this rvorld-wrrether it be be*
ri-ratic and meir.ncholic-can be Íbulcl in l'ot'y cnit,:re .s Anthropolo* longing to a family, a community, a tribe, a nation, a religion or, most oí.
l'is Llic otÌhj{lÌ11c ci'a" liftiollg plocess oí ali, a- place callec{
iror-r-rc. . . . we fight so intensely ar time s over ouL olir.e
l4isis obse6rr: that pelsorraiity
ir1-eraction betlrreen an organism ancl its ecoc,.rl-tnrLi at-rci sociocultr-rral their bcsr, they p.o'ide the Íèelir-rgs of selÊesteern ar-rcl
tLees bec:ruse , ât

clvïroi:ment^ 'The effe cts of tirese exteïnai factors llìake it lii<eiy tl-rat belongi'g thât;Ìre as essential for human su'vival as fbocl in the belly.
5o 'u'iraf ci.es the Lexus represe'tÌ It represents a* cq'ally ftinc1a.-
i,irr:re a,re sysfclxâtic cliflerences in the person**t;rpi'-'11 behaviol of peo-
mental, age-cÍd human drive-the drive ic,r sustertrncc, irnprovernent,
i,,1c u,ho ha..'e bcen brought up in difÍ'erent cuitr-tres."6
prosperity ard modernization-as it ìs piayed out i' todayt globaliza-
tion system.N
í:: ì-I LTL[ R H ilr4,Ã,if T H fid F
g,-'{d $'ar, grorl'iug globai- wl-iile the exte'rais of clothi'g, food, music, transportatio' and the
Sorne clitics argr,tc that.,l'ith the end of thc
ìza.tior-r, instaut communícation ancl ecottomìc de',-c1optnent, culturirl lntelnet are changing and making the world more hornogeneous, cleep
,,jiffèlcnces are no longer clucial. When shori-terrn nri-csiona.ries return cult.ral values see m to be e'er r-'ore stable a'd e'during. Globalizati'n
lrcm tlavels to distairt cultures, they cften c;tclaim, "Thosc people aÍe ir-iight make us look more alike on the o.tside, but localizatio' re-
íust 1ilç-e usl" Ycs, the worÌd seems to be getting sina11er. Carol and I inforces the deepest inner being ofour identities.
...aere rvaiting for our l:ggage at the Abuia airport in T\'Ìigeria and were Horv does this double effect ofglobalization and trre srrengtheni'g oÍ
sÌlr,"pi'ised to hear ihe voice ofJimmy Reeves silging "iust a Closer Walk local cultr.rre leiate to leadership in the worldrvicle cÍrurchì The more rne
,nr,rtlr Ttrr.ee." At tlie air"ltort inLaPaz, Bolivia, ra'e sr,liled as the Gypsy interact lr.itir each other, the nìore we need to understa.nd each othei,s
ì:i in.gs sang in Si:anish ",A Mi NÍanera" ("ï llici {i '{.;.Wrry"). Globaliza- undefing ctrlt*ra,l r'alues. "lbe more churches in the west and As;a
'í-ierr hrs spiead- ina.ny cotlìlÌìon tt'r,ciitiorls' lli,ri irs it gilìns inomentLì111, so partiler i""ith churclies in Afi'ica and Latin Ailerica, the more dceply rve
dues the in{lr-rence of 1o,:a1 cultural values. need to be a,,va-re of hora' culture permeatcs iridde' assumptions about
' in his somevr,hat contrcversitri book, leadership. Exterlal similarities i'global
Sainucl F. F{untingtcn, T'he leadership can lull us irto com-
Clash of CirLìiizaíiort.s, seelçs to dispel the myth tiìr-t thc rvorld is becom.- placency. v/e rnal' thi'k r.r'c under stancÌ lcaders i' other culture s wircn jn
irr.q homogerreou:, zrnci tÌral culture no tronger inr-lçes a diíÍbr:r:ncc. fa-ct oru ignorairce can caLrse ò^erious misunderstandi'gs. Globalizatj.n

Lnrrlruc Acnoss Culrunrs
merìns tÌ1at people âre loohing more and mo1'e alihe on the or-rtside, br,rt
tlie inner layer 6g.lr1r,rta1 values hasn't changed irerv much.
CuÌtr-rr:e infÌuences every facet of our live s. Edward T. lìeÌl n Lire s:
Thei'e is not one aspect of hurnan life tÌrat is not toucÌred ar-rd aitered bv
culture. This means pelsonality, how people express themselves (in-
cluding sl-rows of emotion), tlÌe u'ay they think, how they move, iron
probien'rs zrre solved, how their cìties are pianned and laid out, hora'
transpoltatior"r systems f,lnction and are organized, as r,veil as how eco-
nonric and goveÍnment sysrems are put together :rrrd function.e
Since tire effects of cultlrre aÍe so pel'vasive, they powerfi"rlÌy inÍìuence
the wa;r leaders solve ploblems, delegate rrutiroiity, set goels, or.ganize
churches and plan rnission trips. As cirurches gain a gloÌlal perspective
anci rnissionaries are sent from everl'where to everlrrdrei.e , it mal."es se irse
i'o pay sps6i2l att-ention to the impact of culture on leadership.
'Xo work in harmony, leaders in the global church must recognize and
appreciate cuÌtuÍâl differences in both external preferences and internal
vâlues. The Íbilowing chapters will examiire these values in depth.
jtr
Le adersÌ: ip, C rr / l urq / V,r Ìr.r t s urt ì t hc Bì b lt 75
l.
I.
ieHFü-ËÇT',lÕhls ÕNü
M{ [J LTT fr {.} LT U R,&,L LHAM H{ï SH T P
Dr. David Bremner, Deputy lnternational Director fol-51fu1,
respot-ìsìbility for Eastern and Southeri"r l{frica
As ì worked in pioneer church planting and leadership cleveiopment
in rural Paraguay, I often pondered the source oi the iïarìy different
leadership stylee that I lrave been privileged to obseÍve. ì worked
first as part of a team of Western missionaries, and then in a leader-
ship team rnade r.ip of a variety of nationalitles. My wife, l\ikki, and I
are from South Africei. We have lived nrost of our aduNt lives in Para-
guay ancl are now baseci ir-r tlre United States. where we work in in-
ternational mission administration.
At the deepest level one's worldview cleariy piays a role in how
leadership is viewed. Persorlality types aiso greatly it'lfluence one's
approach to sociaí interaction in leadership. Personal experiences,
observation ünai training probably play the nlost conscious role in
deveNoping onÊ's leadership style. Far less recognlzahle than these
is the conditioniì1g thrìt cr-rltuíe and lânguage have on the leaden-
follower dynanlics of leadership.
As I have observed and interviewed chlrrch ieaders in Para-
guay I am more than ever convinced that their understanding of
clrurch leadership has more to do with cultural norms thân with
biblical instruction. As I became aware of this I beEan to ponder the
leaciership styles (and literaiure) of the Western churches. lt would
appear to me that chr-rrch leadership in the West is.as conditioned
by culture as it is in Faraguay. A lot of the current popular literature
on Christian leadership tracks closely with the current cr-rltural lead-
eÍship practices end literature. We have become so adept at match-
ing bibllcal passages with cultural leadershlp patterns that one
wonders if what is portrayed as biblical leadership is not merely
Christian spice added Ío cultural broths.
The Paraguayan concept of leadership comes froffì nomadic
fanrily groups, Christianized by the "conquistadares" and politi-
 Ll,rolruc Acnoss CurruRrs

cally freed by powerfui "libertadores." The strong-man (ar caudillo)

leadership style is expected by everyone. The Catlrolic church in
Paraguay has no problem fitting in and perpetuating thìs leader-
ship style with the authority of the priesthood and rrours of obedi-
ence. Tlre errangelical churches lrave adopted church governrnent
structlrres brought by missionaries from different Western-based LHAMHRS Fd IP ATü]M ÇÕFUTffiXT
clenominations.,Church leaders have manageÇl to fit into tlrese
governance structures, but have done so in a "spiritualized" strong-
man fashìon. One pastor told me that no one can be a mernber or
BenealJt the cÌearly perceivcd, hígltly explìcit surface cztlture,
ieader in his church without 100 percent alleqiance, r:bedience and
ioyalty to lris perscn. The biblical basis for this, accordinrg to him,'i5 there li.es a xuhole other worid.

Ephesians 4:11 ("lt was he wlro gave some to be apostles, some to Enn'anr I{art, Bot,otta Cutrunn
be prophets, soiïìe to be evangelists, and somr: to be pastors and
'teachers" nnr). Since it is God himself wlro "gave some to be . . . pas-

tors," he believes he has God's authority in the church.

Simìlarly, the concept of the parìslt priest lras ireen prac-
ticed in \tVestern evangelical chuÍches for centuries in the form of
the professional pastoral couple. Smaller clrr"trches have one pas-
toral couple. A4ore staff members are adc{€d as tlre clrurch qrows.
l-arEe churches opeÍate in the pattern of the CEO-ied board" Tltis
pattern fon leadership appears to come froln the cui'rent cuitural
leadership systern. We need to ask rnrhethrer this leads to genuine
contextualization of hiblical leadersi-lip or if Christian people are
merely practicinE culturally conditioned ieaderslrip in the context
of the chul"clr.
My Calraor,qN coLLEAGUE Flownno Bnarur rElr-s about a nieeting
t'ith a gror"q:i of Asian church leaders who were trying to select a clirec*
tor Íb,r their mission oi:ganizafion. Tliey taltr<ed for arvhile abouf tire
posïtion and the desired characteristics of the leader. One person in tire
grolrp wâs identified as a potential leader. Howard asked the group if
they would support this person. Each person answered one b1' one,
"yes," "yes," "yes." lVhen they came to the man in question at the end of
the line , he said, "See-tirey really don't urant me." Howard saici, "ït
wa.s then I realized that there were discreet cultural signals understood
betrveen thern u'hich I had totaily missedl" He leamed that what you
see or hear is not necessalily what you get. In some mysterious way the
men were subtly saying, "No, we don't want this man as the director."
The explicit message was one of agreement, but the subtle context sig-
naled something else"
Edward T. Flall sheds light on the situation: "Beneath the clearly
perceived, highly explicit surface culture, there lies a whole other worid,
which when understood vvill ultimately radically change our view of
human nâture."1

-----*'"--t

l,ralrNc Acnoss (ìrir.r'rrn r,s
Probably the most funclarnent.rl differerrce bet."veen people arrd cnl-
tures is the degi'ee of sensitivity to what is i.rappening rlound
tl.icir context. Some cultures encoluage people to trlne in closely to in-
lluelldoes of meaning occurring all alour-rd thein, subtle rhor-rgh these
rnrLy be. Other cultures pr:edispose people to be divorcecl from their
physical context and more cleepÌy connected to tÌre worid of idezrs. Once
X began to understand the signilicance ofhow pcople interact n'lth their
cìontext, hundleds of contusing experiences bcgan to make sense.
as if t had discovered a submerged iceberg for under:standing the
dainentals of culture . As ItreÌl writes, "Like the invisible jet streams in
the skies thrt determine the course ,rf a storm, these hidden cLlrijents
shape our lives; yet their influence is only beginning to be iderrtified."2
'lhe profound signific:rnce of conrext hìt mc :rs ï read
Beyand Cttlttn'e.
A hieh-context (HC) communìcation oÍ mess!Ìge is one irr
of t1-re Ìnforrnrrtion is eirher in the physicaÌ context or: inrcrnalizecl in
ÌreÌ'son, wl'rile very littlc is in the coded, explicit, tÌansmitieLl prrt oittire
rressxge. Â iow-context (LC) communication is just the opirositc; ì.e.,
rhe mass of the inform:rtion is vested ín the explicit -Fwìns
cocle.
Ìr:tve grown ì,lp togetlÌei' can and do communicate nlore cconcn:licr{Ìly
(FIC) than tu'o larvyers in :r conrtroom dur:ing e trial (LC).3
,,11 high-t:oníextt ct.rlture is macìe up oÍ"people who p.av speciel aÍt.ntion
to the concrete u'orld aroulld thcm. Everything in the physical se rting
coÍrrn'Ìunicates sornethilg significr.nt: the ittmosphere of t]re toom, tlÌe
souuds, the snclls, the expressions on faces, the bocly lrrnguage.'.[-he
subtleties of the real-life setting intentionally comrnunicate important
irrfi;rmation. Ììall gives exxmples of high-context cuÌtur€s lrom Aír-icr,
Asia, Sor:th An.relica and the l\4ìddle East.
low-conÍexí cultu'es, people pay special attentìon to explicit com-
T.n
nunication and to ideas. The context of these idcls is nol es impc,rlrnt
as lvhat is speciÍìca1ly said. Irrecise words are more impot'tant than the
tone of voice . The flowery Ìanguage common in a high-context cr-rltrue
urill sound insìncere or even dcceitful to a low-context person. The big
icìea of an i.mportant Lìonversation lrây be remembered, but not tl-re
'7 c)
Lta ders hì1, rr I ( ott ttx
rxme of the person it-rvolveri in thc cliscr.isslon' While l-reopie in high-
tirein- col1tex1' crlltlìres :lrt decpiy enrbedcled in the irnrnediate world arountl
them, Ìorv-context ìreople ài:e inmcÍsed in the r',roi1d of,concepts, prin-
ciples und ideas. Crre is ìrigh context' the other high iclea'
l-lcwirrd Ili:ani's illustration of the leadership discussions jn Asia is a
por,verÍ-gl exarlpic of rhc significance of contcxt in coulnrutlicntion.
lirom Illowarcl's k:rv-context perspective each committce trember had
It rvas eg;r:eed to the lerrdcrshi;', seleitiot.t, L"rut evervotre irt rÌre high-cr;nterr
iirn- Situatior:r ii.r,civ thlLi riie re..lì vOte fi/its rutânirtoLts ,-lislgleetirelt. Linspo-
Ì<en cues rve::e obvious tc iÌre il-rsiclei's arrcl ",vcre llote iníltlenrial th:iil
tlic s1.oì.. r, tt'uids.
Fligh-contert cu]tuyes place a premitim on Ì-rtrrmclious reÌirtiou-
Ilall's booi< sÌrips. The group is iÌrore valued thltn the indívidual, and- cooperation is
orefer-recÌ o\/er cúmpetitioir. Q}ality time is lre:rsured tnore than ac-
which most compìishing il qì.iânÍiteti\re tasil" Change is ofÌen lcsisted"
rl-re
orr the other. ir*rid, peopi. irr lo",v-context culi:i;res tet-rd to tÌrini< irr
conceÌrts, pr'irrciples, at,st:i'rctions ancl theories. ll'heii thinkillg tran-
sccnds tiie Prcsent siruaÍ,i,ri'r and is not emÌ-'ecldeci in i1're irnrnecìiate con-
r,irho text. CünrlrÌr.ttticatiol-t i:ì rlot s'.iirtle, but clirect. Tr is mostil' verbaÌ ci
li,Litterr. Accompiisliing; i:;rec.se goaìs is moie im;rolt:Lnt ftr1tfI iluílclinq
r.eìltiorrshli,s, tntì iirire is rneasurecì rs a qttriutity, l-roc a cltialitl'. Becaul,r
commui-iicitti.oti is itttalriì:igut'rus, tfie mearrfilg can !e ilnderstooc:[ ïr'ir
outsiclcr-s as rvelÌ as iitsiders.a lrrdiviclr-rality and competil:ion are vtluec],
.ancl cìrange is risually seén xs a gooct thing.
Tensiol *rici cor;Í,:sici-l bc:ttve etr cultr-ires arises ìtr the ltidrlcn üe ssâP,es
cr-rlòiclecl in thc contr:xt. L,oi,r.-con!(,r:t contnjLrnìcaì.ioti cau seetrr cold xncl
uncarì1]g ro people ir: hìgh,cor,te-r-t r:u1tutes, and high*context coüÌmLiÍri-
ciition can'seem baff'lirrg; oi evt:fl dishonest to ide;t-olientec[ people'5
once rnet an American missionary couple in lVe st /\fricla who were
I
bcing senr ìrome by trocal pastors. Tensior-i Íèstered Íôr r.nany mr-Irtirs
iintil the pastors asl{cd tht: coilple to leave: the colìÌ1t1'y. The n'rission:iry
coliitlt -,nias ct'ushetl. Tlrel' [16] spent tlvo hald 1'çxi5 raisirLg Íin:luccs
irnd tliro filore l/cxr.c L.o jcrroir rhc loc,ai ÌrtngLrag;e. Ïihvln11 .;i',rr:n up irii4h-'
paying busiuess cilr'.ct:s, thcy encl'ured houresichiless airci r-nalaria''['hel'
tfiought they hacl been selsitive to the culture and had lrorÌçed to malie
 l,r.^, ntsc r\ctioss Llut.'runrs Luìcrshìp ard Contc.x/ 81
fl0

rn:ìnlr frie nds. Ì'Toror t,tiey were being asi<e cl to go home^ The r'vife blulte d Strengths ancl weaknesses characterize both low- and irigh-context
\^reÍc offèpding ;'ogì lrVc ''vor'rld oerspcctives. Fcr instance, special a\ii-âreness of nonverbal cornn-ruirica-
or-rt, "1Ã/[y di{g't ,r'o'-r tell us that 1ve
have been !Ììoïe i1ta1r rvilling to change!"'The iocal pastor responded
tion a strength of a high-context cultr.rre. Leaders from a lou'-
ma,1, l-re

context cultr.rre may need to be nudgecl to.lr,arcl this awareness. Ev tire

ttrrat nr;r,r:1, pecplc hacl bet:n telling them abcul. thr: irr:oblem Íbl months,
same token, leader:s íì'orn high-contexr cultures might benefit fi-oin
but they jLrst r{i,l;r't listen"
The co,-rple wâs slÌie that the iocal llastoi:s t"erc being dishoncst' :iircl
planning strategies that are n strer-rgth of low-context cultures. Both
sides need to be patient rvith each other.
the locai pastoïs v/eÍe slÌÍe that the lnissionarìcs r^rere insci:sitive to
u,hat ti:rey r.ssumed u,;rs cletr communication. l-hc Americans might
Whiie all culturcs fa1l or-r a continuum of both perspectives, each
leans torn,ard v:rluing either events or ideas. Families, churches an,.1 or-
ha"ve sr-ibt1y demonsira.tecl condescencling atiituclcs' anci the Afr:ican
ganizatior.rs also r:eflect a prcference toward high or lour context.
pâstoÌs rnlght har''e coirlntunicatecl discreet'i1't't' Íone of voice or by rvhat
tlrey clidn't say. on hoth sides :r iack of undelstanilins abor:t the itr"rpor-
COt\ITHXT ANM ÇÕT\4 MUNICATIoI\I
lltncc oi cotrte : t e rr;..:rï lnttch 5or r(ì\v.

Altirough tnclclst,rnding cultural va.lucs lclatr:cl, to context is heipfr-rl, I\'e asìred a riarietv of le aders
rvorking in muiticulturai teams to describe
iheir greirtest delights ar-rd struggles. Many pinpoint clirect and indirect
in reatrity people elon't fit ileâtly lnto sirnple, categ,orie s. For instancc, it's
communication as their greate st frustration. Essentially, this is the chal-
too simplìstic to âssumô th:rt Europeans are lo,,-,' í:ontext and Afiicans
iense of understancling lor,v-context and high-context cultures.
are l-rigl-i contíixt. trJeca"use of unique persona'litics, a r:ìnge of values
is

family have very One \retelân missionary telis about working under a giftecl nnd ar-
ple sent in e zrch cuitirr.e ^ children within tl're same rnay
ticulate African pastor. A number of interns also worked under this
difíerent vahres ancl texnPeraments reealding time ot goais, and people
pastor, but r,vithin six months, conflict between the pastor and thr: in-
âfe aiso capabie of ciranging their cr-rlturai vaiue s-"shiftìng gears" de-
telns r,l'ould inevitably erupt. The patteÍn of iosing goocl interns was
pending o:r tite situation. An eÍïiciency-or:iented lau.yef might become
distr-rrbing, and the missionarlr raised the issue at a church board meet-
iaid-back on rracatioir and be quitc content to wait for fish to bite . Eut
..r'hich tlre i' feel com- ing. Tirat board meeting fractured the relationsl-iip the missionary hacl
0.ìost people opei..âte usiflg preferïr:d ïalrtes rvitl'r
with tl-re pastor. Ìn effect, he had challcnged the pastor publicly, car-rsinr
for:table most of,thc iìme.
while it is impoitant to âvoid stereotypes, thr,: research of Jldrvard T.
hin to lose face. In retrospect, he wishes he had spoken privately with

F{a11 indicates tl-iat cultures tend to favor oue ol tire other contextual
the pa$tor rathei than addressing the issue in a public setting. This
would have heiped to preserve honor' (versus causing shame)-one oF
value . ConnerLy and Pedersen affirm this rendencl':
the most important cultulal values in a high-context society. It woulcl
Tn high-coutext cr-rltules, srrch as China, i{orea'.fapan, France, Greece'
also haÏe preserved tl-reir relationship. Direct comrnunication seems to
lnd m...Lny Arab countries, what is unsaid but und.erstood carries tnote
be the proper vray of handling conflict in a low-context culture, but it
.,r,erght that .vhat is actually .,vritten riow.i-l or said. . . . 1n iorv-coutext
can briirg shame in a irish-context culture.
cultlrles,sucitasthe.Atncrican,Scanilinavìrt'n,Gcrntan,ar-rdSrniiss'the
cl said, and trust rs gained Lor'-context cultures tend to speak truth clirectly rather than seeking
foctis is oir the sirccifics of what is rvtittet''
agleements. I-Iandshaiçe s,
'uT
hilc often qiven, are not stLÍl to prol.ect relationships. In high-context cuitLri'es, truth is spoken in much
througir iegal
ficicnt to estltblisir .À
contÍactual agreementì ancl personzrl relationsl-rips more sr.rbtle forms, seeking above all to preserve relationshíps. Often an
4ctr;rt.t Ét",,1 bL'sì,r, s:.' advocate or intermedìary is r-rsed instead of dealing directly one-on*oilc.
This tends to soften t1-re interaction in a u,ay that protects relatíonships.
 O'l
Ò.)
Lra rL rLlsip rtt d Con ttxl
Le aptNc Acloss Cun unls

People itr cverl' clÌÌtr-lre aÌie caPablc of comnltlnicatitlg' thinhing

:lrì
Reverend oscar Muriu is pastor of the Ì\airobi cirapei, a church a pre{èrence
lerrding in many diffcrent ways' but Ìnost cLÌltures ìra\/e
with thousancls of member-s ând dozens of church plants. In :ìn intef-
torvar:tÌ lc,rv or l-righ ccÍllcxt.
View pnblishe d h Christianìty Tbday, he clescribes how commtlnicatlon
tahes place in Africa.
EÕruTË.XT Àï"{Ú TTiMH
when lve communicate in .Africa, we aÍe very guarclecl in h'h'rt lve s';ly. l)urlng our nlissi.tr-riii'y scnricc irr Nigeri'.r I w"ts ztssiu,ricci to Set tl,D t lnu i-
.wànt to offend. wcsterneÍs sny tirat Africans never tell yor-r
\Ã/e clofi't
rimediil departn'ient. L,rchi[g funds, r,ve e'rrned ruoney ftI- the depait-
whrt they really thinlc. They teÌl yor't rvhat you wânt to heat. And yes,
ment Lry triking photogr.ìpfis fbr Nigcrian llusinesses. crir: first assign*
that's tluel Because from our perspectïve, evcry engâgenìent betlveen
ment lvâÍì to shoor caleuda:: pictures fol a large te:rtïle mlll in Krlclunn.
two people elw';rys has the potential of leading to a lìfelong relationsirip,
oÍ preventing :L Lifelong frieÍrdship. /\s I drove into the huge complex, the guarcl xt the !ïate escorted rne
Afrìczr is a very reÌatior-ral contirtent. It's the ielttionships tl-rat ilake sffaight to the ht:ci ofíice ofthe chiefexecutive oíficer ofthe cornparry.
society rvorh. I assumed this u,as a mistrirc and that the CI1O rvouicl redirect mf Ío
someorÌe iorvcr on riie organization cl-rert. llr,ii lro, I t'rrs in
the r.ighr
In the U.S. things work irrespective of relationsliips; in fact, iíl'otr
l-rave e relationship, it can sc.rmctimcs wori< against you' In Âfiica it's plircc. Ftre sât me ,.lo\,vri i.rr Ìris office , otïcrecl nre, a coÌ.,e and:rskecl rrt',ortl
tl-rc opposite . So lve are air,vays gr-raldecl nnd gracious in our communi- my trip. within thir.ty scconds the phone rang with thc mr:ssagc that a

cation. We wânt tp guarcÌ the lelationship. When tlie BibÌe sr1's, cottoÌ-Ì tíuck h..rr-ì br.oiçcrr dowr1 in the entrance roacl and '"v:rs bloching
"Spe,rl.- the truth in love," we err on thc side oÍ'love. The possibility of other tmcks. ï-Ic quicÌ.-lv gave ordels to rhe gr-iard. and contirrued iruirir
rel:rtíonship means tr cannot tell yoti the tottrl truth until Ï am se cure boy
a
rnlr iy-1fsyvis1v. Tn less; than lL minute we were agãifi iütel'fupted as :i.
in t1-rìs lelationship with you, until I knor','that the tÍuth will not htÌrt
barged into the office with a case of coke , zislcing ivhere it slroulcl go.
this rehtionship.
The ctrc directed irin-i to anothe:: office whe;:e they r'rrere shor:t. 1{s hc
You do it differently. Speakìng the truth has a l-riqhcr prerniun in
agai[ explained rhe format of the photos he rreedeci, another marrãgel
yo'LlÍ côÍÌtext, so yolÌ Ìíe unguarded. Yo,"r spcak the trtlth, cali :l spacÌe a
Ì:urst in with rr pr-obleur concerning one of tlie r,veiivirg machìrres.
Arcl íf the rel:rtionsirip suffèr's, rveil, th:rt's too
spade, at r'vhatever cost.
bed, the inportant thing is that the truth r,vas spoken.
cur conversarion lasted for nearly an hour, witlr dozens oÍ. disr"tll-l*
tions. It strncì< me tÌrat everyone in thc whoÌe colporzrtion reportectr
di'
We never do that. Ì'r,e hird to learn to be ntore '.rsscrtive ir-r my deaÌ-
t'e
ingswith Americans jr,rst so they would herr rne! I have hacl to lcarn to rectÌy to tire cEt-i. ldo one mu.le appointmellis ailcl there scel.ci-] io
no cir:iin of comrnand. At fìrst I was botireri:d bv ft'ri: distraciions, L''itr
speaktruth rnore directly. Arnericans h:rvc to lcrrn to listen to tire lela-
tional sicle of things.T as rve continuerl, rry fì',-lsfraiion turned to grcãl irdr]1ir:rtiorr. l l""rs
arlazecÌ thtt onc nl:Ltt knelv so rrtuch :Lbont sr-tl:i:L a coruplex opertiiotl
In a high-context ci:lture, it is often preÍèrable to cìelay a clecision
and rlrat Lrr conlrl c:ÌÍlry oÌ1 ,i l-ralf' dozen logicrll LollvelsÌtions :rl .iÌr'
rathel th:rn to a!ïree on r4/hat is seen as ullwelcome news. It mxy ire quite
5llnlc titlìc
obvious that a policy rìe e ds to clìânge, but if tlis policy has the potentiatr
An unclcrstandii-ig of ci:ltur'e and contexl helps us unrlerstlnd tLis
to cause disruption, no fiÍm decision wili be communic,Ìtec1" "lVe :rre
lntcr:esting pirenomenoir. Edwar:d T. I-ïall pfoPoses il reiatior.rsl'rip be*
still studying the tlatter" is one response thât frustrttes le aclers rvho tle
tr,veen thc r.vrys lrigh- ;nd lor,v-context cutrtules tf iiirk of time. He
i-'b-
accustomed to efficient decision-mtking in low-context clÌItllres. T'hey
serries that hig'h-context cuìttires are polyciri'onic, r'vliile Ìow-conte:xi
r,vould prefer to tell the bad news âncl get it ovel with, whiie higir-context
cuÌtures are monochronic" Tn polychroulc clltttres several things l-rapilen
leaders plefer not to clisappoint people, telling tìrcn-r to \À/xit inslead.
 B4 l-lr lrNc,t\cttlss Currunls
xt the sâme tìme, while people in monochronic cÌÌltìLres teucl fo do one
tl.ring zrt a iime .s FJa1l suggests that Ìdorth A.mr:rtr:an and Northerr-r tir-r-
r:opeân peopletelld to vieY/ time as monoí:i1fonrc, vahring schedtúes,
segmentaÍïorì âncl promptness.e Folychlonic systemíì Íbund in Asia,
il,
Latin .Arner.ica, the À4icidle East and A,fiic,r "are characterized by sev-
i
i: [)
I
eral fhings happeniirg at once. They stress invol-ren-ient of pcople and
i
i compieting of transactions rather thal adherence to Fr:eset schedules'"10
5pa,ce is r.clater:l to time. It is difficr-rlt to rì,o one tl'ring at a tirne if one
,":atr be constãntlnr i.ntelmpted. Office spac:e in lnonochronic culttrrcs
isoiates people behind tall, sounrl-dearìeni*g crrbicies cl clcsed-door
-,vtrrere evcflrone is able
offìce-". Folychi.onic oífices a,re ofter-r large rooms
'lo see everlrone clse.
L)uring or.11. yeârs in. Nigeria I repo|tec1 to a polychronic superior.
'Ihe reascn -I could tlevef get an appoiltment ï/as becattse Ï asstimecÌ
ttrat if s6meolte wãs ìn his office durir-rg my ãppoìlltment time' I should
not ilÌter-f1-iÍrt. Ï a1.so assumcd that if ï hacl o1íicìal business rvith him
i-hat ll nceded Í:o {:onduct it ìn his oífice cluling offlce hourq, and uot in
fils living rooirr in the e.,.ening. I eventua.lly lcarnrd to stick mi, head in
his office u,i[lr m], qtlestion.even if he htrd o''isitols' anci íncreasingly felt
at ease doing brrsiness in his home.
when I directed rhe Department of Tleeological Education for- tl-re
clenominirtion, I rvas constantly interruptecl by school principals, teach-
ers, stuclents ancl other missionaries. It vra.s impossible for my se cÍetary
to tel1 unexpected vi:titors that I was alone in my office ]/et ur';Ìs tìot able
ro see thenr. lryhile .[ e njoved the Lrnpredìctabilitv of the daily sche dule'
at tines n n.eeder,1 to be alone to rnror-l< or1 a ploject. tr{ather than turn
peopie awai,, Í cieaned up ân old chicken coop 1;ehind oui: ilollse , put
scÍeens on tire rvindcws and added a liglrt bulio ar-Lcl a deslç. Fio one
seernecl 0ÍGnded if I was out of the office ^ Because I could
"iricle" in my
monochíonic oflìce when a cleadlile Loomec1, n felt at e ase in niy officìal
poiychlonic otlfice ald visited rvitir whomevel happene'-1 to diop by'
Folych:,:onic, high-context cultures v2ì.lue intetactlons vríth peopie
and events" Time is rrot dividcd into predctelmined a,ppointtnents, and
space is 1ìol segnìen1c.1 i'to offices an<1 living roôms. Lor,vlcontext
cr-rl-
tures afe molochronic. Business is concft-rctetl at â pÍocise til-re and 1o-
Leo r/trsÌ: ìp a nd Cou tcxt B5
cation, wl'iile interactions with fan-rily and friends take piace.in a difler-
ent time and place .
COr\ÌTHXT P\f\ÍD THE Ctr".tuRCtd
We attend Fresbl.terian church that leans toward the low-context end
a
of the spectrurn. The choir and rnusical instruments perform behind
the congregation in the balcony so that facial expressions and boch.
movemt:nts rnri11 not overpower the message. Such an ar:rangement
rvould seein strânge to a high-context congÍegation. Recentiy one of
our Hispanic friends visited or-rr church. She commented that the pas-
tor had good things to sal', but she preferred a preacher wiro spoke wittr
more enthusiasm and passion.
Another cor-rple visited our church for oniy one Sunday. When I askecl
.,vhy they chose to attentl r,r di{íerent church they answered, "Your people
don't really pÌay or worship. l.{o one raised their hands or clapped.." I
suspect that if some of our churcir members attended this couple's church
they iarould object to the emotíonalism, preferring more serious and r.ev-
erent rvorship^ Personally, T feel at home in our church and appreciate
the dignity and thoughtfulness ofthe seLvice, but I understand thar our
approach can seeü1 cold and formal to high-context worshiper.s.
Contrast the above lorv-context church with the high-context chur cir
we attended in Nigeria. The church service began rvhen rnost of the
people alrived, usuaiiy about thirry to forty-firre minutes after the statecl
tirne. 14/e dicln't have bulletins because the order of activities change d
several tirncs clepending on horv many special numbers were available
and hora' rnany visitors rvanted to give eÍeetings. Not having a bulletin
mcant u/e could be flexible to the leading of the Spirit. l\4embers of tt-re
\Â/omen's Fellorvship choii: carried babies on their backs and wore wr:rp-
pers mzrde oÍ rnatching cloth. They swayed together, accompaniecl by
traditional percussion instrunrents. Instead of nshers quietly taking rlp
the offbring, everyone "danced" up tire aisle to put money in an offerinq
box. If not cnough money came in the first offering, tire pastor would
call for: a second one . Tire rvalls of the church were plastered with ban-
ners, ca.lendars and pcsters. Christmas lights remainecl over the pu\rit
long after Cirristrnas. The preachel expounded on â topic .rvith grcat
 t 87
Lurlr".'c Acnoss Currunrs Le u I e r: hil, nu d C on le x
B6

'[-able 5.i.'{-Iigh-C]crrrext ancÌ lLovr-úloritexr Clhurcbes

emotion rÌnd vivid iliustrations. Tl-re service enelecl when everything
l-orv- Corrtext L'hu rches ,-l
was finished-not at a set time. Everything in the environlncnt w!Ìs
paÍt of the experience. The service flowed out of the vaÌues of a high-
Sermon
l"Iig-Ïr- Coritext Churches
'f'opicaì serrnons, drarving otr the
ing o0 rvlrrt the l3ibJc saYs rnd
,tr
Iìxposìtory scÌÍtrloÌìs) coilcclltilt
BibLe, but ernphrsizing rneeting
rhe prcsent ncecìs o{ the PeoPlc less on the inmediate l:elt ncccis
context culture, and we thoror,rghly enjoyed it.
oi: the peoyrÌe
Cultural values are so clitical ihat 1o'"v-context churches may not be Dignity and iinear logic; prerchcr
Frerching Sty{e iìricndly tone o1'r'oice aud hatirì
able to ettract high-context people and vice versa. More churchcs seem rnotions; pÍcrcher rvalks amotig srands behincl rhe PulPit rnd
ofteir rerds tltc sermon
to be splitting over music style than theology. Critics of contemporary the peopie

\/igorous nusic with raisecì hands QLìet, thougÌrtful sirrgine nbout

Cirristian music complain that it is filled with meaning'less repetition Music Styìc
the *ttriÌrures o1' ()od; ernphasis
and bocì1' uror.enent, often
rnd lacks the thoughtfr"rl theology of the old hymns of the faith. Propo- singirrq lborit "u4rat Gocl rneans on Íe\rclencc

nents of contempoÍaÍy music make the case tÌrat the rnusìc fits the cul- Ì0 me"
Serting so pcoPle cer sec each Seilrs íìcing thc Prcaclicr
ture of toclay's youth. Dr. Johann Buis, a South l\frican musicologist, Seâting
othcr
comments about the debate over contemporary Christian music: lòllon,s tlie prinred brrlÌr
Ortle r of Service Âs rlre i-ord lerds

The whole argument ir-r "the worship wars" is totally misplace d. " . . The X-cngth oi'Sen'ice -{.s long as it trkes Prcci.clt sct rirLc

body in motion, repetition, emotion-laden expression-these kcy corn- With ernotiorr and Ìortd Ane us, Ì,ercìr:r reacls r. prayc-r ivith quìct
Prayer
sometimes ali prrrying at the sâne thougJrthrliress
ponents to [contemporary Christian rnusicj are part of a framework that
tinie
comes out of Africa. . . . They stâncl in contÍast to the nonemotive, 1in- f'llin, so rs tlot lo detrrct from
Arrbirnce Brnncrs, vicleo cÌips, detl
ear forms of musicthat come out of the Europern Enlightenment. Peo- projti tor, iuÍ,trnal, coÍfee in the the ir,:ssagc

ple have generated so much angeÍ on the levei of prcÍèrcnce-but tÌre !xnctuiìrY

leal issues are not theologic:rl, but cultural.l1

ivitl-r
is that the Ì-or'd made some individu'.rls ancl cuitures
vli, [1irr.1,
Table 5.1 represents worship services ât extreme ends of a continuum,
r preference fol stairding siill while tÌrey sing ancl pr:ay in church Ti{e
but illustrates how internal cultural values ofhigh- ancì low-context per-
made otl-rers whc preftr to mo\re with outstretched arirls
in p|aise aflci
spectives influence externâl cultural preferences in worship and preach- il*
prayer. Gocì deligJrts iir variations of his c::eai:ion, and I doubt he
ìng. Most churches are â mixture of high- and low-context orientation.
tendecl us to c::iticize exch otiÌer Í'or our uroÍs1ì41 styles'
People from high- ancl low-context cultures can learn valuabie per-
spectives from each other. The beauty of crosscultural intermingling is g [-i I P
CÕ hiTËXT AI.ú E {*EÀi:EF{
that differences enrich our experience of God's grace. ccri*
The danger ofa service that is ovef high-context is that it can lead
Most lenciersirip prtctice s crrn be traced baclt to the iôunciational
cepts of high- veÌ'slÌs Ìow-context Ïenses íbr seeing the world'
to shallow emotionalism, se1Êcenteredness and false teaching, whiÌe ir
Let's trook again at the diÌemma betweerr {xans and Fastor Luka
the danger of overly iciea-oriented worship is that it can lead to dead
Togo (clrap. 4). tsotli have dlffèrent internal t:aluer regarding planniiig"
orthodoxy. Paul reminded the church ín Corinçh to pray and sing with
tÌre spilit and with understancling (1 Cor 14:15). Apparently tire remp-
intlrpe.r-rai reiationships ând status' Hairs operates from a io-w*
context o::ientation, and Luha is deeply influencecl b;i the
trigh-contexL
tation of the early church was to dichotomíze between a high-context flot
emotionâlism without understanding or a low-context r,vorship with- curfellt situation. Flaris r,vould Ìike to plafi r\ritir a tvi,elve-motlth
charr, estirrating absrr..lct rrariables sucir as time tncl fesources. Lu.ka is
oì"lt passion.
oÍie r11:rid toward the ple scnr urgeni rÌee d of niinistering to people dvinr
 B8
Table 5.2, trtrigh-Context alld Low-Context l-eadersh\;"
FIigh-Context f-.eadcrship
Tirnç X,Íany th ings can llapi)cl !ìt
tire same limc. Ìt met bc
difficult to bcgìn rnd errcl a
meetiÌlg olÌ time, or to
isolate onc activit)/ at a time
Communication Style Communication is indïrect,
with emphasis o-n nonve rbal
mcssages. Tone of voice,
posture and facial lcatures
ha1Ìe gtcìup meaning.
Prcstige is given by the
.t,rthorit;.
group and becomes alnrost
pernanent. Others rviÌl be
expected to resPect t^lìii.
Iiormal credentials are
irrportant and need to be
cvidcnt. Age is oftcn:r
critcriir f-or respect.
l-eadersnrip Style Leadership is usurl Ly
controlling in order to
maintain group hrrmory
anrì conform it1,.'l'hc lcacler
often has a charismrtic
I'erson ality. Leadcrs reu'iircl
loyaltl,. Foliov'crs eppÍeciate
stÍong leaders-
Conflict l{csqtntion StYlc Indirect resolution ìs sought
through mutual friencls.
Dìspleasure is shorvtr
through nonr.erbal, subtle
communication. Ì)irect
conflict resolution mal. bc
avoidc.ì lbr rs lonq as
possible. Prcsen'ing
harnron), is crrlrhrsizecÌ.
\roâlS ìihe highest go:ri is to l.uild
interpersonal relationshiPs
and make fricnds. Gror,p
harmon\. ïs high\' valucd.
L--
ì;
LlaniNc Acnoss Curruncs
[,orv-Context Lea<lership
f.lcctíres begìn rnd end
time and should be
schcclulcd in an orclerly
scqÌlencc. People want to
stick to the agenda.
Communication is
rlirect-cìther spoken or
rvrittcn. ilhe idea bcing
discussecl is rlorc importatÌt
than the ícclings behind the
stÍrtemcnt.
r\rúhorit), is earncd
i nd h.ichral ef'Íort a:r<1
accomplìslrrrrtnt. It is
tclrporary and dcpendc0t
on contirmcd successful
perlòrmiruce. For:mai
credertirls are not iÌs
jr)ìpoÍtant as perfolmance,
I-eadcrs allol. othcrs to have
sìenìficant input into
dccision nal<ing. Foliorters
rre more 1.ïl<ely to qucstiort
tbe icleas and decisions of
Lhe lcaclcr. Ì,cadcrs respect
indir.idua i i nitiative .frorr
group mcmbers,
Resolution i5 "sought
ihiough clirect confronta-
iion. People rvill neet
i:o facc and ârticulate
clifÍìcultics r.erbally.
Speaking the trutli ìs
rnphasizccì and rrppreci
r tccÌ.
{loels arc task-oricntcd.
fbc leader rvi1l r.rant to
accomplish a precise,
predetcrmined job t'ìtirin
prescribed time lrame.
Lcodcrslt ip an d Conte t t B9
of AIDS and vroulcl like to begin as soon âs possible. Luka would liire
to appoint a director he kno."vs and trLlsts. Hans is more irterested in
finding someone with professional experience and is concerned about
the pitfalls of ncpotisrn. Again we see tlìe clash between high and low
on
contexf-between a, known personal relationship and the abstract idea
ofproper credentials. Lul*a realizes that local people will have greâter
respect for tl-re director if he drives an expensive car, and this will add
credibiiitl' for the whole project. Hals is concerned about tax laws a*d
the efficient use offunds.
Pastor Luka and Hans r-Ìeed eâcl-Ì other! Both have perspectives that
can help those who suÍïer from AIDS. They neecl to take the time to
b1,
build mutual uncierstanding and appreciation of each other's orienta-
tion tor,vard events and ideas. If they don't, the project will likely fail
apart. Luka and Hans need to realtze that both of their perspectives
have strengti-rs and u'eaknesses.
Har-rs could become so enamored u'ith 1ow-context abstract planning
that he igr-rores the AIDS victims, and higir-context Luka could be-
come so passionate about the AII)S emergency that, in the long rr.rn,
the mìnistr"y is hindered for lack of sound planning. Hans needs to
unclerstarrd tire irnpoltance of credibility in the eyes of thc loca.l peop[e,
ancl Lr,rka neecls to appreciate ihe need for experienced leadership ancl
the lirnitations of Íuncls. If the two can work together, the different
values wili complement each other to build a stronger and more efTec-
tive AIDS ministrl
tàce
Bringing to fu1l light the leadership valnes of one's own culture is the
filst step torvard mutual efTectiveness. Hans and Pastor Luka also need
to inr.,estigate Scripture together. Where clear biblical principles con-
tradict cr,rltural values, the Bible takes plecedence, but where the Bible
room for flexibiiity, the cultural values of the 1ocal host cultule
lear.es
sho,"údirorrnaily prcvail. Cther times, the local culture shouid benefit
from leadership insights brought by those ofother cultures.
a
90 LlanrNo Acloss Currunrs Le a tÌers h ì p a ti rí C ontexl

surely affirnr that ieacling crossculturaily neecis ntore irrtentional

REFLHETIONg ÕTq
communicatiori tharr leading people of your own cuiiure, One of
M U LTN Ë {.J X-TU R.E L LH.A D H R g !-ì I P
the most useíi:l questions has been, What dicl you really mean
Alfredo Umana, Honduras when you said so and so?
I often cauiion l-isa not to get overcommitted, yet she still does.

"Yes, the1, are different!" our pasior exclairred on the clay of our When she discovers she is In over her head she complains that I was
wedding. not emphatic enough in stopping her. But in reality, Latins'commu-
Being married to my beloved American wife has been both nication style is indirect, relying heavily on nonverbal aird indirect
a challenge and a joy. lt has required me to lead using the three cues, ïhat's when I have to forgive her for not "listening" to me. She

words our minister challenged us to practice as a couple. These are preíers direct, precise, to-ihe-point, explicit cornmunication, so she
also key words for ieading crossculturally in any context" has to forgive rne for not being "direct" enouEh.

l:arbear.The different speed of our decision-making processes Three crosscultural leadership keys: Forbear, Forsake, Forgive,
has tested our patience. Lisa will be acting while I am still ponCer-
ing. I still remember the day we went to Best Buy, and beíore I real-
ized it, we were going out of the store with stereo equipnrent. Once
we were in the car, Lisa asked me why I looked so sad. That is when
we figured it out-ldid not agree with the purchase, but I did not
express it in time. One hour later we were in the return line" Over
the years I have gotten better at thinking and acting-and Lisa has
gotten better at waiting and learning.
Forsake. I thought that renouncing my l-{onduran food was
going to be my biggest challenge in my crosscultural marriage,
but I have found that relinquishing the image of Ìhe husband as
the one who decides and the wife who submits has been more
difficult than not eating tortillas every day. Learning to lead by
consensus has been a valuable lesson. Learning to give rny wife
freedom to act with the certainty that I will intervene if she needs
guidance or correction has been a challenge. One example of this
kind of leadership has been my inpr-rt in helping her to deal with
relationships in Latin America. lt is very common now that Lisa will
invite me to read a letter or an email that she is sending to check
if it is culturally appropriate. I have forsaken authoritarianism and
she has forsaken independence.
Forgive. This is definitely the winner! I have had to forgive her
confrontational style in solving conflicts and she has had to forgive
my passive aggressiveness. Communication has been the l<ey. I will
 [,eode rsltìp ond Paue r ol

In every society certain people have more power, influence and sta-
tus tha' others, and each scciety deveiops cultural values that deal with
ir-requaiitv. Some cultures assurÌìe a large status gap between those wiro
have power ard those r,vho don't. In these cultures, both leaders and
follorvers âssume tliat the power ga-p is natural and good. These socie-
ties are callerl higlt-pou-ter-distance cultures. other cultures value lesser
T-HAMffi RSh{{F ,EFüM FffiVVHR power distance and seek to minimize status symbols and inequalitíes
between people. These are called lou.t-potaer-rlìstance cuhures. All cul-
tures fìt along a power-distance continuum.

Dol't e.rter IeÍ anltone call yott "Raltbi.,".for yau. hrtne on/y one leacher, SOÇÍA[* SCIENEH RHgEARCH ANE KH,AMERSI-.IIF
nnrÌ c.ll af yott ore üt the snn'e lelel ot úrothers a"nd sis/er'ç'
The Bible shecls val.uable light on the nature of people, but God has
nr'i also girren us minds aud a sense of cur:iositl' to discover rnore undcr-
Jcsus, MrrlnEw z3:B
standir-rg fi'orn general revelation. Hundreds of excellent research stud-
ies give insights on how
God made people and how leaders in the global
chulch can u'ork in harmony across cnltures.
Numerous people have written and researched the topic of leadership.
The best summary of research on ieadership is by Bernard and Ruth
Bass.l The fourth eclition of The Bass Hartdbook of Leadu:hìp, published
Duntruc A T.Rrp ro
ï{onnR, tr rvRs astçtlo to speak at a large church
in 2008, of 1,500 pages, slÌmÍÌarizes thousands of research studies in
several horirs south of seoul. As I stepped cff the train Ï wâs gr:eeted
leadership and includes chapte.s on globalization, cross-natio'al effects,
waln.rly by a dignified delegation oí the pastor and two elders, who
and minorities as ieaclers and followers. Their bibliographir incl'des over
then proceecled to ask if I was ordained. tr lightheartedly quoted scrip-
8,000 references and stretches to 218 pages of double-column, small-
ture, saying that Ï was "{treordained before the foundation ofthe earth."
print entries. I have constantly referred to this book in my writing.
T also said 1_ rnras an ordained elder in our church. I could hear thern
other in Kolean. {ound out iater that since I Fìr our purposes we rvili look at three major leadership studies, one
talking quietly with ezlcl'r X

was not an ordâìneL] pâstoÍ) rny translator rn'ould need to be or:dained' lf in each of the next three chapters. All three have a large sample size
from multiple countries to compaÍe leadership variables among cr:l-
Í hrd 1)..n ordained, anyone coulcl translate úlr irre. Even though l had
rures. While raost smaller studies investigate Ílvo or three variables
a llh.D. and was the head of a major international mission agencv, the
between two or three countries, these three studies look at dozens of
fact that X r'vas not ordained caused a problern for them' It was an at'vk-
leadership values from scores ofcountries.
warcÌ mornent. I serised, though, tfiat fheir constcruation ma.de sense in
The rnost well-known study is by Geert Hofstede, a researcher fl-orn
a-culrure .,nrith higlr-power-distance values. These church treaders r.rn-
derstood cuiturai expectations ancl wanted to give me as much credibil-
the h1ethei{ands.2 He studied IBM employees fi-om 74 countries with
over 1.00,000 people in his sample. The first edition of his boolç Czl-
it1, a, Ooru'l]te in the eyes of their congregation' h4y academic cleden-
tures nn.d Organizatìons: Softvtare of the Mind, has been translated into
tials wele a.ppÍccialecl, but ordination v/as esteemed as the highest
se1/enteen languages.
creclentiâl aod essential for preaching.
 Lr'rlr ^'c Acno s s Cu u'urrl:s
Anotlrer mâjor study ts Rìdìng tlte Waves of Culture: Un.dn'stunrlìng
CtrÌhtral Dittersity ìn Bu:iness, by Fons tompenaars anrl Charles
Hampden{ì:rner.3 This study included 30,000 p'ìrticipânts {ì-om 31
countries, investigating how people in different palts otrt the rvodd
understand such leadership qualities as i:ulcs, gÍolrps, feelings, status
and time.
A tliild study, the most sophisticated, is b1, 866.t1 j" I{ouse and
otlrers, CuÌttul:, Ltarlershìp and Organizatiorts: The GLOBE Study of ó2
Soc/eties.a GLOBtr stands for Global Le adershlp and Organizational
Behavior Effectiveness. This project may be the most comprelìensive
of all the studie s so far. Ore hr-rndrecl and seventy researchers worked
on the project, costirrs rnillions of dollars, They testecl 27 hypotheses
with a sample sizc of 17,300 managers.s Their lesearch confirmed
many of tl-rc concepts from Hofstede, and also addeel new dirnensions
to his stucly.
There is no such thing :rs perfect lesear'ch. No tnatter Ìrow carefr-rlly
researchers worl< to plodr.rce a reliable stucly, rival \potheses will al-
ways elnerge. Hofstede has been criticizeci fbr tl-re inability oítresearch-
to replicate some of his variables with
er:s a diíferent samp1e.6 'I'he
GI-OBtr stucly has been challenged by I[arry tiandis, cluestioning
whether large countr:ies like India, Chint or the lJnited Strltes cân be
represented by a single sample. Tliandis also qr-restions if tlre trtnslation
oítthe -"vold Ìendershí1t ir:rto diírferent cultures has the same nrelninp;. llot'
exampie, ir-r Grcece the term archort ltas connotatiorìs fr"oin the rooi
tyord nrchondaq "a mther iìrrogant r-rpper class person."i .L\levertheless,
well-designed research sheds valutrble insights into the nature of peo-
pÌe, e rrltur.c rnd lerdeisliip.
Understar-rding cultural values doesn't solve ti-rc dilemma of whether-
we should follow or conlì'ont expectations, but it foster's in r:s a mor-e
positive attitude about the motives of peopie who misunderstand us.
RHSEARüId ÕÌ{ PÕWHR D{STAh}EË
TÌre GLOtsE study delìnes power distance as "the ,Jegree to which
members of an organization expect zrnd agree thar power shouìcl be
shared unequally."8 Hofstede defines power tiislance 'ls "the extent to
LLt,ltrshiP tni Pour:r
rvhlcÌt the less port,cr:Ítrì tncmÌreÍs of instittttions r,nd crganizai:ions r'vithirr
â countr)'expect anci rrccept that power is distribtitcd ttnequall;''"e
In high-por,ver-clistance cultuLes both leade,:s :rnd followels asstlüre
that the leader- hrls; more anÍhority, respect and statlls s]'mbols. The
leader has tlre righr io mal<e uniÌateraÌ decisions that r,vill be obeyed
witholt qlestiori. trrt thcse societies, employees do ilot qtrcstioll n]Íìll'lg-
ers, studelts do nc,t chailenge re,aciters, ar-id childr:er-r obeli PâÍents oi'
otÌrer eldeiis u'ltiro'.it qttestÌon. The opposite is true in low-powcr-
cìistance c,-rltures. Childr"n c,{pect P]r'ents to give thetrr a rationale
íor:
their decisions. Ën-iployees ar:e invited to give sr,iggestious to m,|n,'ige-
ment, tncl teachers rre glad nhen students laise dïlíI,.:uit questjons.
FornirLl rdtl-rofit-i,.tends to lrc cegtr:alized in higir-powel'-distancr: so-
cieties, ìJosscs tre Ì1ot ciucstionecì, and clecisions tfe contnturricrrted froiri
tlre top. For a Ìeacie,. irr a ì-righ-power-distarrce clilture to
';rsÌr tìre advice
of r subordinãte tirat the boss cìoesn't lcnorv horv to lc;rd.
ccr-ricl sigrral
l,e,iders ir-r lorv-ltowcr,disirrnce cultules pre{tcr a coilsllltxtive, p'"!i-
ticiprrrive or dcrnocr..itic iecisioir-making style . Por.ter is delegateci tc
tenm member$ or to sui:cornmittees. In very loiv-1ictro,'er'-clislttllce cttl-
tures, sgbordinates wollci exÌtect to vote on each sigrrificant decision"
In higl-r,poiver-rìistaÍrce ctLhures, people assÌLì]]e th:rt their: Ìeaclers
will lrtii,e sp,ecial privilcges sr-rch as their orvn plrking sPftce, â i-oÌnel
oifice, 1ìi-rer cìothes, I prii.ltc
di|ring rooÍn, a ini.iclr highet' sàlarl' x1111
r.rra1,be " e irtriiict[,.]r] c."ir. Ï'!oile oi this rvili bc expe.[cd of learïers
ii:L
|1y11.|o\À,ct-tÌìstrrlcc criirrrrcS rnCi, in facr, rr,oúiri l Li it:rte ernirlol'ces.
FÕWER Dls"Ï,&F,lCË BY ilcit'il!"1 hÌY
While qencralizations oversirirpliiy, the research b,y ï-{oísteclc shoo,"s
that iii gerrer.al Asì:rrr, E.-rster.n European, AÍrican ar-rci severaÌ Latin
Afiierican countlies recorcìecÌ relativell' high-power-c{istance values'
Northern Eur:ope, along r,vith Great Britain, the Ljnited Sfates, ÏsÏlci,
Nerv Zeal:L;iì, Âusr:ra.lia anci some Latin Americ';iri co1rtltries tencì to-
r,varci lorv-porver-distar-rce va1ues.10 GeoUraphic P;enefâlizations citn be
confirsirrg though. ìòi: exarrrple iir tÌre GLOBE stuciy, Gu''rtetnala, Ec-
uador and ColornbirweÍe \rerv strong in the practice of higir power clis'
talce, ì:ui costa F.ica ar:cl Eolivia ranked ÍÌeÀri: the bottom. Ì{igeiirr,
/ ii I_elntre .Àca0ss Cu t.t.LrnIS Lctdcrslsip and Pouer
97

Zimbú.a'e anci Zambia appe ared \rery high in r1r-c pr actice of high porvcr and Egypt are relativel), higir in power c{istance.ls
But etar is
,:listance, but L.l;rcÌ< Soirth A.frican managers pracïlccd a lotv level of tively iow on ihe po\4/cr'*rÌistance scaie.
.rer1" hi-gh irr povrer tlis- Ì{indni-çm hoids to teachings that could srÌpporr
i-.orver clistance" India ;-rnd South l(61çn sç6r1erJ either high or rorv
Chiira ancl Singapore nlcas,-ttre,j 'nocierately high'11
tr, nr:e, r.r,irile Ja,pan, por'r'er distancc. Eacr'r individuai soul is divine
and is engaged in a
i.,r'en thor-rgh ttrre clatrr s[6'"ving differences ]:ctvrceu countrics is it.l- struggle Í'or purity. Individuar criffere'ces are caused
by one,s learnta
iclestir g ancl sl.atislìca.l1i'sigtrifica.nt, iï is ggo',1 1.1 lre 511rpir-'1,r11. ç[gctr- or actiorrs" The caste system, r,vrrile mentionecr in tlte wt{as
er"a{izalions" ìrr,-lìa anci ClhÌna arc home 1:o o,,,r:i a iriilion people eâch' (l-linciu scriptur:es) a'd .fficiairy irlegar'-ot
i'I'crja, is stiil a pervasir.e
lnd vlriations .vlfhin these cor.rntries are prolrahi]' llrtch gi:eatcr than realitl' of social 1ife. The caste system seems to have
a stro'g infru-
ilr.c average cìifferences between corlnti:ies. Social class, le't'e1 of educa- ence on power disrance. While I'dia rnay
be cha'gi.g, bãth ú,,:
tic,n, urLran/rural cicmographics and occr.tpation a1l infltrence polvel* F{ofste de a'd GLCRE str-rdies found the .o.,ntry to be q'ite high i.'
rlistance -r,alttes. dlofstede for.rnd significairt diÍíbreirces ìn Europe , rvith po14/er clistance .1ó

p.,rrnrcr distairce deci'easrng âs one moves up the iatLder fi-cm unsi<i11erl confutianìsnt' while theorcticalry not a religion,
has powerfur social
'urrorkcr, cieiical lvoLkei, techniciau, proLàssiorral v/oïkcr to top man- implications. K'ungJìr-izu, the rnaster reacher, tatigçht
his disciples five
a'q=er.12 Country diffeiences give a eenerai icl,:a of r,vhat to expect, brlt irierarchical a'd reciprocal relationships: ruler--minister,
í.ather-son,
cit.sscultui:al practitiolìeís ivoulcl be urise lo ob:elve and cl/altiã.te each husband*wife, elder brother-yolrnger brotrrer,
a'd senior friendjunior
eLÌcoLulleï .,nritil an opcil rnìnc{. friend' "'rhe seni.r persorl is expected to provide
support o,r,l .n.o.,r-
agement for the l0rver-statr,rs peÍson, whereas
the l0wer-status person is
]R HÌ*Iç ì OF{ A.í\.I ü FN\flIKft P Ï 5TA[".ICE expected fo gir.e loyalty and respect to the
se'ior perso1.,,17 Tn. HoÊ
\Ã/hy clc some culttucs valuc high power di:'tance and others c1o notì stede stucl;' íinds chi'a ancr singapore to be
rrigh in power dista'ce,
1ly'lrat is the sor.rrce oJi these values? While thcle are several possibilities, rvith South l(orea, Hong Kong a'clJapan'reclium
highJ8 The GLOBE
both Hofste,lc and the GLCBE studf iil'pothcsize a relationship be- study lists South Korea very high, with
Japan, China, Singapore and
t'^.een por^/el rijstance ancl religion, with the 2Ìsrìtllnption that religions Ï{o'g Kong, medium higir.re It seems that confucian
values influence
witir irierarchlcirl slructuies !ìromote higir''-1ro"'rcr*dìstance leaclcrship the cultr,ri'e of leadership.
i,;r1ues, or th.xt higir-power-distance culttrrcs prr:1er hierarchical reli- chrì:tio",íty seems to have influenced readership values
in two direc-
aious or ga.niz:rtiot-ts" rions. Mairy would argue that eady Christianity
valued low_power_
Islsn't has egalitar:ian ienclencies. An irrportarlt ieaching is that distance leailership' Bcfore ch.istianity became
an imperiar religion,
"cver), person iras equai. r'aft-re beÍbre Ailah'"ri lhere is no chain of cotr- botlr leadership and thcology rvere crecentr arized..
GraciuaiJy ch'rch
Iuzrnd LretrveerÌ Ínosqucs, 4nd no wodclrvir]e hier:rrchy of learlershìp. leadership grew i' ì'fhe'ce u'til it helcl power over rreads of state. The
Durii.rg the pìlglimage to Nlecca. all people clress alike anci go thr:ough grorarth ofhierarc\ in the churcir influenced culturcs to beco're high
r-ile same -cteps of thc.icurncy. Bçt manlr l\{rlslims [o]ci to 2Ì perspectil/e porver disrance. Tu'o tenets of the Reformation
ir-r
rvere the authoritv o1r
tÌra,t corr-rbine s iuncr lt:ith.,vith the oÌÌtwxld instjfi.tli,rtrs oígore irrtlctrt scriptr-rre or.'er the hie.archy of tire church and
tl-re priesthood ol a[
ancl 1:lv, and this in highr:r povrcr rìistance ''l he Gï-OBE
i,rs''ral11' 1ç5ul1s belie'ers. Ín countries influenced by tire Reformation,
the emphasis o'
stldl' aiso no1e s fitat lslan r,vas nurtg.i:ccl in countlics tirat "tenrle d his- the oflicia.1 church a'ri the pr:iesis shifted to thc
scr.ipture nrr.l tlr. l^y
l:orically to br: [righly hieralchical in nature ."1a T'hus it is not sr-rri;risirt[ belie'er'" These count'ies-sra,itzerrand, Germa.y,
Great Britai', tire
ihirt l\,4orocco, 'Iurhcy, Iran, Kazakhstan, Indotlesra, l\.4a1aysia, Xtuwait lj'itccl States a'd scandinar.ian countries-:rre some of the iorvest i'

98 Llartxc Acnoss Cul,'runls
poweÍ distance.2o Nations less affectecl bir the R'eformation-Spain'
Portugal and ltaly-tend toward higl'r powel distance'
.The cause and effect âre not obtious" Cne r,voncler"s lf societies u'itir
a tendency to-,vard high-power-distance valr.res are most iìttÏxctcd
to
hier.archical religions, or if hierarchical religions Promotc the
cultr"rral
that rtLlers in China
value of high power distanceì A case can be marle
promoted confucian v.llues in or.der to avoid sociai chaos
'.rnd disinte-
of which precedes the other, values ebortt power
!-ration.21 Regarclless
and religion reinforce each other.
TF{ËcI-ìALLEhlcEFoRl4IGI.|-pÕWER-DlgTAÏ\icEsÕc}HTlEg
Fligh pou,er distance may be scen as paternalism, whlch carries uncom-
plimentary connotations for many in cottntries of northern Europeen
ieritage. Irr other parts of the worlcl, patefiralism evokes a positive feel-
ing signifying a reciprocal reiationship between a wetithy person o{'
influence and a loyal client. Both need each other. Fïowever, this posi-
tive association between a benevolent autholitafiân leaclel end a loyal
fòllorvel mìght be clrrngìng'
The GLOBtr study not only measrired u'hat mânagefs thought r.vas
the practiceof power distance in their organizzrtion, but also asked
u'hat
thei thought power distanc e shottltlbe'They compareàthe practice wtth
the rtaltrc of power cìistance. In every coulltry surveyecl ti-rey for,rnd
that
power clistance w.;rs irigher than people tÌrought it shor-rld be .'l'he
cor'rn-
iries with the highest power clistance had tire greatest deslle for less
power cÌistance. Even in countries with a reÌativeiy low power distance,
mânagers desirecl!t to be even lower" "Managers in all cultures rcportecl
that their societies piactice power distance fiìore strongly th:'tn they be-
lieve they shouid."22 One wonders if there is a grorving u[ive|sal desire
for a more egaliterierr societY.
A recent Wall streetJournal articletitied "Pulling l{anle Gets Hlrder
at cne l(orean con-ipany" describes how a top-leve1 manager in
the sÏ{
Têlecom company r,rsed to be able to cr-it oÍï discussion mereil' L]y ç{3*
claring the debate over. Company manageÍs tl-ren decicìeci they neecÌed
a culture shift because profits were declinir-rg in their cell-phone mlt-
ke t. They di.ssolveci three levels of bureaucracy, changed
the bonus svs-
Lt t ri L rs/t i !' r rr/ I >c'itt t 9'.
tem to rewarcÌ f.iroductivity rather than seniolity, ancl replaced the title
of "m:rnager:" r,r,ith "rerrr leader." "I'hey lelt that the high-power-
distur-ice systcìrÌr distor.rrlgcd creatir.'itl'ancl iiuovation. Under the rierv
iol,cr-povrier-disran,i:e cr:ìtur:e, severel nçu' proÍitable products Ìr,,Lv.:
be et introduced by ]zotlnger employe es.23
Rese'.rrcher's il the GLOIÌìì study reveal ti:eil hias rúen tirey leur:i:i:
One elemcnt t;f high pou'er rÌistance is clearlr' di'sfutlctionrÌ ls it pre -
cinpts the socicty fì'orn quesrior-ring, lcarning, li-irl riclaptìng ns thetc ìs
littlc opportunitv íôr' rlebate and voiciirg oÍ ciivergent views. ÂsÌ<ing
qiÌe stions m-ly be inlciprctccl or reg;rrdcd as cr'ìrlcizirlg entl blatriirg, lncì
tlrer'etbrc mry prohibited. In contr:rst, wìtllir-r tlìe Ìou/-Power-distancc'
1;e
crilruies of the \Ã/est, rhe Íìcxible dìsrlibtttion o{ polvei' is expccteil fc'
f,rcilitzrte erltrcprencrÌritll inrrovation, to :rllor,r Ì:ioader Par'tícipxtìolÌ iiì
eclucation, and ro conslreirr the abuse oltpou'ti: ancÌ corrupi:ion,2a
Both llofstecie liicl the GLOBE srr-rcìv report finding;s oi: str-on!.
positive correlations between high polver: c{ist:tnce i,nd Íreqileni:y oj'
corruption.25 Since rr-rost high-power-distance countrie s tte notu'etltìr\',
it couid be iÌrai povei:ty rncollreÉies cortuplìon" Ür it coulcì ì:e th,ii
cotlntÌ"ies with higl;r pot'ei: distance have Íèro'el' chech:; ancl biriii,ici:s.
rryhich tl'rer-r letcl:; to cr-:Liuptiorr and povertl'.'{.'hi: cl:ua í:rcm tllesr:.çi'ucl-
ies is not aclecptrite io sLlplrort either hypotiresis' Sr;cieties r.vith I'ig;h
p:orver clistance '.llso l-r:ir.,e less ecouomic prcsperiil', liÍè i:xpe cltncy, i;c''
cial herith, genc,:al satislÌrction and gender equzilitl'.2ó Âgaiir, nc cne i:l
srrre whicir is the c:ruse ar-rC r'vhich is the efíer:i:. Tt cottld bc tl-rat the 1:rr-l;
of economic prosperity alld social healtir etrcourages pcoprle to ciesiic :r
strong leadei', or" it couÌcl be that too much pow-er irr a leader leads ro
corrúptioil anrl povert1'. Ti,e fact th'.tt every ciltliìtIy srucìiecl clesired iers
power disiance,'.'rncl tÌrat cottntries r,vith hig;ìr por'r'cr clìstrttrcc rLic bcy;iri-
nir-rg to chinge, sugqests th'.rt high poweí clistãllce is pârtiy ti s)/trlftonl
of a clysfunctior"rai society.
I s6specr correhtion betweett po"ireL dist:iincc npd i:o1 -
tl'at ther:e ls a
text. I)o people in Ìrìgh-coutext cultr'tres pre{èl iliglr-power-disr:Ìirc':
leaders, ancl do iow-coútext ct1ÌtÌtres fe cÌ rnor', lí- horne witìr |o1ir-p.'i'1"';r"
dist:rncc leadersì The hypothesis is wot"th tcstinp;.
i00 Lll-rrxc,'\cRoss Curr.unrs Leoder:Ìtip end Po,wct
i0i

THH m[trL!Ï Ahlts FOVllgR nlsTAt\lsH 77:27). Peter reminds younger believers to submit to their elders (1 pet
5:5). Paul i'forms his f iends i' Romc to be s'bject to governine au-
Iìxamples of bqth high- and l6',1'-pnr'ra:r-dÌsta-nce clrltures are found in
thorities (Rorn 13:1). The writer of Flebrews challenges the co'grcga*
thc Bíble . frrom a btblical peÍspe ctive lrigi'r power distance can be either
.r tio. to "h;rve confidence in your leaders and submit to their author.ity,
good bad.
because they keep watch over you as those who must give an account.
Scripture describes the ultimate powe:: clista-uce between tlie A1-
Do this so that their work will be a joy, not a burden, for that would be
mighty God and human beings. Isaiah chalienges the people with the
of no benefit ro you" (Heb 13:17).
qu,::stíon, "\,Mltl-r whom, then, will yor'l ccm!ìare Gorlì" (Ïs 40:18) He
.,vith the hollor,v of his At tire same time, a biblical case can be made for low power d.ista'ce.
reminds ïsrae1 tl:at God measures tlie yr,,r.tcrs
Jesus chides the higir-power-distance Ph..rrisees who relish the prace of
ha1c1, his brea,th marfts the iteavens, he .,vr:ighs tïre mou.ntains ancl iri1ls
honor at ba'quets, seeh the most important seats in the synagogue, love
oïì scales? alrl the natiols are like a clrop ip a bucket, or d-Lrst o1 tire
to be greeted with respect in the marketpiace and insist that others
scales. The isia.nds weigh as much as fine dust, people are like grass-
lronor them b). their title, Rabbi (Mt 23:5-7).Je sus re sponcis:
hoppers. llhis is the God who knows all the stars in ali the galaxies by
nãine (Is 40:tr"2,, \5. 22, 26)" Such power distance is unimaginable to ììut yo. are not ro be cailed "Rabbí," foi yos [2.,r. only one Master a'il
,flrail human beings. Yet this same God rnriro calis the stars by name is )/o. are all brothers. A'd clo not call anyone on earth "fatl-rer," for yoLi
oui Father" ï-{e loves his children' ancl acttrallv lives in tts (Jn' 14:23; have ore Father, and he is in heaven. Nor ar-e .,,ou to be callecì ,,teacher,,,
foi'ys11 finu" one Teacher-, the l4essiah. The greatest amone you
15:4). Tlie Llorl of the universe calis r'rs friencis (Jn X5:15)! The most will bc
yôur sei:vant. (l\4t 23:B-11)
transcenderit being imaginable is more irnmtuent tiran our closest
fi.ïend. wtrrat an exa,mple of hïgh an,j loiv power distance rvithin tl-rc Jes's also criticized iris disciples .,rüe' they argued o'er.vzho would
sailìe pefsol-1. czÌptlu'c the high-power-distance places of honor beside hiri-r. Ftre cha!
h4iriam Aaron questioned the authority of h',ioscs by raising the
ancl lenged the high-porver-distance values so pervasirre in the cr.rlture"
lorv-power-dislance question "Has the Lonn spci<e n only tluough Mo-
Jesus called t}rem tosether a'd said, "You k'orv that the rurers of the
sesì" (hTtim 12:2). Both l,4iriam ancl Aaron objecte d to the higher sta- Ge'tiles lord it ovcr them, and their high oÍïìcials exercisc authoritl,
tus of h4oses ancl fèit they shotúcl share his spe cìal relationship u'ith the over thcrn. Not so with y.*. Instead, whoever wants to become greirt
Lord. Godt anger brlrned against }4iriam arid sirc becanre leprous' aÍÌìollg you lnust be )roru' scl'\.ant, and whoever u,ants to be first must be
Later the sons of i{orah rebelled against the .leailership of Ntroscs. They I'orrr sl;tr.e-iust as the Son of Ma'did'ot con-ìe to be served, but tcr
criticize,f Moscs aird Aar-on for their: hig,1.' potrer distauce, using t{re serve, and ro give his life as a ransom for-manv.,, (LIt20:25-28)
1o..nr-po.,ver.drstânce ârgument, "\lbu irave gone tco farl
'fhe vrhole
Fa-u1 remi'deci rimotl-ry not to let ânyone look clorvn on him becarse
comm,.tnity is hcly, every one of them, a'nctr tire Loto is ''vith them'
he was young (1 Tim 4:12). trn high-power*disrance cultures, Timothy
Why'then do you sei, yourselves above ti-re Lonn's assemblyì" (ÌrÌum
would have less status because ofhis youth. Paul challenged the high-
X.ó:3)" Ae:rin, the irnger of the Lord burne':l against the followers of
pou'er*distance culture in its lack ofrespect for youth.
I{orah fòr .r.anting to grab power fiom .}.4oses. TJre earth split apart
In stark contrast to the culture of tire day, and differe't than othr:r:,
and swallowecl the {bllowers of Korah.
high?ororcr-clìstance
false teachers, Paul came to the church in cori.th with low-power ciis-
Several passage$ in tire Nei,v Testament sLÌppo1-1.
tancc, rvhich he cÌescribcs as "weak..ss rvitl-r g'cnt fcar rnd trcnrblin{Ì"
values.lesus tatrqht thal itwas right to pal'taxciì to the li;rl.ccl hicr:archi
(.1 ('or 2:.1). li;rlsc rt:rrclrcr-rj llrìlc t() (lolirrrlr r,r,irlr
clotlrrr:rrt orrrÍ.ry sliills
cal lì6nri1r Ído\/íì1.ìì11(-ìlìt (N4Ì< l,Ì:1/) rtttii 16 p111' 11tc 1<:rrlplç trrx (N4t
 Lllnrrc Actoss Cut-'runls [,tt ]e rih i t' rttI Pc ;ttt
1(\2

and high-ÌroweÍ-disrânce vaiLles, ciìr.Ìsing powef-struggÌe divisïons ir-i
the church. Paul intentionâ1ly plomoted countercultLlr:iÌl vâhles iry taÌ<-
ing l low-power-distânce position of weakness.
Tlle Bibte teaches respe ct for those ìn :ruthority but also tirat those in
rogarrt leaclersÌrip irL e.,.cr!'cLtlture. Scriptul'e se":ills to leave rootr Í,n
son'rc llexibility r'egarciing poiver: cìistance in ltadcr:ship st',4e but not ir'1.
ieaclcrsÌri1; attilLrcles. Thc heart of every leader rnust bc hur-nble, sechir-ip-
the p;ood of othcrs ancï suspicious of one's owrl rilotivcs"

authoríty mrÌst 11ot dcmlnd to be ÌreÌcÌ in high esteerl. Leadcrs in high-

M iEÌ*I Õ,Â.ï I Õ F.I S trlÔ R LEÀ Ü Ë Fï S I-{ I P I h{ T"I+ H G L,.O B/\ L C ü"I] U FïC FN
power-distance cultnres need to be aware of the dangers of pride ifÌ
I

position and of lording it over Íbllorvers. Foilowers in low-power- .1\ppreci:itirig cr,1':ur'.11 cÌìflterence s regarc{inu, porvcr i-listance virriÌl *;o 2i

distance cultures necd to show proper íespect for those in :rr"rrhor"ity lgrrp, u,a1, ip prririrotilg-. hceltfif itìteractiolls r^'ithii-i Lhi: gft,,bnÌ. bolly oí
over them. Both lenders and followers are to clothe themseil'es rvitÌi CÌrrist. l-et's kioli at somú cf tire prlcticrrÌ irrrpÌlic.lrirrrs.
humility toward one unother, because "Goc1 opposes the proud but ii. üfun't;tt-to-,t:/nu'ah pu't,tnerskilts' In the re cent pxst, iilexpl: rrsi'.'e ai.:r

shows favor to the l'mmble and oppressecl" (1 Pet 5:5). trayel enrì lnternet cotlrnunication have led to tl-re gr-orr,'ing phenont'-
The Bible does not seem to give a clear ans\l/er Ío the qttestion' non of chtircir-to-chiirclr p:rt:tnerships. ÌVíost cifìerl the ptÌrtnelSlÌip Ì5
"l.Vhich is better, hieh- or low-power-clistance values?" The rnost obvi- macle rìp of cÌrurches in a rvealthy nation partncrr"irrg witl.r a chrlrch i|

ous cxamples of power distance , hierarcÌry and status sYmbols come the cìeveloping r4,orlcl. irrteresting dilemnla eÍníjìiges wherr chrlrcirts
1Lt1

from the Cld Testament, before the Hoiy Spirit wiis poured out on all re;rlize that the te rm pttrÍnersltìp has difíereirt cc,nnotarioiis, cÌepeneìili:;
believers, and before terichings on the priesthoocl oitall believers. on ar, ur-iclcr:st:1rÌ.1inP; of por'ver clistance. Prrtrrer:ship in lorn-pov;ei'
The priesthood of all believels is a most estoìinding cloctrinal clevel- distancc culture s itsstrÍnes cqurility', bLtr in high-por.r,cr-riistance culrrrii,;
opment in the l{er,v f'estament. No longer does tire priesthood arise tl-rele must be a junioi" :itrcl a senior"PâÍtner'. Ffligh-ilorver-r1ìstancc p:rrt-

solely from the clan of Aaron in the tlibe of Levi, but now people from
every tribe in Israel and every nâtion on eârth âre calieci to a royal
priesthood. Peter writes to God's elect, scattered exiles and calls them
to be a holy priestl-rood, a chosen people and I loYrl priestho,rd (1 Pct
2:5,9).John cle scribe s the new song sung by believers frorn eve ry tribe,
language, people aud nation, calling tìrese multicultural belie"'ers e
kingdom of priests to serve God (Rev 5:9-10). The progress of revela-
nerships Ì1l'es!Ìn:Ìe 2ì ll:Ìtíoll itnd ciient rel.ltior:rship.
1 .eme rnbcr a .Ìriii-ch leac'ler.in the majority world clc:cribirrg rite','vrr1'
he understood tiìe prrtnership between his churcÌr rr-rd 'r ì'Vesrri:tt
church. T{is netriirhorr,nrÌs that of a Ìrorse attci i'ider, uritÌr the nationa.ì
chr-rrcÌr beinÈ i;hc ricler and the loreìgir chur:r-h, tïrc Ìiolge. T1-re r:ldrr
guides ttre l-iorse and i,hc trrorse plovi,-'les thc porvei'''Jlhe metapiro:
n-ralies scitse in a iligirlrolver'-distlnce socieiy, ilt-tt is rtrrathema Éòr 1o',;'-

tion between the Olcl and New Testaments indicates a shift from higher
to lowel poweÍ-distance values.
Respect for authority, a high-power-distance valuc, is founcl in the
Cld Testament as well as in the Gospels and in the writings by Paul ancl
Peter. But the Bible is filled with bad examples of high-power-distânce
leaders who arrogantJy misuse power. Scripture teaches that followcrs
porver-clistance k:ailels. l\4:Lr-rJ' \Mestern cÌlulcl'res seek all ep'aiit:rr:ii"ir
pxÍtneïsi1ip, rr,rhiÌc mosi cliurches in highlorver-clisiance socie ries rs-
sune that thc.ir l,Vester:n pàrtner tvili have l:nore or less porvei'tìli,i
themselves. The ïecogr-ritior-r that they have cliÍ-Íerent assutnptioni; :lril
thaf neither culture ls being devious will do mttcti io avoid inisuncler"*
standir-rg in paltnt:rsl"rip lelatiouships.

should respect leaders and that leaders must not seek tl.reir own good, {-Jrribrtun:rte tlisuurlet'standir-rp;s lre .:oüìnlojI rvtrerr churcbe s ir-i 1ov,'-

but the good of followers. This is not easy to do in a sinful lvorld. The pon,e;:-distance c,;lti-tr.es sc:ek paltnersLrip rctrationsLrÌpe ivith high-
universality of the Fall predisposes leaders in every time ancl plzice to be power-distnnce chitlclies. I rememberivheit le:rders in a srnall \l'itr-tolÍì
tempted by pride and domination. llhe Bible stands in judgment of ar- countrj/ rr,ranted tci partiÌer r'r.ith chtirche s in the LÍnìte ,l Statcs to b.rilLi

I
!I
l1'

l'r
.1
04 Ì rl irllrr; \cnoss Llrrlrunps Learicrt/s i p rttd ?ou:e t
i05

ancl stãfía irosiritai. When the loca1 leaders \r,'err: iÌsÌ(ed rvha-t tìrcywor-rlti
co1ìtrilllrte to lbe Lrr.r:t1lership, they sairl, "l'rX/e u,iJl pi:cvide'the sìcli peo-
p1r:, yor,r pro.ride tire hospital." Such a pa.rtnership n:ralies perfcct sensr:
in and apprcciate s hiq1r.-p31rsr-clistt-rnce valties.
a socicl.1' th?ìt c).pects
Despite a gcnuine rlesire to be egaiìtar:ian, cirurches in high-porver--
di..tanr:e ancl -'nrealtiry colÌntrics are sui:th'tr:mptcri tc
iralrons in a paltnriship relationship ,:hurches in iess wealthy
qrr11.,
countrics. I-eaders ìn poorer churches ïÌl:1t"ivcìr:l clcsirc aur,1 a1:precia,te
[he junìilr p'r.rtníir ro1e. Frank dj.scussions abor"rt por,orel distauce need to
tai<c pla-ce at thc beginnilig of the partnersl'rip rclationsirip.
2, S{tat'iwg ïesatila:es, One of thc mosï rlivìsilr ìssucs in mi.ssir)ns to-
ciay is thar,of :.vealtÌr.y cirurches supportine Jrasïors and r-nissionarìes in
more needy a-i'cas oí the r,.ror'ld. Somr: mrr,i*, tlr.e case tha.t supporting
rrationals i:; tirc onii. .,nrisc r-rse of rnoney, rvbi.le ot.her-s rÌrguri that sup-
porting nation:r,ls rvill stifle locai givlng an,l cicatc unirealthy clepen-
denc;r
'rn tcmporarli ttutside fti'ding"r;
Under:staniJing porÀrer distance heips sirecl nlrnr 1ig1-rt cn the disci-rs-
sir-rn. hr higi-r-1lcrver-distance socielies, botlr gi:,'ing ancì receiving
círurcire s assì,1rrÌe anrl appreciate depende nt patlon-ciicnt relationships.
Churcires ip l6lar*p-rorper-distance cr,iltrrLes Ís:11ìiïìe tha.t patcr:nalistic re-
lationships are cle,qr::rrling ancl deirumaniziiig. ì)ialogr.re abouf power
dlstance i""sric:s couiltr stimulatc nnclersfancl.ir"rg, rclf:a.,"areue ss 2Ìnc1 t1"ust
in thìs cieb;ilc.
3. üÍtut^cÍt muÌnr.!ssian relatianships. \4,'trrcn mi-.sioru.i.res initiatc
rninistry rvitb an r-urreacìred people gÍoupì a ocpendency rciationshi;;
fakes shape i:retr,r,eei; the nerv believers ancl n:issionaries. This is to be
expectecÌ. Rul r,rrÌ--r.en the netrr believers conrc fiom- a hlghlorvcr-distance
verseci: previously the church was under the control of the rnission, so
rorv the inission rvould be undel the control of the church. The mis..ion
clesirecl an eqrizrl partnelship but soon reali:zed. that tiris concept 1rr2ìs
difficr-rit to u'derstand in a high-poweÍ-distance culture. \A/her"r the
missior-ia"ries cxplai.ned tl-rat they raranted to wor-k as brothers, chr,rrch
sce themsclrres as lcaders asked, "who is the elder brorherì" T1-rc consicrererl
'rissio'
pulling out cornpletcl)' or beginning a separate organization in the
countrL Tensions grr:w" After serreral yeai:s of dialoe'e, national chrrrch
leadei:s asreed to rrilorv the mission a levei oÍtaì-ìtonoíÌìy and the'-.is-
sionaries agreed to u'der thc leadersirip of the natio'al cirurch in
'nrork
church-related mir-ristries. Lealning to cooperate in spite of,puzzleinent
o\/er the subtle cultrual value ofpower distance takes special grace, but
rvire^ it urorks, the body of Christ *o'es aheacl with fresh vigor.
'í"],i['rlticulturaI teasrs" ore of tire erlcouraging cievelopme rrts
'rost
in the global church is thc mo'ement of missio.aries from eveÍy corlll-
tr:y in the rvorld going ollt to serve in crosscultural situatio's ever..1,-
where . Yet the more m'lticr-rlturai the team, the greater the probabilì.ty
for mis'ndersta'dings about leadership ai-rd the greater the fbr
patici-rt,
'eed
h'mble understânding about power distance in leader.ship.2s
I remember a challer:girg situation i'volving a multic.lturai tean
rvith a very high-power-clistance director aird some nerv entirusiasric
missionaries fiom 1ow-;rower-distance countries. The director was lik-
able and ge'ui'ely carecl Íòr the neu,er misslo'aries. LIe rovi'gly mi-
a new crornanagcd tl.rcm, telline them whcre to iive, whcn to study, horv ro
ministcr and rvhat Íòocl to eat. I suspect he gave them excellent advice .
But his attitude stirred up rebellion among the missionar-ies. we triecl
ser-rding various leaders frorn
t1-re respectivc sending countries to mecÌì*

culture, they mav erpect the missionar:y to be in chargc fbr a lons time. ate the bitterness betr,r.ce' missionaries, br-rt the situation oniy r,vors-
Satìlr', Irigh-por,ver-tilsfance rrrissìonar,cs lìra-\' rgÍce to stay in control. encd. I shoulcl have r:ealized the problem i. tl-rat o'e leader. came frorn
Misuncj.ersta.ndings :rre likeiy to arise wiren lera, believers r,vish to take a very higfi-power-cÌistance countq/, and the other from o'e of the low-

molc ÍcsPoilsìbìlíty or"rarÌrcn rlissior-Ìrì.ries tÌ-uil orrr::r resFonsibÌlity ro the est. sad1y, great damage u'as done. The situation dicÌ cha'ge untir
loc:ú chr..rrcir ;rnr1 assr;r'nc :r lor,.,,er po\Ã/e f-c1istìncc rciationship.
'ot
a irew director r,vas appointed who understood the power-distance ten-
-1. scr:veti in a si'tria.lion rarherc the tirrre crlnc iòr tile missiorl'.Ìgcrlcy to sio' ancÌ taugl-rt grace betwecn the rnulticulturâi rnissionaries. Today
i:r:rnsfer hospila.1s, scirools, boolistores, prop.r:tì' ancl r.ninistri.cs to the missiona,ries in that couirtry harre grcat respect for each other, and fresii
nationa.l. cJnr,:ir. L'ire n;r.tior-ra1 cirurch ass'-rmed ii-r;rt roles rvouLcl bc re- r..isicrr has been rekindled.

h_i
 106 Lslotsc Aciross Currutrs Letder:híp ntì Pouer tü7

5. I)ecision ?çítfting. In iorv-power'-distauce cì-Ìltures, decisions w';rnrc,cl to be '"r seivâirt leacler, and I fclt that rny three-speeC bikc al-
might be rnade at any level of the organization, br-rt in irigh-polver- lowecl rne to icle ntify rriore closeÌy with common pcopie. F{otvcveL, o,r
distance societies the most important decisions mttst be made by tlie this niorning, Ï wrs stoirped by a |1;g]r{t t:e sliec.ie d lì.rLsicr \^41o prr-ictetic,-ì
top le ldership. Tl're subtleties of por,ver distance can cot-ifo'lnd eveit to chide rne lcrr rldìrrq l,y bic-vc1e. I b,rcught slt'.trnc ro the denominrr-
the rnost cxperienced rnissionarie s. The following is a trtic stoly with tion, he cjcclared. Flere ï r'vas, t high-r'arlhing iiepaltnrent hetrt{, arrd I
the names changed. clidn't even o\\r1Ì â c?l.r'. Ì\'1y irrind i'aced iil Pxrotest. IV[y r,r,ife ancl I rvere
'Tom and Ann had just returned to Africa aiter: their home assign- fresh out of gr:,dtiate scilool \'i'ith no sttvii-tgs. \,Ve h:Lcl raised the basic
ment. Befole their horne assignment they hacl rcceived verbal perrnïs- support and headr:d off to Nigeria u,itlrout the adclitionai funds nee,lecÌ
sìon lirom the churcir leaders in the central ofÍìce to do lìter'lture work. for a car. J smilecl :rnci i:old him that we wcle looicing into buying a tise 11

Flaving received verbal permissiou, Tom and Sue assumed th:rt all lev- Volkswagen BeetÌc. Ile immedittely objectecl tirat a Volkswâg;en'\ì/as
els of the church h;rd been adecluately informed and hacl given their not appropri:ìte eirher. I i-reecÌe d xt leiÌst I Feugeol 404, but even bcrrer

approval. Upon arlival, however, the 1oca1 churcir leirder rsked fol a a 50.1. I r'i..rts stunrrecÌ. }'irsÍ, rte didn't hiLi'e enough lÌìoìley íor a \/oÌkl*
"forrnalt'letter from the centlai office arithorizing thcir mrnistrl'. $in6s wâgen, iet aloue a Feugeot" lleconcl, even ilrwc ctid Lrave eriough tllolii'l/
Torn and Ann didn't have a Íôrmal letter:, the local leader called t1're I r'vantctl to be a !ìcl'vi.rt ieadei' rviro ideirtiíiccl çr'itÌr tht majolity of'rhe
peopÌe . \Virs I wrong-'.'. slave to ÍÌly owll cr.rltural riilol,il-or
-'Yxs lhe
central office . I{e was tolcl that no "oÍïicial" cliscr-tssions had taken place
and that'Iom and Ann sl-ror-rÌd not be allorved to carr:y on thcir ministry pastoÍ misgLlidcd iry rinbiblical vaìues oÍl siirtusl
until the meeting tooh pÌlce. It took over ihree montl-rs bcfore a rneet- Ferv things about le:r,,Ìership are more ilteresling, Íìirstratìng, cïiiii'
ing coulcl be organized to Íbrmllize thelr ministrl.. ler-rging and t'elvalding tìran tire study of cnittlral v;rÌttes. I distini:t1''l
What rvas happcning irere ì It seetns ihat \rariolls cltsroÌ.ì-ìs clashed to remen.iber m), fil"st exposule to the idea of cr-ritural \rallies in a bicuitiii-
cause this misttnderstanding. Tom ancÌ rlnr-i tiror-rglrt tÌ-rrrt face-fo-face alisrri cless from .i!'Ianrln 1\/trr)'e1s at \À/Ì-leatort G::acl'-rate School' Ï 'ieiil
discussion was ali that lv'.rs needed to gain approvaÌ for theil mirlistrl'' thrt Ï Ìrad jtist discoveiecl another sct ofeyes. Suddcnly huncÌreds of rlie
T'hey trad discussed the assignment with ali leveis oÍ tl.re church, so thir-Lgs thrt puzzled. n.re:ts a missiontry irr ì\ììgeria nr'.it1e sense. T'railrc
they assumed a forn.r'ai permission l-rad been given. 1{ctually, tÌrere r'','as pâtterl1s, cìrrirch scq.ices, cotnmittec' rneetings tr-rcl finar:rciai stâteme ilÍs
"appro','al ln principle " bur not formel appr:oveÌ. They le rirr-iecl that onl1, took on ric14r lìgilt :is Ï i:e Ílected or-i basic \râlÌ.Ìes ebírut tíme, goais, pre s-
ihe top leader co:.rld give for'mal approvtl, not the departmcnt hcatls. tige, vulnei:abiÌiry :ncl ,-lichotornie s.2e I r,verat baclc co ì\ige i'ia r'vith fì csl:
Since the top lelder had not granted appioval, the previor-rs cìiscr-rssions insigÌrts ìnto perpìi:xir-rg- situatior-rs. I reelìzecl agâir tÌ-121t "ti-rer:e is not1l-

were not binding. It was also essential to cirl1 a forn'raÌ mce ring of aÌ1 ing as practic:il ts goot-ì tircory." I came to r:ltilerstand tÌlat the cÌder:l'r
pârtics ir.n'olved. So although each irLdiviclurrl hatl 5;iver-r approval, all pirstilr \Ã-1ìo n'ris olttnded by mi' bicyclc was crples:ring a ctlltureilv ;ll -
the le;rclers together hrrd to applove the decision. lLitter tÌ-ris, a Í-ormal tluenced view of Ìrlest'ip;e anri status.
-We
lettei: wes written, corrrplete with an officíal srrurp. Irorver distar,ce ìs :L tlreoiogictl and pl".tctical pâíâdox' ar"e ofïeil

t{Ht"td I I{ Kl hlG'r'h.[ E [3ÂRADÕX
One morning durirrg lny filst weeks in ldigeria, I vras pedciling my new
chrome }ìaleigh to rvor'k. At tiventy*three years of :ige, I rÌlrected the
Christian Education Department Íbr- a fast*growing clc'riominlLtir:n.
lenìinCed irr Scriptulc both to respect those in authority over us and ti,
rautu,rlly to one :Lnotïrer in the family aird tire church. "'ihe e1-
sr.rbnrit
dels lr,üo clirect the rrfairs of the chulch vrreÌ1 are wortiry of rìor'LL,le
honor, espccially those v,rhose vrork is plcn,:hiltg; tncï teaching" (1 "fim
I 5:17). This points lo high-power-ciistance value s. Yet the prim:irv trier-.

I
i
I

t*
108 LrrrnrNc Acnoss Cur.ru nts Lt:i.{cr:/J ìl qnd Pouct
109

apllor of fhe church is that of a bocl1r,.,1'hs11ç no one pârt can to an- sa;v
otlier "ï r]on't, neecl l/ou," and no one ca.n sã.y, "l clon't belong" (1 Cor
12:12^3X).In Christ 11o one should have an inÍèrioritv complex, nor
should anyone have a superiority complex. {t seems that major: problems
ãrose among Jesus' cliscipies ancl later in th"e e arii. church over the mis-
use oíporver. ln Corinth, quarrels arose beca.use some followed Apoi-
1os,others Cephas a.nd still others boiclly pi:oclairne d that thev followed
where the Bibie does not give clear principies, we must extend grace
toward others. Iil/her:r the Bible is not clear about a leadership sty1e, ìt is
unbiblical to hecome dogmatic about that preference.
while I served as inrernarional director of sIM, I had two business
cards printed, one for 1ow-1.rower-distance cultures and the otl"rer for
high-
power-clistance cultures. Abo'e the contact information, the low-power.-
distar.rce card rnerely read 'Jim Plueddemanr-r." The high power-distance

Christ. trìigh-powei'distance leadership vras a major problein for the card rçad, 'James E. Plueddemann, Ph.D., InternatiorÌal Director."
church in Coríntir. As I pre ached my sermon ir-r the large l(orean church, I thanked the
The solution to the paradox leads to a ner,4. rvay of looking at leader- Lord Íb' the highly respected pastor who herped me gain credibirity
ship. Ali of r"rs in the body of Christ, 11o m2ltter what oul formai posi- with the congregation by pro'iding me with an ordained translator.
tion, must love and obey the Lord while 1 /e honor and submit to one
another in iorre. If we follorv this principle, we cân adapt to different
cultural values in tht: way we lead and the -way v,'e follow
\4/he,n a leaclership value contladicts tlr.e ciear nniversal teachir-rg of
Scripture, ra'e neerf io lovingly conÍiont ihat practice in a culturally
relevanf mârìl1er and graciously teactrr. the Worcl ìn the povrel of the
Spirit so that the Lord wiil convict.
ïn areas tl-iat do r:tot contradict Scripturc, the bicr.ritural leader tvill fol-
low tire adrnonitìon of the apostle Faui: "tr have become all things to ail
people so that by all possible means I might save some" (1 Cor 9:22).
To be aware of underlying cultural values does not resolve all the
misunderstandings of leadership, but it helps. lVhen the e1cÌerly pastor
ìn hTigeria disappro.red of me for riding a brcycle, tr liad cloubts abor.rt his
motivation and didn't understand why he rn'as critical of rne. I r,vas proud
of living a fi"ugal iifestl4e and of identifying ra'itir the 1ocal people even
though T had corne from a part of the rvorid whcre most adults owned
automobile s. By ricling a bicycie I couLrl greet all rhe people on the road
and improve rny }"Iausa language ability. ï íounci rnyself ivondering if
if he pelhaps wante d me to provide a taxi
the pastor r,vas materialislic or
liirn. ï realize now that he was actualtry tÍying to l'relp me by
sen.ice for
maleing m)'Írrillistry more credible in the eyes of the local people. Pcr-
haps he was also tryir:g to heip me retlize that by rrding a bicycle in-
stead of clriving a Feugeot 504, I was riegrading ti-re image of the other
)ligei'iair chu rclr lcatìe L's.
 'í11
110 LlrorNc Acnoss Currunls LuierslLi1' ttr! Pouar

that for thirty years he doesn't speak out; doesn't reveal lriniself; he
REFLECTIÕhIS ÕN
remains qLiiet, and only after thirty years of listeniitg and iearninE
MU[-TICULTU RAL LKAD ERS I-{ IP3O
the culture does he begin to speak.
Oscar Muriu, Pastor, Nairobi Chapel, Kenya

Americans have two great things going for them culturally.One is

that Americans are problem-solvers. Every time I come to the U'5., I
like to spend a couple hours in a Wal-Mart' I find solutions to prob-
lems that I never thought ofl
The rest of the world, even Europe, isn't so intent on solving in-
conveniences. We tend to live with our problems. Amèricans don't
easily live with a problem-they want to solve the problem and
move on.
The second great thing for Americans is that the educational
system teaches people to think and to express themseives. 5o
a child who talks and asserts himself in conversation is actually
awarded higher marks than the one who sits quietly'
Those two things that are such great gifts in the home context
become a cuïse when you 9o into missions. Americairs come to Af-
rica, and they want to solve Africa. But you can't solve Africa. lt's
much too complex for that. And that really frustrates Americans'
And the assertiveness Americans are taught in school becomes
a curse on the field. I often say to American missionaries, "When the
American speaks, the conversation is over'" ïhe American is usually
the most powerful voice at the table. And when the most powerful
voice gives its opinion, the conversation is over.
Americans find that almost impossible' They do not know how
to hold their tongue. They sit there squirming, because they're con-
ditioned to express their opinions. lt's a strength at home, but it
becomes a cltrse on the field.
ln a sense Western missions has been marked by that. But isn't
it strange that Jesus not only entered society incarnate at the weak-
est point, as a defenseless child who needed the care of his host
community, but he also told his disciples: "Do not go with money;
do not go with a second pair of shoes; go in a stance of vulnerabil-
ity; be dependent on the communities you visit"? lsn't it inteÍestìng
 Lea dnL hip ax I Ittdìr iri ual is nt 113

The lack of collabolation frustrated some of the missionaries, but

others didn't see a problem with not having a common purpose. As tr
looked arouncl the circle, it struck me that most of this multicultr,ir.al
teâm câme from countries with highly inciividualistic cultural values.
Ves, they were friends,
but each personal ministry was completely sepa-
rate from the others. Cnly two couples were discouraged by the iaclç of
fr*ffi ,qm ffi R S lrd I P,A hl [3 f N m {\/[ m LJALI S N4 cooperation, and I noticed that they came fi-om counrtics that pla,:ed a
high value on collectivism.
T'he grouir members realized their problem, but weren't suLe .nhat
to do about it. T'hey decided to continue meering and to think and
My brother and m.r' aga"in.st rty cortsitt,
pray about a common vision that would incorporate the unique gift-
nty cousìn and me ngaìust the strnnger. edness of each individual. The results rvere dramatic. Over the next

1\'Írnrr,o Easrrtn PnoycRs year they worked out a fresh vision and strategy that allowecl ti-reir
rninistries to overlap without stifling the talents of individuals. 'lhe
refocused vision led to radical changes in their activities. They fls-
cicled to discontinue some rninistries and lregin other new initiatives
that would better integrate the strengths of the team. They became a.
deiightful example of how a grorÌp of individualistic rnissionaries
from diverse cultures can unite in vision rvithout losins the distinc-
Tno iaalrsrlc Aunes MouNTAINs towered above us as we held a vision
tivcness of each persorì.
seminar"i,vith â gÍoup of highly gifted and motivate c1 missionaries. This
r,r,a-s a mul.ticuitr,rral team composed of Germans, Latin Americans,
THH DILHMMA
Nolth -ldmericans anc{ Australians. On the fir-st rnoming I asked each
Does the commr"rnity exist to meet the needs of individuals, or sh,:uid
of thern to reflect prayerfully on fheil rersona,l r'isions-their hopes
individliais
seelç to foster the good of the groupì
and dreams Íbr tireir mil.ristrf in tile countri' I aske ri' "Tf God u/ere to
Soile cultures place a high value on the commur-rity and others on
richly bless )/our lninlstí)', r,l'hat migirt it iook like in the ncxt firre to ten
yearsì" I sent the team members into t.he mo'.intains fbr the rest of the the individual. Parents in some societies raise fheir children to be inde-
pendent bi' the age of trarenty-one, r.r'hile others raise their chiidren to
moming to pray and ref-lect on Ìny questiofi.. ln the afternoon we Íe-
be lifè1ong and loya1 family members. Sociologists label the cliÍference
turned to slrare our personal visiot-ts with one another. The inclividual
yisiorl staternents were outstanding, reflecting innorration and the per- as indivi.dualisnt and co/lecÍìvìsnt.WhtIe cultures are a mixture of both,
they lgnd to place â stronger emphasis on one or the other.
sonai giftedness of these talented peopie" As we sat in a circle and 1is-
Ï tried to find
clusters of common interest so we Trompenaars and l-ïarnpden{urner cÌescribe the dilemma be-
tened to eirch other,
t.r'een individualism and collectivism. "The individualist culture
could br-liid a teamwide vision statenrer-rt. Eut ihe ionger T listened, tire
sees the indivi<luai as 'the end' and improriements to communal ar-
harder it was discover a commoll FìLrrpoce. Ftror'r'cor'rld it be tl.rat such
r-'o
-r'vere not intpgrating rangements ns the means to achieve it. The cornmunitarian criture
a talented group olt culturaily astun.e misslonaries
sees tire group âs its end and improvemel-Ìts to individual capacities
with each other in rninistryì
 Lr,r lrrc r\cnoss Cur,r'ut ls
114
thc clilcrnma c]Ìclc ln-
as a meâns to that end."1 They clescribe '.1s ã
dividu:rlism prorllotes perso11'.ìi ireedotrl and respot'rsibility; i:ut lcac1s
to self-centerec{ness. Ti:e c'.rre for self-centeÍeclne ss is tire e stirbiish-
ment of communitâriân vallles and glotlp conscnsLls' udrich in turn
leads to coufolmism and slow decisior-r making whicli then takes
one baclç. to individualism.2
As T finished a presentation (]1ì teâlÍÌ\4/or1c in l\ew Zealarrd, ã )roullg
missionary candiclate thanked me for the talir. He especially liked the
concept of team. 1 ashed if he would be wrlling to let an experìenced
team guide his ministlyì Without hesitirtion he exclaiured, "O1-r no! I
don't rv'lnt other people telling me hor,v to do rny rrinistry." When I
asked what he would want li team to do, he replied, "F{elp nre firtd a
place to live, he$ with my governlnent papcrs and find a good 1an-
gLÌÂge schooi for me." F<lr this young men) the purpose of the grtlup rvas
to âssist l-ris individr-ral ministry. Such tìrir-rl<ing malies perfect sensc itt
an inilir,'i<lr.ra1istic culture, but wor-rld seem strange to missionarv co1-
leagues from a collectivistic society. The cluandaly takes on special sig-
nifìcance as missionaries from dozet-rs of cultures are thrown together
to minister in scoles of additional cultures.
Few cultural values are rnore fascinating or fi-ustrating for leaders in
the gÌoba1 church than individualism and collectivism. ÌVlany pastors
and n-rissionaries from the majority world value, the group over the in-
dividual, while many in the West asstlme the primacy of the individual
over the group. One of my former students fromJapan quoted a prclverb
tausht to her by her pâÍentsi "The naii that sticks up is the one that is
pouncled." Duane Elmer qr-rotes an African proverb in his book Crass-
CrrÌtural Connectìons; "Xf you want to travel fast, go alone. If you war-rt to
travel far, go together."3 Such proverbs make perfect sense in coliectiv-
istic cultures, but sound quaint in individualistic cultures whele being
distinctive is of utmost vaÌue. The truth is that indivÍduals need one
another in order to become fu1ly hum:rn, but :rn overÌy clornineering
community will stiÍle personal development.
INDIVIDUALI gM/CÕLLHCTIVXS M RE5ËARC}-i
Theorists have investigated the dilen-rma oí ii.rclividualism ancÌ coi-
Lr d d trslti p ar d Jnì ì titlt r ri I I s rt i15
lectivisnr Ì:ì scerr iìrrn: tÌ-,e beginning oít ciiriÌizatiou. Sevcriri liave
sup;ge ;re cì thrrt iir oidcr to srtrvit'e, scattereci larnilles of n,rnra'.lic
peoplc 1,,ìugÌrt thc viritrc oí inclivirÌuiiÌ re sporrsiÌ:ility" IÌur ds gÍoLÌlli
came togetllei: to íài'ú'r villeges, towns itnd cities, tÌre ncecl grew ior
cooperation :rr-id coliecrive responsibiÌity" ïn 1700 ll.c.,'the Babi'ìo*
niarr Code of tr-{rtnrnttrabi pr"otected tÌre rights oli society over thc
inclividual.'r Through tire lÏ'en Commandments, Goci gave lVloses
regr-rlations abor-it hour peopie should rclate to God ancl to eacl'r
otlre r. '1-he comn;'-rnity'ü:1s comÍÌ12ìl'rcïed to 'worship GoC aÌonc t,ril
to Lronor parcllts. .[-1ie1' ','vg1-ç i]ot Pcr:mitted tci murdi'i', cornlnit adul-
tery, stexl, gíve i'.iÌse t-st!rÌiony or covet.'Illcse llrws set strrrcÌlrrll
for comrni-rr-rity 1llL arrcl only secoudarilv Í'or individual rights. Everr
todrlr 11663iic hercicis and fishermen tencl io piace a highci valur:
on indiviclull resl:'onsil,iÌitv, while those iiving closer iogether t,r,
fnrnrs, in i,illlgcs and tolns reqtrilc collectivc e-coçreratiou' Tlre
Ìnovcrllent ,rf peoi:le into imperson;rl megir-citics mty Ìcad to a re-
surgence c,f i nclivitiuaii sni.
Closscultuml sri:clie s on iridivi.lunlisrl ancl cotrIccrivisirr '.Ìre tìì1)Ì;iri'
ar-rd fascinatlng. \&c wiil iooì.- at scvcrei rnajor siuclies.
Tr.onpcnaar-s rni'i I-{ampclc,rifulner cleíine "ir-idividuniism as a pt'inrt
oricntrtior-i to the self, attd coinmur'iitarianism rl r printt ,lir:nratìorl it,
common.goais anei ol'jectiver."5 Thel' :rdministeted ã qlÌestionflairi lcr
30,000 manâgers in Í-clt1, cottntries. One qr,restion zsked:
Which ì.-ind ofjob is Í'ouncl rnore frequently in yoLu'oru,airizetionì
A. Everybocly irorki; togetirer arid yolL.lu rrot g;ct itrdìr,icìr.raì r:reclit.
[ì. 1ìver'1,body ìs a]lorveil ro r.vorf indir,ìdueilv rt'ri.l jnilivicÌruri t:rciiir
t:lrr be received.ó
They found tirar in gjeì1er?rÌ, countries il Àsia artcÌ the lWidclic East
tended towarc{ the collectivistic value of wori<ing rogetÌrer, whilc sern-
eral of tÌre east'ern enct itorthern Eulopean cor,lntÍies tcnded tow:Lr:d
individualism. But the data is rlixed, ""vith Iì.ontania ancl X)ennrrr'Ì:
scor:ing tou'ard the collectivistic er-rd of the sca1c. While tlley iourrcl
large rrational diÍ}èrcircr:s, iegion.al variatioirs ar:e |i*rcl to cletect in
this resetrr:fi.7
Ilb Ll,rorruc Acp,oss Curl.unrs
ïiofsterle repoÍled that "the vzÌst mâjoÍify ol peoplc in oltr r'r'crlcl
1ìr,r': in societíes in.;vhich the inleresl of,thc gLoup prevails oveÍ tiìe
Lntcr-i:st oÍ"ihe iLrclïvic1i1ai. We uril1 c;rli thn-ctl sot,ieiies coller:tivist "8 In
fhese socicti.,:s tiie ricsiles of tire exrencle,i fâinìiy lÌl:c lnore trÌrpoirtant
tlurl t|1.ose of tiir: individr-ra1. The closc-iinil. fi:rmiLy ì-lsi1ally ìlclucles
p?r,l:e nts? siblilgs, grr,ndparents' 21unts, lllÌcJ-eo â-iÌd colÌsills'
"Therefore
one o\,ves ii.fèlong ioy:ilty to one's iir-rror-lp, anrl bieaking thìs loyalty
is one of, the rvorst things a persor-Ì can i1o' Ectr'veen the person and
the in-group a rnutuai clepenclence lelationship develops tira.t is both
p::a.cticaÍ a.nd psychological."e
F{,oÍbtecle r:ontittncs, "A milor:itY oí: pec'plc in iir'r: in societ-
r'r'il: t'vr:rJci
ies in rnrl-rich lhc inte;:ests of thc indi.,'iduai 1-.ier.ai1 ovel t:he intcrests of the
jnclìr'jdr-ial-
gioup, socicties thât lve wiil cali indivicÌLiaiìst "io chiiclíen ìn
ist societie,s i,Lr:e 'r-rsuaì1y bcln into a uuclear ['l'mi1y :l-racle t-1: rlf only parcnts
and sii:lings. Chilciren are taught to [e ïndepcildent, to do thiirgs for
themsehres a-nd to i-rave a peïsonxi identitl'" Glorn'-tr cirildlen are expccted
to move a.'n'ay rttcn iire on theïr or.,,'n, oÍ.terr in'Cistar-lt locations.
The linciings oÍ Hofstede placc the Llniti:d Sfates, A-ustr-aiia, Great
B::itain ancÌ Canada high on incÌividua.lisn:r alorg r,rrith most European
corìntfìe5. Iapa11, lli_}.,ìia, Br"azil ancl m.r.ny ll4iridir Easti:rn cor,rntries are
nc2ì1. tlìc rliddle oltthe scaie. China, AÍì"ica ,lncl most Asian a,r.rd I-atin
.A'mericau countries are thc least irrdi. icÌr-r;rlistìc.IL
Ttrre Gtr-OEIE stur_ly investigated a mcre compicx undcrstanding of col-
lectivisn and. ildividualism. The studylooked atiir-gioup ar-rd institutional
coilectivism.l2 To measure in-gror-rp collectírrism, rcspoirdcnts were asked
how strongllr they agreed or disagleed rvitli the stÌtement: '*In tiris society'
chilcileu take pride in the indiviclual rccomplishments of their paIents." To
measuíe r.nstì.tution;:.1 coJ.lectivism -rcsprondct-tts r,n,ci'c a.skerl hol r strongly
thelr agreed c.r disagreed .,nrith tlis stâtemfl]t: "Tr-r. tiris sociery leaders en-
collrase glorqr loyalty cven if individual soals ."u er." Researchets also
astrrecl respondents tr-. cliffèrentiate benveen the cui:t'ent practice of coliectiv-
ism and ..r,trat they thougiit the value should be. ïhei. 1'clçç; i'row ieaders
plactice gr:oup 1o1.a1t1' and l-row they shouÌd t:ncoi.tÍtLge eroup loyalry
ïn-eror,r1: ccllcctl,isrn sí-'ores 1{rere higircst in Southern Asia, the
h[ici,lìe l1ast, .Easir:rn Ertrope' Lati;r Arneric,r- ancl Conftrcian Asia'
Lendc r.s /t i t and It t dì --' i t{ r t i i s in
r
11.7
l,4,iddle scorc yalues were founcl in Afi'ica and n-atin Europe, u,ith low
collcctivisn.r sccres ir.r Anglo,lr Germanic a.nd Nordic Europe.la
Intcr:estine11., there is not a strong correlation between irow people ::ank
tlrernselve s in tlreir currentf ractice andwhat
think their aúture shotrld tl-rev
bc. For: example , the Anglo respondenrs ratecl theír practice of in*group
coilectivism as iorv but aalued high collectivisrn. It is lìscinating tltat
Americans see themselves as inciiviclualists, but report that they rvould
like to ire more collectivist. People fi'om China, trndia a:rdJapan perceive
tiremseives as collectivistic in practice br.rt put more value on individur.rl-
ism. Tirere are lìke1y to be major shifts irr cr,rJ.turatr valnes in coming gcn-
er'.rtions.15 DiÍIerences betrveen the wa1'people cr-rlrenfly see tl-remseÍr.es
and u,hat tirel, t[inL 11."y should lre challenge oLu stereotypes.
JJcep-r'ootecl cultlrral values ale slorv to cl-iange . In his book AuÍlitrs,
1\4alcolm Gladrvcli observcs tlie long-lasting effects ofcultural legacies
ir-r the ccllectivistic "cultur:e of honor."16 FIe attribute s the devastatii'tg
famill,feuds in the Á.ppalachian mountains ir.r thc United States to thc
Scc.rtch-Irìsh herdsnran heritage. "The sunival of farrnels cìeirends on
the coopelation of otbers in the communitl'. fi111 a herdsrnan is off by
himself . . . r-urcler cor-ìstant threat of ruin througtrr the loss of his ani-
mal"r. . . . FIe h:rs to 1:e rvilling to figlit in response to even the slightest
chailcnge to his repr-rtation."17 He conchrdes, "Cultural legacies are
powerful forces. The-v have di:ep roots and long iives. The;' persist eerr-
eration aftcr qenelation, virtually intact."1s Blood feuds frorn Scotlirld
and lrelanci traveled rvith immigrants in the ear'ly, 1800s in the App;i-
lirchian lnoiÌntains and urere sti11 observed in research conducted at tire
University oíMichigan into the 1990s.1e
Whiie 14re r.nay not see fàmily feuds in crosscr.rltural teams, cultrrrirl
iegacies lvill iikely influcrice the modern missionary movement for ser'-
eral r5enerations.
Cne can easilf imagine the puzzling sitn;rtions arising as missionar-
ies fi'onl highly individuaiistic societies te am up with rnissionarie s r,vho
have strong coliectii,istic values, such as missionaries fioin Svritzerlancl
and Ecuador n-rinister:ing together in India. Their unclelstanding of
it means to bc a team may be raclicall;, different.
w1-rat
 Ll'rnr.*c Àcnoss yruttrs l-a rI ltì2 t' t,i Ì tt Ll ì r i t,,r / i si'i 119
118 Cu e r.s i

POWËR DI STAhüC Ë Ãhì D I N PI VÍ D UA[*i S ful/CÕLI-EüTI V{ S M Per-rl Ï lic-btl't cì,,:scr.Ìirrs tÌre rclationship beir'vcerr irrdìvÌtltr',rlisn an,J

c'.ivism in sLr;,rnc ancì guilt culture s"22 ì-[icbert c-lci irre s gui]t ',ts '':r
ct.ille
"Larg'e power-distxnce countries âre âlso likely to be more collectir.ist,
fèeling tirat rlises udieir we l'iolate the rLbscilute stancì:Lrds oJ: nortlir-"
and srnall poweÍ-distance countÍies to tre moÍe indiviclualist."2O The
r,vithin us, rvhcll n'e r.ioiate our'conscieuce. l\ pet:soil inay sui-fer: Íi-c,i:'l
countries highest on the individualism scale such as the Unitecl States,
gtiilt cven tiroug| nc oiic clse knows of her: or his ruiscleed.":r Shtme,
Austr:rlia, Great Blitain, Canacì:r anc'l |iew ZeÃaná also are lowest in
on thr otlrer'ìrenci "is r, r'eaction to oiher pcr-rpìe's criticisrn, ar'Ì tctlÍú
power disrance. Countlies high in collectivisnr such zrs China, lVest
perscnal chlglin f:iiltile to livc up to otit obÌip;,rt.lons ancl the t,'r'
irc o,.rl
Afi'ica, lndonesia, Singapore , Venezuela and llcuaclor are also tì're higli-
pcctlrions othcrs ha,.tc oÍ iis. Selí:r'espcci, il rnnir-Ltained not Ì:y
e st in power distancc. The correlation is significent. Tl'rere aïe excep-
choosirrg rvJrat is ;4coci r:rtlir'r'tÌtln v,rhar is evil, llul b]'choosingwhai js
tions though. Costir lìica ranke<l high in ,:oÌlectivism but fairly iotv in
exlrected of onc.":r Fïiebert maintairis tìr:rt I bibiitai view oFsin is r jed
porver distance, while French-speaking Ëurope tended tor,vard larger
lo I'uil, sliartrc,rn,l gttìÌi.
power clistance and higl-r individualism.
Se:lior.rs niisundt;r'stirnCings arise whcr-r lclc1(:rs ir'cm iLrCividurrlisii::'-
Missionaries inclividualistic, low-porver-distance Australia and
1'r'on-i
guilt-ilrler-rtecl cu.ltltles setli 1o rnot'i'n'ate, encoÌ,{reg-Ê tli e i'lr-ltiate pcop}t
the Lïnited States would Ìikely expect thcir te'lm lerder to be a "regr-rlar"
from coilc,crirristic-sÌl:rnto-oll.jÌìt(lLl cttltrilcs" 1\ clire,-:toi ír'oln inclirririu"
member of the team, withour special st:Ìtlrs or perks. Cn lhc othcr
hand, missionarìes h-om collectivistic, high-por'ver-distalce West ÀÊ
llistic llricain iriei l-l:ilg sir:irrre to a coiÌcctii,isiÌr: Citrirrcsc teâfi rnctii-
bel everi rr4te n tttcrlptir'rg to pr:rise irer' T'irc cp1:ositc also ls itlr: c:LtLsi
rica ancl South ï{orea might expect their teain Ìeader to have special
charisrna ancl Ìrigher educational qualiÍìcations. The lcadership chal-
for corrfusioit. 11- r'jollectlvist.ir: Glunaian ilasi{rÍ rnll'Lri' r\r c{jìÌ'|.r'Ítrr(l
iiirout irot trringii-rq sh',rriie to ?ì slìoÍt-teÌro fei-iì] from individuallstic
lenge comes when missionirries Írom, sa1', Senegal tearÌr rÌp rvith mis-
Àmeric:L th:Lt ire lrrl]- ilot give needed sug;Êesliüns fo,: Ímplo'.'irig that
sionarics lrom Austulia. Both groups need to understrncl and apprecì-
terrm's rrrirristi'y.
ate each other's cultr-rral vaiues and pray for gr""'Lce to cornprornise .

I N n i \1 I ìn rt-f A {- ï g ívt /C Õ i-.i, hï C'Í" I V í S M .A [tü D It{ lt !\ ÀG h MË l{ 1'

SF{ÂME ÂhID GUI[-ï
Ì{ot!r,:c1q dcrri:rilrc:l irnl-:,iicrttìott:; of rhi-. colrc':Ì-,i icl ul:trr:1g;errìrììL irrilr.'
Eecruse harmony is impor:tant in coÌlectivistic cultnres, sÌstrnte, or the
tice. "Iil e i:uilcctii'rstic i:uÌtrtrc an en'rpio1,er nr\ci il;tL'- jr-rst lL,- ìrr':,i-
shorv of public displeasure, is a powerful flotivator lor propel behavior.
vidual, birr r'"',lhcr: ír pôrsoÍÌ r,vho beicrrgs io an ii-t-o-l'r,uil."2s'ïn tliese so-
Cr.r the other hand, "Individualist societìes have been descri'oed as .q'uìlt
cieties ìt is clcsirabic ic lrirc a í:amiìy membel, s{:}Ì-IìeoÌìc rvìto is alreltd'it a.
cultures: persons who inÍringe r-rpon the ruÌes of societywìlÌ often fèel
n-ienrber of tÌre colnp:iì-Ì]r or soÍneone lÍom a ìlii$rÌy r'cspected íami1)''
guilty, lidden by er-r individr-rally develope d conscience that íunctions as
"The rcl:rtionshiP befu.cerr ernployer and einplolree is seen in nor.L
â private inncr pilot."21 Ïlofstede l'r/rites thât sharne is pr-iblic rrncl guilt is
terms" It iesembles a l:rrnily relationship witl, mutuai obligerìons of
private" Shame results when members of the society knor,v rhat a person
protection in erchanqc Íiir ìut'alty' Poor'pertormance of atr empÌoyee lsr
has gone against t1-re standarcls of the community, whcreas guilt results
no re:rsoÍÌ for' iiisrnissal; c,ite tloes rrot disr,rlss one's chiÌC."2ó
when an inclividr"ral does not livc up to internal principles. The threat of
NÌepotisrn, or tÌte hirirrg. o[1ìimi1;' meinbels, is 'lften iÌlegal or cor-
Ìosing face through public humiliation is ';t porverful motivãtol in iÌ
sideri:ii i['rppro,;-rriate ir] iìiclïi'ìd'.Lalistic societir:s. "Conítlict of iilte|err"
shame*oriented, collectlvistic society. Gaining face, or pubÌic Lroiror, is
i-. thorrqhr to be a Ller,il,-r ,r'llc,r fliririly íìrciìli ìtl's rn'c;rÌ,- togethcr.'ïiic
aÌso important in a collectivistic society. Personai selÊrespect is tlie
rrss6ciliiior-i is a conrrtt:rtr:ti :lg;,:t:.rneirt ralhel iiiran l fetrriiy r:t:lttionsÌrip,
driving force in a guilt--oriented individualistic socier1..
 12Ll ,rì^r)ìN( ,,\r:n.rs (.rr'r.trr.s
t21
â'nd thÌÌs empio)/ecs car be irirecr or: íirçci bascrÌ cn i*diriicluar perfoi--
mânce' T'l're perso*r.l appraisar i'terview is a* e.raruatiore
techniiue i'-
ventecl by inciividua.listic societies. Evaluatio, in Global-ccntrì c
collecti-,.isr:rc societi es
lr-Ìcâsures thç: eÍ1èctiveness of the group ar_rcÌ rrr;t
the inclividr_rai. The
concept of 3{r0-"Jcgree eraluarion, or c-nluatior oÍ'individr-rals Ethnoccutrìc
by supe_
rio's, collea-gues ilncl subordi'ates, .,,ionicl see'r or-rtlanciish
in societies
raritil .oi1..rt,'jsm and irir:h-porver-clistan,.:e ,,,ahres.
The same js true tor
lcarlers rrJro affernpt to foster the sha'ing .l. hoqest
Ècíiirgs abouÍ
employees. "sensitiviti. trai'irg, e'.colÌ1ìrcir grorips, 'ther
.r tr.;'sactior:Lr
;riraiysi5, :lr.'e unfit fòr use in coiiectivist c,,rltnres."27
In an indir.idualist culture, accon-iplisÌring a fasi<. is mcre important
than i--uitrdi'a r:elationships, uúereas i' ccltectivist cultures
Íostering
.r-elationships is the means for accomplishing, the
task.

S']"AG R S ü [-' I tt ri { V I D t JA k í S f,/ï fq F fl C it- l_ E g Tn V I S iv"r

Collectivism
"n"

A slight mcd"ificatio'of the }4icrdte Easrei:n prove'b irlustrates

possibJe
stases of clc'e1op're't for individ'aiÌsm a*r{ collcctìyisrn. ,,fu1e Collectivisnr/Indiviilualisrr
agaütst
úrotltcr, nty úrcther antl nte agaituí,ty catt:i.rt, ,t.t caus.itt
nryt
antí nte ag.aìtzst
the sÍrancer." T'he i'dividualist is agaìnst his brother.,
but the two b*roth_ Figure 7.1
crs form a nârío1v collectivism which leacrs t{r â ìlroacler
collectivism
that u'il1 include a cousin. Tr-re proverb corircr co'tir-*re
to proclirim: ,,my Stage I: Egocentric indívitlualism.
brothers anc corrsins against crosery-reiated cla's, ancl The size of.the ripple_circle 6r a
related clans nera'born baby is extremely smal'.
against distant cla ns." The whole n'iverse is tied up in the
egocentríc, existential here_and_now. .
Since bal
'[ srispect th;rt tÌre wor'lclvierv of ieaders cre'eiops in prrases as hori- do''t btane them for
zons expancÌ frcnt e.g'a-cctttr"ic incli'irJ.i-ralisr, to zuorld-centric
b ein5; narrowly i,..ii'idu uiï: ïï:ïïH.ï;
collectiv- stage of deveioprnent. Immaturity
isrn. Just as a pebble mal<es ever-widcnins ripples .norma] is nor a problem for babies.
in a smooth pond, but rvill become a- serious chalrenge
leaders grol / as their.perspectives expanrì. if individuals ;;;,* ;_ ,,'
centrism' Egocentric individuarism
The develop'rent ofr.r'orld'iew in leaders ,loes nof seenì to is a gooci and necessary first derïer-
progress in opmental step" withoqt an i'dividual
distinct or irbiupi stages â_s if one ra.ele rnorríng;rr,vayfi.on sense of identity a person would
an immature not be able to make a contribution
stzlg€ ro a lnore aci'a-nced one. to â group.
The most distirnt ripples in thc ponrl inte-
giate;ril the plevious ivavsr.'n'rl. centel-. staJrs tl,c srile urhijc the circles . I l:^a:r fur.rctioning. from the l*-ã,.rr" perspective of egocentric
individualism assumes that the organization
continue r"(ì m-ovc outrvarcl. In the sr"ine .R.r.y, icaclers rvith exists for her or his bene-
thc broadest fit. \Arhiie appropr:iate for. an i'fant, it
perspectivcs can stiJ.i r-rnde i:stand ancl r.rÍi1ize r_he e a.rliest will always leacl to strife wheu
stages. for-r'd in adult leaders- I expect that
Babie i do .bri-r,otiy grornr i^to a-cr*rts, il'c1 tl-ic *<rrrdvìe,r develop- ma'y reacÌer-ship tensio's i, thc
'ot home, worlçlace and i' the global
.hur.l, res.rt from sucrr leaders.
ment otrlieaders is also g;radual.
Tìrey may e'e' clairn to be servant
readers, but in Íâct fhey serve others
 122 LlaorNc Acnoss Crrr.rln ns
fol their own selfish erlcÌs. Jesus desclibed bad shepìrerds as rhose rvlro
abar-rcÌon the sheep when the wolf comes, because tirey care nothing Íòr
tlie sheep. It seen-rs that many shepherds âre not good leaders because
they primarily cere for themseÌves. As egocentric ieaders climb the lad-
der of sr-rccess, they oí:ten dislodge otlìers oil the w:w up.
Egocentric leaders can develop broaclened horizons as they rnove
fiom family to clirn to lalgel societyr but in ih;s stage they ncvcr. lose the
oÍientâtion ofbeing at the center oftheir universe. They are now able
to manipulate a wider horizon of people lor their otvn ends. Such
growth is rca11y pseudo-development, or grou'th in ìrnmaturiì,y.
Stage 2: Fam,iíy-rcntric colleúiaisrn As chilclren develop tÌrey be-
gin fosee the wciricl through the eyes o1:parents, siblings, grandpar-
ents and others in rhe household. The ripples in the pond of theii-
worldview expzrnd outrvard to include both tÌ-re nuclcar ai-rd extended
farnilies. As children learn that they ar:e nor the center of the nni-
ve1'se, their egocentrisn develops into a lti'ordet fanily-rcntric per
s;rective. The incÌividualism of babyl-rood moves into a n'icler collec-
tivism offimily. Tliis too is zr norm:il and healthy srage of rlevelopment.
Families are one oí:Gocl's bÌessings. Cver rime , clriidr-e n becorne lcss
selÊcentercd, looking our for tlie nee ds oi:parents, sibiìngs, grandpa::-
ents, rÌLiÌ]ts and uncles.
F'amily-centlic ieaders have a genlrine concern for the extende d fem-
iÌy and iÌre even willir-rg to sacrifice their own Ìirre s for the saÌre oít rheir
rclaiives. The sclf becomes interrwined l,vith otlÌers. Stage 2 leaclership
is carir-rg, sacrificiai ancl paternaiistic rvithin the farnily circÌe.
While f:imi1y-cerrtric lezrdership is an iraprovement over egocentric,
the lin-ritations becorne cvident through the "r,is versus tirerÌ1" mentaÌity.
Fastors seek to gro$/ their little church ir-r conrpctition t'ith otl-rcr-
churches. A youth pastor may have a passion for the youth in the church,
but not have a vision for hou' the youth ministry fits into the broader
vision of tire whole church. l-n Clrrisrien organizetions, "turf pÌotec-
tion," ol tlrc desire to see one's own departnìeïÌt or con-inrirtcc gtin r.e-
sources to the detriilent of other departments, is all tco corrÌmon.
T-eaders seek acivantages lor their circle er.en iÍ"tliìs menns hur:ting the
larger orgrnization.
Letdershì S' a n i [tt d ìa ì dn a I í r nt 1"23
Stag'e ,3: Eth'nocenir'ì.t toífecÍi,uism" The holizoris of ]'oung teenr
grow e\rer wider to irrcli-idc ars outside their f:'Lmilr'-otirer firinìlie s,
ire
neighbors, distant ielatives nnd those in neigÌiLrolílg; toxlrÍrs. Famìlv
centrisrtt cxpands tn';o ethuocentrisnL, the viewpoint that aÌl the people
I knorv ile tÌre cenier cf the universe. 1Ln ellrnoccntric viewpoinr ìs
broadcl tì'rrn a famìly- or cgo-celltered univelse . 'l'h,:re a,:c probably
levels of crÌrnocentlisrn, rnoving from the nârrolv colL'itivìsrn of r'nt'
fiuniìy, rnt' 'r.illage , to *ty c7an, rÌì,y sttte) my cotÌ ütr.!r or: tny race . 1-Ìrrli
nray be d,rzens of tver-expancìing circlcs as tlre ripples iir tÌie pond
expand otitward.
l-he *thnocentric icacïct ltari l broa.let'fcrsPectivc ihirrr ihe family-
centric leader. A ptstor'üir'f'scc tlie churclt'.ts otte oitirrirtl)'in tÌre coni-
munity and seeÌ( the good of the whole denomin'.ltion. TÌre church m'ay
forrn alÌiances with chuicires in the comtnunity and become interestecl
in globa1 partnersh\,rs. While rhe ethnocentric lcader: has vl'eaknesses,
the growth ir-r perspective is a'welcome developrnent.
StilÌ, the ethnoccirtric ietclcr Ìras Ìiilitations. l\s pastor's rncl mis-
sionar-ies reacir oLlr ro tlti: iL:st of rÌre rvorjti, thc:y will clc so l:rom thc
pelspectil'e of rhc l.c,ldt rslrip ','ri.ltttrs oil tl-icir orn,rl crilttile tnd assunlc
th;rr rvÌrirt thcy [x1'ç ieat'itcrl trLrortt sLlccessliri r:hurclli:lr rviÌì epp]1'tc' tili
cllltrÌÍes. This 'rrtitutie cÍin c:ìuse tettsions rvitÌr global chrlrcli-to-church
partnersÌrips. Recausr oí their lirnitccl perspectivcs, crosscr:lturaÌ r'vot:k*
'Thi-
ers ÍÌssurle tliat thcir cuitttraÌ values are biblic:rl ';rrld unive::saX.
ethnocentric pab^tor uÍx meEacÌ.rr.trch in one cttiturc rtr'iÌl essr-ime tirat tlle
principies of success in ïris or 1,er chi-rrch ale eÍÍèctir,e ìr'r'.rny cultur-e.
Tire strengtÌr of coììecLivisui is the sense of belorrging and tlie clesirc
to live fr--r: otirers. T'1ie C:rrge r oÍ- collectivism is lhtt ii ine vifabh, cre 'tte 5
an us-tltetrL mentaÌìty Pcople in one's or'vrr firriily cr cornrnunity art
trcalecìrvith respect:Lt'tci clie, buÍ all too ofien tirose otrrside the ethnic
cilclc :lr:e percriveci ;ts iníêr'ior' or everl as the errenry deserving ro be
cheatetl :incì opple sr^r-'cì"
Stuge 4; Global'rintrit wllectitism. ït's not possiÌ:'Ïe lïi' us ,rs n-ier'e
hurr-irurs to see tlle 1;eople of the rvhole r'vor"ld rs {ìtlc| sees thent,'uttc
\4re cÍìn try, Ás cÌriliÌreir rt,c litemorizedJohn 3:]t1, "Ììo.r Gocl so loveci
thc r,voliC. . . " Go.'i's irorizeit-rs ìucorpolatc irrclivitluitÌs, íãrniÌir:s arrcl
11À L,llpr r-ç r\ cat,ss Cun-utts l.co,lc rr l,i 7: tt d Lnf itìtlt a /ís ut 125

i.n a glaboÌ-cenÍric collecíi.rtisn the;t olr.tÍf foìi'rs ihe "rts vcLsus

aJl. r-ration.s
t:hem" nientaliiy--the temptntion to love clrr iìiends anrl disdain our RHFLHSTIOFIS Ofq
r:nemie s" .[W ULTIÇLJLTU RAL LHAMËR S I-I IP
Thcr"c irre se-ieral 1vÍì.ys to describe this staqe.'l],, see tLre t'o116 ltot-t
Dr. Desta Langena, Director of Missionary Training School in Ethiopia
Gorl's perspecti.,a is Ílteo-ccn.tric colÌcttírti:tn. Because iheo':er-rtric co1-
trectiirisnr is nur:omnton, a leaclcr rn'ho bcgins to scc the '".,'or1,:Ì frorl t1-ris
For many years I struggled \ti ith the stereotypes we have of leadeiship
peïsÌrective n-rigirt scern to be an incìividualist going against the norms
witlrout recognizing that leadership is a gift of the Holy Spirit. \/Ve can
of societ;r aod the uàrrcw perspective of cthnocetltric collectivism. But be sure that the Holy Spirit gives this gift of leadership wherever and
sticlr a ie actuaily be a pri,rtciple-rcrtín e d ì.ndí.oidurt/ì.st, not an
acìcr ..vot"ricl whenever it is needed, including in newly planted churches.
cflrtccntrjc inr]ivicluiLlist. The clistïnctiotr betrilccn ìndividualism and I am so tlrankfulto SIM missionaries who came to Durame, Ethi-
çr.rllccti-r,isrl-r becomes ír-rsecl a.t tirÌs global-cetltriíj 6tâse . Tl're irrclividual opia-especially Ralph Jacobson and Gauss Kayser, who labored
bcconres fully alivt'" anci thc conlrnut-rii1r bre;rhs or'lt of lhe nalrow mightily in pouring all tlreir energy and every possible effort to help
boundaries of thc uri-lirem menl.iìlitï. the Kambatta and Hadiya church in the two major areas of leader-
Aíter r.hc lesriLlection, Jesus' disciples tntere commanded by the ship and evangelistic training. I call such training missiological lead-
ll1-r:ri'isee ie;rcLers to stop preaching the risen Cl'rist. The disclples chal- ership trcining.
Ralph Jacobson conducted Church Leadership training classes
lenged the ia'ws of their ccÍlectivistíc societi' b1'responding, "We must
on every Tuesday for the leaders and every Friday for the future
obey Gocl tatirer than hitinan beìngs" (A':ts 5:29). God's principles de-
leaders (the youth). Gauss Kayser presented a forceful Great Com-
rnand ;r highel a-llegia.nce than tlr.e rnies c'lsocie ty. -By going against the
mission teaching in tlre Bible School. The effort of tlrese two godly
pïccedei:ts est:rblished by Jervisli rcìigicr-rs la-,vs, the disciples might
people arrd others who made sacrificial efforts made the Kambatta
irave scerned to be teverting to indit'idr'ralisrn, br-rt in {ãct they hacl pro-
and Hadiya church to be very strong to this day.
sressed to a globa1-centric peÍspectirrc" tFer'v of tire Jewish lcaders ever Currently the Kambatta and Hadiya church has sent out over
r"rndcrsfoocl. the iden tirirt Clentiles coi-rld be "r'igiit rn'ith God" withotLt
three hundred crosscultural missionaries. The former and curret"ìt
f ir st br:comì na Jerv-.. general secretaries (Dr, Mulatu Baffa and Dr. Tesfaye Yacob) of the
Cften glotria,i-centric ieaders have becn mlsuuderstoocl. Martìn Lt Ethiopian Kale Heywet Church denomination are from this church.
ther tr{i1g lr. l"ud a principle-basecl leader:shìp Fi:rrsPcctiYe wiren he pro- I believe that it is not because the Kambatta and Hadiya Church is
ci:rirncd h:ls cllcarn : braver than other rhurches or that it has a unique leadership ge-
nius of some kind. lt is because of the very solid leadership founda-'
I have a clre:rm iiiet mJ/ fouÍ litt.1c chiicire:r r'r'ill one day live iu a nation
tion and rnission mindedness established by godly missionaries in
rvhere thclrwìIl irot 1[" co.iol of thcir skin brit b1'the con-
bc juciged b1'
tl.re early clays that it is still operating in amazing ways-regionally,
tcnt ,:f thei.i ciraractei. . . . And rvhett thÌs llappcils, r'vhelt r''re allor't'
nationally and globally, I am also the product of that church.
freerÌom to ring, rvhe n vle iet ìt rine 1'rom evcty village and çl's1v hanl-
Fronr the very beginning of church plantìng, missionaries and
Let, from e1/ert, strte and cvcry city, v,e.'vii1 be abie to sPeed uP tlìat clay
intercuÌtural leaders need to prayerfully investigate and recruit
,vhet't all of Gocii-" childlen, black men artd r,r'hitc men, Jovs and Gen-
gifl.ed leaders of any bacl<ground and then provide them neces-
tilcs, ÌÌiotestants :rnd Catirolics, rvil1 be ablc to.join hends and sing irl
sary leaclership training. This kind of approach will develop strong
tl-re rvords of'the o.ld Ncgro spiritual.: Frce nt lns1:! F'rcc at /a.r/:! Thanà God
intercultural leadership for future church planting movements.
,4/ntìg'Ã4t,'u-te rtre .fìet ol: la.çÍ,8'e
1.26 LsaolNc Àcnoss Currunrs

I have also seen how God uses the trials of life to broaden and
deepen a leader's perspectives. During the Communist regime in
Ethiopia, God allowed a traumatic situation to shape me. The physi-
cal and mental torture in prison, the extreme pressure from fam-
ily and society, and the dilemma of daily life made me a confused,
frustrated, and weeping lad. During that time God taught me the
importance of prayeç the significance oí holiness, the meaning of LHÃMffi Rg[-{üP,4Fü M AM ffi fi ffi LJITV
commitment, the greatness and the value oí the Bible, the mystery
of ministry. and the beauty of his presence. When I abandoned
everything to follow him, he became everything to me. By the
help of his grace it is my covenant to live for him and to glorify him
Ludership ìs an impro'rLisatìonn/ art.
throughout my life.
Tov Pe'r'nns

I lvns sq'eatiNc-A\rD Nor' Ìusr BEcAUSE of the rropical ireat. I was .t

thilcl-ter'm missionary, vet I rnas tirorotighly confused. What was real$

going on as I chaired the board meeting for this tsib1e college in Nigeriai'
I was delig}rted that the nationai church was taking responsibility Íôr
the administration of iocai Bible schools aucl rn as happ1. to be the onlv
non-Ì{igerian at the table. 1Ls their,'ï rttenrptcd to foltroi,v Robert's Ruiu
af Arder wlth rnotions, ameuclments and votes as rve "wacled througli
decisions on budget, íacuÌty, gradtiation requirements and Íínancial aitl.
Mv puzzlement beqan as we approved the minlÌtes oí the previotis
meeting. I didn't renrember rrotìng on most of the recorcìeci decisions. T
-"vas absoh-rteÌy sure tÌrat I nevel promised to pay for fiftee n bicycle s 1or

students to travel orr practical work assignrnents. Ac{mittedly, I had

agreed that the bicycles were :l good idea and that the school needecl
tÌrem, but how dicÌ thc're corcliirg secretary understand that ï had prom-
isecl ftrndingì X was surre that w€ neveÍ rnade a Pïoper motion on the
issue of bicycle s. Flow cor-LÌd he record a decision withoui an official
vote? What seerned :rmÌ:iguous to me, coming fi'om a low-context cu1'
 130 L!ADÌ^'.(ì ltcross Cutrunls
Flofstede's generâl sLlmmary shorn,ed that people i,virh â ìiieh toler_
ance foÌ ambigrÌity âccept uncertainty âs a normal íèature of Ìife, expe_
rience less stress, show less aggressioll and ha'e a rclâxed famiÌy life,
with less respect f'rr laws.a
The GI-ol3E (Globd l-eadership encÌ orgri-rizationar Bcriavior Ef-
fèctiveness) study investigated uncertair:ty avoicla'ce i'
62 societies,5
ancl defir-red uncertainty avoidtrnce as "the extent to rvhicl-r ilembers
of
collectives seelc orderÌiness, colìsisteÌìcJ., stilÌctllre, fornralizecl pr.oce-
cÌures, and laws to cover sit.atior.rs in their daily 1ives."e rheir researcir
investigated the relationship between uncertainty avoida'ce *nd stress,
anxiety, the need for feed.back, planning, innovation, accounting prac_
tices arrd perceptioll of risk. Âll these have fascinatine ii'rPlicatio's for
gÌobal cooperation in wor{d missions.
Societies that avoid nncertainty rend ro do tbc following:
' For:r:ralize their inter:âctions rvith othei.s
" Document agreements in legal contrilcts
' Keep orderh and rneticulous recorcls
' Rely on formalized policies and procedures
' llstablish and Ítrilow rules
' VeriÍy cornmunications in writing
' . Take more moderate calculated risks
" Show stronger resistance to change
' Show less tolerance Íbr breaking rules7
Societies thâr tolerare uncertainty tend to do tÌrese things:
" Be more infonnal in their interactions with others
' Rely on the word of those they trust rather tÌ1an contractuaÌ
arl ângements
' Be less concernecl with orderliness and maintenance of recoi-ds
' Rely on i'forrnal interactions and informal norms rather than
formalized policies, procedures and rules
' Be less calculating when taking risi<s
LeaìersÌt ip ond rlnòìguii.1 13-l
. Show less resistance to cÌr:rnge
' Show less desirc to r:súabÌish rules to clictate behar,íor
' Show nrore tole r-rrrcr tbr"breaÌring r-r-iies8
'Tlic GLoBll srLrdy dillered from rhs FÏoÍ'srccle rese a'cir in tirar tÌrr:
ltor'rner'asked about *Ì1ceÍtâintylr',ctìces r.rs weil ts,a/u,ts. Fìrr c-xample,
this qtrestion askerl about
7.,
ractice; "rn this societ1,, socie taÌ re quilcrnenrs
lnd instrr-rctiorrs arc spelled out in detail so cÍtizens knc.rr,v what they aci:
' cxpected to do." 'Tlie* they asked the similar z,alue tluestton: ,,ï believe
tlrat societaÌ reqrÌirements zrnd instructions should úe spelied out in rje-.
tail so citizens Ìcnorv rvirat they are expected to llo."e
IirteresiingÌr, th. r'ese;LrcÌrcrs foi-rnd a signÌficant negatirie correlati,:n
beiweeir the r,r'ay leopie dcscribe their societl' ancl i,vhat they thirilr- it
shoukl be. People in higÌr-certaintl, ç6u1ir1*r rvlro lir.e w-iih tight soci,
etal recFrir-emenrs Ìd!Ìlllr urantr:d more flexibiÌit"y, ancl those thar toìerett:
Lltlcert:iiÌliJ/ cìtsireci more stJ:LlctrÌre. For example, Ì*{ig;eriu scored jn clie
middle range in tltc fractire of avoiding unccrtrinr'y, Lrut hrd one of, tÌ.rr
lrighesi scorcs witl-i tite 't,alue Í'or avoiding r.incerrairlty. ÌMany Ì{igerilns
seem tü be clesirir-rt moÍe strlÌctLire aird predictability. 1dt the other cil--
tremc, S.uvitze rlancÌ rvas vely higìr in tlrc frnctitt of avoiciÍng unce rtainÍ),,
but rvas last t o r:aluing Lrncelrãinty. Tìie Swiss h*-re a lot oírstructure ai-rcl
predictabiìiq,, but eppar:er.rtÌy mar-r1'pcople wani less regirnerrtaiioir.l{r
Rcgion:rlly, Nordjc and Germanic bìurope scoi-ed rhe highest iri
avoicìing uncertainry. The l\,Ilddle East, n-etin Americl anci Eastcrn
Europe had the lo',vest scoles. Anglo, Âsia, Afiica and Latin Europe
wele iit tJrc middl, .'ì
Avoiding tincertainty was also negatir.ely cor.relatccì u,ith povn'ei- iìis-
1rnce .iz Tiris malies scnse. ïrr {611r-porver-disiance socieiiies it is n-ioii:
liìreÌy thet the "law is iiing," r,vhere:rs in high-por,vcr-clistance sor:ietir:s
"the king is ìaw." T'he r:ule of linv rcncls torvard less unci:rtainty rÌreir rhe
nrle olr a Ì<ìng.
Corlntries that avoid tneer tainty tencÌ to be more te cÌrnoioqically de*
veloped,i3 have greater econornic prosperity and support competitiori.l!
l)oes technology require people to have inore sir-ucturel Âre societies
that íàal the f.tur-c rrrore ìihely to seek technological solutionsì Fcrhaps
1-32, I-r,rornc Across í-u Lrutcs Lctfu rs/s i2 anì Anltiguì t:, 133

societies ìvith,i',ore -1i/ea1til can ';Lfïord 1o ta.l'ia ixcit steps to a.i,-oiil uircer- can Lre íound to slÌpport both certainty ancÌ uncertainty approachcs to
-{-hrs 1ife. Eaia,ilce is difficuit. Are lo'e supposed to avoid uncertainty thlougii
rainty^ study showed that many pr:oprir: irr hrEh-tech countrie s wish
fbr less strllcfu{e, ar-rd those in lorv-teci-i cotlittrics rnrish fbr n"Ìore. T'his planning ancl goal settine on Monday, Wednesday and Friday, u'hile
insight has Ia.scinatii'rg irnplications fol mrrltinatìonll ieaderslrip strate- lejoicing in anrbigr.ritv and living in the present on Tuesclay, Thr"rlsday
gies. L4issionaries ln rntútlculturai
teâms m',Ìy not actually cleslre the ancl Saturclayì Does the Bible te acir that lve should be "cottrol fre aks" in
kind of leadersirip that is most prevalent in tlleir holne r:ountry. some areâs of our livcs and 'go with the flow" in othersì
Societies rryith a lovr tolerance for ,:ncertainty {tirose rnrith nlore r,"lles) Let's looh fir:st at Scripturc that supports tl-re value oít lirring witir
scored hi,gher: in adlniratìor-r for democtacy aild,Jcs'ired morc individual uncer tai,r'rt1'.

iilvolrrcmcnl. i1,.. the political svsiem.15
.As expecte'd, GI-OB0 researcheLs íLrt,rrtri a stiong pcsitivc correia-
tion iretr,vccn high :.rncertainty avoirlance ;uci futi.trc olientation' Soci-
eties seeking to avr-.id uncertainty tencì to rnake d"etailecl and i.ong-range
plans, rvhere;rs those mole tolerant of :imiriguity wait to see ',r'l.rat might
hapirerr next. Perha.ps ttrrose who iivr: in cultlires r,vhere thcy [21v" 1ir,1.
control of the iuture aclapt to the unexpeciecl.
A.s we loolt at resea-rch findings r1'ç ;vplç2,ii;r ;rsk:
1.. \Ã/here cio l fit on tile scaic? \Ã/h:lt d'-'es ttr're data siroui abor-it nry
. countrlrì From my experience, olo the Í:indings mai<e scnseì
" Peopie .,vith iittie tolerance for ambiguitl' âttempt to control tl-re fu-
. God remincls us that he is in fu11 control of the future . \hie
tr-ire
aren't" ín Isaiair, Cocl says, "I rnake known the er-id from the begin-
ning, ír.-om ancient times, rvhat is still to come. I say,'lVIy plrÍpose
will stand, and I will cJo all that I please"' (Is 46:10).
' Anxiety is a pr-ominent characteristic in societies with iittle tolelancr:
for: arnbiguity,fesus commanded, "Thelefole clo not worry about to-
morroll/, for tomolrow u,i1l worr), about itself" (À4t 6:34). The pas-
sage teils LÌs 1lot to rvorry about what we l.ill eat, clrinh, wear. \&/r:
cannot acld e..'en onc hour to our lives.

2. Don't rny va{uçt make more sensel ' iÃIhen God told Abraham to learre his home , he "obeyed and went,
even thoueh he did not i<norv where he was going" (FIeb 11:8). Abra-
3" Isn't ilrï way rnore bibiical?
harn 1-rad no precise goal or specified time frarne, but he trusted
,i. til/hat ;rre the irnplications of the data Íòr r-nulticultural teatns, for Uoct.
chulch-to-chr-r rch partnerships, atrd fbr leacler:ship in international
raissiori organizal-ionsì Howrvili the resea-tcli l:inclings givc pr:actical
' "'frust in the Lonp with all your heart and lean not on your own
unclerstanding; in al1 your ways submit to him, and he will malçc
inpr.rt íàl .,,roriil missionsÌ
your paths straight" (Prov 3;5-6)^

Àt
' Peopie tend to insulate themseives from uncertainty by having a lot
TfC E E I mf-ífl PAR,Õ\nOX
of money But Paul teacires Timothy that those who are rich in this
Feople living in societíes that value cerlainty miglrt be quick to point out 11ot put their hope in wealth, which is unceLtain,
pÍeseilt world must
the l3ible veirses sllpporting tl-reir position. After ail, the Bible says that br-rt to put their hope in Cod (1 Tim 6:17).
the r,vise ,,vi11 plan ahead and that rt'c shouid count the cost and obey . The book of Froverbs is filled with reminders that while iruman be-
iaws. On the other: hand, peopic living in socìcties that toler:ate ambigu-
ings think they control the future, God is in control of outcomes.
ity ma,v poínt orrt the strengths of being "laid brck" or 'going with the
"Many aie the plans in a human heart, but it is the Lonp's purpose
f-lovr" in ?, r,rìotíi lela-xed, less stressful rÌ.tLïÌospheíe. Tirey too czrn qllote
tirat prevails" (PLov i9:21).
,rerses abcut iìving by {àir:h and not 1/vor:r:/vi1lg rbriut the future. Sci:ipture
132 Llrrlr nç Acnoss ílulrusrs Lcadc risì V a nd An liou ty
i I .t.t

$ociet]es witiì nìore u,eâlth calì.:ìfïoÍd lo ta-n<e i-Ìlcie sleps to ,:.rioiL1 uncer- can l:e Íòund io sul,)port both certainty and uncertainty apploaches to
tainty. TÌris study showecÌ tirat many p':opie ìn hrgh-tech cor-urtiie s rvish life. Raiarlce is difficuit. Are r.r.e supposecl to avoid uncertainty througir
{r,r iess stlücttÌr"e, ancl thosc in loiv-tecil couutri.cs rorish tor 1ïìore. f'his planning an,J goal setting on l\4onday, Wednesday and Friday, whìle
itsight has {àscinating implications foi' tntiltinational lcacters.l'rip stÍale - rejoicing in ambiguitv anc{ living in the present on Tr"resday, Thulsda'l
gics. Missionaries in rnuiticulturai teams ft1tÌy rrot actually clesire the and Satrirday? Does the Bible teach tirat r,ve should be "control freaks" in

kind of leade;:ship that is rnost prevalent in thelr hcine countt,v" some areàs of our lives and'go with the flow" in othersì

Socie ties "with a 1ow tolerance íòr uircertaii-rty {t}rose urith more t'ttles) Let's iook first at Scripture that supports the value of lir.ing with
scored hígher: in adniiralìou for democracl, aLcl c.!csii:ed n-rorc individual uncertaintl'.
inrrolr'emcnt ir.., the polìtical svstem.I5 " littie tolerance foi ambieuity attempt to control thc fu-
People .,viti'r
As cxpected, Gl-CBtr researcheis Íbt.rrt'-1 a sllong irositivr:. cort-eLa- . God reinincls us that he is in ful1 control of the future . 14/e
tr.ire
lion betlveen high ri.ncertainty avoidance rrttci ft:ture otientation. Soci- aren't. ïn Isaìah, Gocì says, "I rnalie 1çnown the end from the begin-
etìes seekingto avoicl uncertainty tenr,l to nai<e cictailed and long-rar.rge ning, fiom ancient times, lúat is stil1 to come . I say, 'l\4y pr.rrpose
those inore tolerant of ambiguity.,vait to see rvl.rat might
plans, r,vherea-s will stancl, and I will clo all that I please"' (Is 46:10).
hnpperr next. "Perhaps those who live in cultttt'es where they have little
' Anxiefy is a prolÌrinent characteristic iit societics with little tolerance
r:ontrol of the futule adapt to thc r-rnexpeciecl" for ambiguitl'..fesus commandecl, "Therefore do not worry about to-
As.,4,e looi< at research finrÌings rrrc iyprcailjr ask: nÌor:rol4 for tomor:rorrr rnrill rrorr), about itself" (1\4t 6:34). Thc pas-
1.. \X/. iieie cic I fit on the scaic? Wïr;rt d,:es ti.re rlata sh.or,.,' abotlt my sage tells rìs 1l.ot to rvorly about wirat we rviil eat, drink, wear. V\/,:

cor-iirtlyl Froln rny experience, ,lo tLre ,f ì.rrdìngs make scnse? cânnof a<ld etr,'n onc hour to our lives.
.

2" Don't inI values tnai<e more senseì " M/hen God told Ablal'rarn to leave his home, he "obeyed and rvent,
even though ire did not i<norv where 1're was going" (FIeb 11:B). Abra-
3. Isn't my wây mor-e bibiicai?
harn had no precise goal or specified time frame, but he trusted
4. \Vhat âre th.: ìmplications of tl-re data f,or nulticr-r1turiil teams, fot God.
chulch-fo-churt:h partnerships, attd fb:: leaclcrsirip in international
missicn olsanizaÍ.ionsì I-Iow r,viii the rese arcl-L findings girrc practical
' "Trust in the l-onp witir all your heart and lean not on your owiì
uncÌerstanding; in all your ways submit to him, and he will malçc
inpr,r t Íor' ..voricl n:issions ì
your paths straight" (Prov 3:5-6)^

TI-'{ E B ]I tsí-I C,AL FARÂì3OX

' Peopie tend to insulate themselves from uncertainty !y having a iot
of money. But Paui teaches Timothy that those who are rich in this
Fcopie li-ring in societies that value certainty might be quick to point out present world mi-rst not put their hope in rvealth, which is LtnceÍtain)
the Eible vcÌ:ses slrpportíng their position. After" ail, the Bible says that br-rt to put their hope in God (1 Tim 6:17).
the r,vise .,viXl pian ahead ancl that we should count t1-re cost and obey
larvs. On rhe other hand, people living in sccieties ihat tolerate ambigu-
' The book of Proverbs is filled with r-eminders that while human be-
ìnes think they control the future, God is in control of outcornes.
ity ma.vi,.oiilt otlt th.e stlengtl-rs of being "laid Lrack" or "going with the "h4any are the plans in a human heart, but it ìs the Lono's purposc
f.-lorv" iir ã, iìlore lela.xed, less stressful attnosphíÌre . They too cân quote
tliat prevails" (Frov 19:21).
,rerses about iìving L'y Í;aith and not rvorriring ;rbout the futurc. Scripture
 T,rnornc Acnoss Curlunls LeadersÌ:ì1 ,tdrl Atnl,igttìt-1, 1 3 5
tJ+.

"If you aim at nothing,
People who hate ambiguity love the saying,
you'll hit it evdry time," suggesting that smart people set precise ob-
jectives. There are no examples or admonitions ìn the Bible for lead-
within a specific time frame. This saying
ers to set numerical goals
is not in the Bibie.
Scriptures supporting the value of avoiding uncerteintl':
God knew that when human beings r''rorked together, planned and set
goals they could accomplish almost anything. That is why at the Tower
of Babel Gocl said, "If as one people speaking the same language they
have begun to do this, then nathìng thel plan to do u:ilÌ be ìnpossìblefor
them" (Gen 11:ó, italics added). Because God knew that people had
such great potential for planning evil, he conf,usecl their language'
' Planning is a powerful way to avoid uncertaínty. The book of Prov-
erbs is fillecl with the admonition ro plan. "Plans trre established by
seeking advice; so ifyou lvage 1var, obtain guidance" (Prov 20:18)'
,,The
Ând irgain, plans of the diligent 1e ad to profìt rrs sr-rreiy as haste
leads to poverty" (Prov 21:5).
, Jesus commandecl his followers
to count the cost of discipieship. L Ie
gave tlìe example of a wise builder estiÍì]âtlng the cost of construct-
ing a tower, and a wise king consiclering the possibilitv of going to
'11:25-33)' Only the fool-
war rvith an army trvice as large as lìis (Li(
is1-i builder or general deligÌrts in ambiguity'
' Jesus understoocl thelong-term plan Í-or his life' The Gospel ofJohn
records many times when-fesus remlnded Ì"iis disciples that his tifire
had notyet come. (Jesus talked abotlt "his hour'," or the time of his
denth inJohn 2:4;7:6,8, 30; 8:20; 13:1; 17:1.) Jesus wãs aware of the
seqLlence of events in his life and plar-rned his actions accordingly.
F{e lived rvith tire end in mind and was not ambiguotis abor-rt his
life's purpose.
, The apostle Paul was forced to live with ambiguity, but as much
possible he planned for the future. Apparently the church in corinth
"Was I
accused Paul of not planning carefully' So he rcspor-rded,
fichle when I intended to do thisì Or do I make mv plans in a worldly
mÍiilrreÍ so thiÌt in tÌre sarne breatl"r tr say i:otÌi'Yes, yes' aird'Nr:, no'ì"
(2 Coi 1:17). F:ruì went on to wrìte that God is faithful and in him
all the promises âre "yes."
. -lhe
Tlie slLrgg-:Ìrd olìly iii,es ibr.ihe prese nt. boolc olt]'r'overbs is FiÌlecÌ
u.ith cr.iticisn-rs of tlrosc, r.vho are too lazy to 1rlen.'l'l're shrggarcÌ is tolci
to to tÌre :rnt anil li,err-r ìlow to stole pLoyisions ttt flÌe ìl'lrlrest, even
Èlo
wiren there iri uo conirttar,cler (Pi:ov 6:6*8). lnste acl oít planning Íbr"
the future, the sii:ggar"d's lilc verse is, "Â littÌe sleep, a trittle slumber,
a littÌe folding oÍ the lrancls to rest" (Frov 6:-10), ig[orïng the fact tìrat
tire next step is porrerty. "Lazy hands make Í"or poverty, but diligerlL
hancls bring rvealth" (Frov 10:4).
LIVI hIG WIT'Í{ BI HLIüÀ[* F,ARA'ËÕX
Vlost of ris llrcrr't c,tmfi;rtrtirle r,l,ith irllrclr-rx, bec:,.rse par.aclox tlìlre:rr.l-Ìs
botl'r positions YeL ScrÌp'tufe sÌ'ìppoÌ"ts the argr'rnreni ítor both tlustir-tl:
-;vhile trusl.:rnp.
and pìanning, lirr resting and strivinp,, iol strategizing
that God is in control oíthe Íiì.rtcomes"
" Faith is the bridge beir,veen the paradox of,certainty tÌnd unceltairty"
,,}-r,ritìr
is being sure of what we hope fôr: and certain ortlvhatr,r,e cìo
not see" (trIeb X1:1) Frcrn a human perspective , ït seems absrird io be
certaln oi r'vhat we ciiliilot see' Vet this is \ry4lat pleases God'
, Proi,er-bs reminds us bcrh t6 planto tlrisi. "cornrnia to the Lol-u
iÌnL1
r,vhatever )rott do, and he ivïÌl establish yorir plarrs" (Prov 1í.;:3)' Leadei:";
neeil plans, but only God can bring about results fron-r those plans'
" Àbrrhafii Ìir'erì by i:,tirli lrrr{ ofìen had to obe1, bef-ore iie i<uerv i]ri-'
pufpose . God sirovrrecl l-rir"uself to him, giving hifli insights itrtÚ :i
certain futgre. Â[r.aham hner.r, "Í-or cert:riu" tiret fòr' four fuugcirerl
be strângers in Egypt n'here the)'wouiil
. ye,rrs his descenclants rvotild
be mistreâted, but at r:ìre pr:oper time rirey lvould come baclc to the
lanrl pi.omiseii Lry rhe ]-ord (Gen 15:13-16). B,v fairh, Abraham hacl
as
no arnbiguity about the fìrture of his oflspring.
. I'm i*pr.ssecl r.r'ith tlre rn'ay Neiremiah hvecl rvith the paradox of
zrmbig;uitv arrci planning' When the enemlz threalened to attacÌr
136 l,r rlr*..r: r\.ctcss l)ut-'ruttrs
r,vhile the u/;ilis '.ïere oniy ha.lf fínish,ecl, T{elieiniah both prãyecl and
set â. speciíì.1 g'-rald (Neh'1:9)' I-eaders clesli:lng to control thc futr-lr:e
orr thcir r-r,,vn rnìliht set a r,vatch., rorhiie other lerdçr's migirt simply
ha.rre ir pi'.r},er n-Ìí:rctirrg ancl go to sleep. l"ïehernlah rlid hoth: he prayccl
a,nd he toole ;r,ctlot-1.
' .fesus toi,i ser.elal. irarabies thrrt b]encl cei:ta-inty and rlncertaintl'. One
of thr: nr.ost int,iiguing is a, parablc, a.i:o'-rt tJ',e Íànnel vrho scattered
seetl ancl nvaitecÌ. "hìight and ilay, rvheihci' h,: slccps oÍ gcts uil' the
seed sprou-fs lnd gro.,nrs, though hr: cloes trol knovr hoia'' All by itselir
tl-re soil JrroclÌices grain. . . . As scrou as tl-re glain is ripe, he puts the
siclrJe to it, becr.,"tse the halvest has coine" (I\k 4:27-29).
'Ihe farrner'
h:r.d to pl,an ah.ead to prepare the scìl, irnow',l'hen aÌÌd hoì1r to scrtter
tìre seed, anci be r,.rise and irard-wodriirg at ïJ.ìe fime oÍ: l:ire harvest.
Evcn though ttrrc farmer i{id all he ,:ouid io arioid rltlcerfaintl'; he ful1y
gf the p;rorvi.ng ser:d. I1 the same w;t-y, leadels in
real.i;:ecl t-|r-: rplrslcrv
the kìngclom of God musl be ler,ponsihie iàr tahing ìr'ritiative and
plannurg as mucir âs irossiblc, but at thc sr;.mr: time ti-iey trust the
I-or:cJ of the fi;r.vvcst {br the plocess ancì plocl'.tct of the han'est.
' 1A/e sometìrnes rnake a lalse dichotonly llet',4'een vrorking hard and
tnxsting Gocl. l'/e assume tirat leaders 'vi-ro fear ân unceÍtâin ítlture
becorrre work;lholics, whiie tlrose r^rho tr'''rst God f.br the futule be-
come 1az1'. ln tl-rc boolç" ofJ;rtnes, faith anci '''t'olks are
same coin" Abr:lharn believecl God irncl obeyed (Ias 2:21-24\.'lhe
Bible is clear: ler.ciei's who havr': g1'Çat lãiiil âl:i {Ìreat 1À/oirrln and men
of .rctjoLr. Tlrci:,'it !ro tcnsìolì.
Farado," lrclps us to see dilcmmas as.flr-ritftrl teusion' The constant
intcraction. ancl blending of the trvo elitl'eires brings abont a healthy
perspcctirre. Lelclcis r,../ith too n-iuch -[r:ar oíunç:erfainty ca,n becorne le-
galistic a-n,i ítiliecì,rr-ith stless. On the other harrcl, those r"rith too Ìittle
fear of-uncr:rt2r,intj, can become itrcsponsillle a.tdÏa.r4. Scripture points
to the heaithy balance: tr.'rrst auti obe 'y'.
í l,''ï Fi-[Ç'ÂT ]l OF]i F F{}R I-HADE lR S h{i ïFí {: G LetsAL ç Fl U RÇ l-{
I F IÌ
ÃlÍatthing m.issi.on,iiries with ruinistrias. .I",e noticed tliat individuals
| .t /
a- 1àrmir-rg backelouncl tcnd to be outstanding rnissionaries espe-
',r,ith
cially r.r'hen ministering in rural ministry are as. À4y i.runch is that farm-
ers uncl.clstand community and can live rvitir uncertainty. They realize
that they cannot control rainfa1l, thc Íirst frost or when baby lambs will
be born. Tlic1, ,,',,611ç har:d and are highly motivatecl, b't they have
learneci to 'go r,vith the flow." I4aybe thìs is why I've knorvn so mârÌy
efÍectirre missionaries Íron'r tÌ-re farmlands of New ZeaTand, Canacia
anci the United States.'lheyve learnecl to rnrork together ancl sta1, ì.n
close coÌttact with the ever-unÍòlding situation around then-r and to be
innovative when tire r-rnexpected happens.
-{ïe also noticed that missionalies with business backgr.ounds in
Lor-rclorr oi. São Paulo l-iavc mucl-r in comrnon vgith business people in
l)elhi. it seerns that urban business people are inore like urbanites halÊ.
rvay around tl-re rvorld than they are rvith rural people in their or,vn
countrlr" To be successful tl-rey must p1an, organize stlategies and keep
carefirl financial records. Tireir achievement requires a low toleranc:e
for arnbigr-ritv
{ wonder if cultural differences regarding ambiguity are rnore related
to differences in age, r-rrban/rural living, or education and profèssion
than they are to nationalitrr. It makes sense to n-ratch peoples'values of
unceltainty witir appropriate ministries.
Organixatian The Sudan Interior Mission began as missionaries
twn sidcs olthe
frorn the United l(ingdorn, the United States and Canada were sent
to ÌrÌigeria. The headquarters in f'oronro probably ranked high on
uncertainty arroidance, as leaders attetl)ptecl to control the field froi:t
Canada. The general director told missionaries in Nigeria where to
rvorh and rvhat to do from his clesk in Toronto. Eventually the slora,-
ness of communication and the inappropriateness of sorle of the deci*
sions lecl to a major shift in organizational structure. In 1915 the mis,
sion mandated that "decisions should be rnade as close to where the-,.
oui as possible." The ner,v flexibility led to bemer
rvor-rld be carried
dccisions, but decentralization gave mission leader.ship less control
over nncertaintv.
Fïudson Tai,lor faced a similar scenario as his mission in Lor.rdon nt-
temptcd to conti'ol decisions in China. The conflict led Taylor.to fon'u
i3B l-ellrxc; -Acaoss Currunls
rÌ new nlission, the Chir-ra Inland Mission, whele tleld decisions were
made in China.lr'
Few things refle ct the cultural value of avoidirrg uucertaiuty es mrÌcll
as organizational structure. If
an organization has no fear of uncer-
tainty there is iittle need for structule, while organizatiofls witi-r little
tolerance for ambigr-rity ale highly organized. The chailenge arises
when mission societies oÍ denominâtions seek to become truly multi-
national, resulting in partnerships between organizations that exhibit
both high and low uncertaintv-:lvoidancc cultures' Sudcieniy the "one
size fits all" mentality doesn't wodr. As world missions move "from
everywlrer.e to ever)''wirere," org'a'nizttional culture is likeìy to become
more dccentralized ancl ambiguous.
When Ibegan my role as internatioiral director of Sïld, rve iracl a
thick manr-raÌ with poiicies for regulating almost eveÍythillg. ï remem-
bel spending hours in council lrìeetings debating policies Íbr'"baggage
allowarnce." How much "or'rtfit" should be allowed for someone travel-
ing 10,000 miles for four years, compared rvitl-r a Person going only
1,000 milcs for t'wo yearsì Should larnily sìz'e and age of children Íactor
into baggage allowance? Such policies macle a bit of sense when 90
percent of the missionaries traveled from tÌre United States and Canacia
to West Africa, but later became too complicated in a rnultinational
organization. In ordcr to avoid futule uncertainty, an isoleted sicuatïon
had ted ro rr worlilwide mândate. Thich mamrals are heipful tools for
avoiding rincertainty. But its â mission becornes multicuÌtu;:;r1, unifon-n
policies xre not appropritte for missionaries sent fi'otn Feru to China,
Ethiopia to h'rdia, India to Sudan, or: Scnegai to Brit:rir.i" 'l-ile morc
SIM became truly multinational, the more ìnonocLlltr-ilai gtlidelines
became less usefìl. We neederì a major cullurai sl-rift from en c'rganiza-
tional structure with centrãlized ethos to one that is more decentral-
a witir ovelaii inrt'r:netionaÌ accour-rtabìlity to the YWAI\'I Globrl
ized and comfortable with ambiguity.
T remember worhing for severaÌ years to estabiish a formal Sendir-rg
Courrcil in l(orea. As rÌre l{orean boald began to con-ìe together, the
membership criÍeria of this group ciidn't fit the SIÌ\4 llolicy ir-ranual,
rvirìch state d thet sending cotincils musr be, made up of br-isiness people ,
educators, women arrd iar,vyers as well as Paslors. llhc l{olcln Council
kulersLip ar,!,/ln ò lu Ìi1, i39
wirs totalÌy corlpost-cl of ordairrecl rnrrle prstots- \À/e soot, r'caÌizecl tliet
our: moclel dici nct Íit tÌre id-ore:rtr cuÌtuÍ,e, at-i<{ {ì:r tht tlnic"heiuB; rve
needed to ailow Í-oi iìcxibilicy.
Ì'm conr.inceci th:rt as; inission organizations ltecome inore nlu]ticul-
tnral, tl'rey must aiin for grealel decentralizatiorr, rrÌlorlt {ìlr more ltlcll
freedom at.rcl le:rrn to Iive witir ambiguitl'' Ilthey atternpt to a-"oid r'in-
certainty through tight control, they rvi1l stiÍle cherisiled cultural val-
ues ancì rernain monocultural. lMirnv olganizations wilÌ be hybrici orga-
nizations, r,vith a rvide ra,ip;e of decentraiization.
The Lor:d has tlscd tnis;siort organizations utith elì le'zels of centlal.-
tzation. The lnternrLtiorrei À1[ission Boarci of the Stli-rtirern Ëìlptist Con-
ventiori (IMB) of tlie Urritecl States is celtralizcd and is able to tlaLt
niliìsti:y changes quickly" 'lhus tl-rey were lbie to tnaire a n'raiol shiii
from rn emphasis cn instirutions (hospirrls ,tricï lìlÌ:ie schouls) to a
sharp focris on evangelizìng unreachecl pec,ple groups. 'Nlielr ncw vision
statement is "We u'ill le';td Soutìrcrtl Baptists Lo be on mission witìr
God to br:ing ail rÌre ptoples of the u'or:ld ro srvirili íaith ìn Jesus
Christ."17 TÌris "rcross-tlrt-boarcl cluuge in mlssion strategy would be
difficult to irnplement in a decentr'aÌizecl missir;r'r.
At the orhe r er-id of the corrtinuttm is Youth Wrth A l\,tission. Cne oil
theii' rrrrlucs is "decentÏl1i2:arion r,vitl-r accour.rtability'" Froit their web-
site rve reacÌ:
Value 7. Be Broeci-Stluctur,:cì tucì Dr'cerltrirlizi:d
Y\A/Al\4 is bro:id-srrrictui"r:il end cliversr: , )rer iìlrcgrxicd' \'Vc ,rle'a
globaÌ Í.rnrily of iriinìstites hcld loqctlitr l-iy shlrttt pr-tr-pose , visiotr,
vaÌucs rncl rcl:rtiolship. Vt/e beiicve tìriLt slrltcrure," sil,llÌcl $erïe the
perrpic ag<ì tlie pirrposes oír Lìod. liyerv rninistr')r iÌt el'ery level Ì,esr
the priviiege and responsiì:ility of rccoul-rtabiiiiy to a circle cf elder-s,
Leadership Tear,.18
Tliough YWAh't secms Ío bc moving ro'\'v'rx-d â ll1ore centralized
olganiziìtion, the current websire describes theil pirilosoirhy:
As YWAlf i hns g;t'ovi'n ovet'the years, Yld/.AÌV{'s lertders have consis-
tclti't/ s(:nseil 'lio'.i teerlìirg tiicu to deveÌo,p as rl fimily oí: ministlitrs,
i,,l 0 ï,r'iolnc Âctoss Culrrrnts Lcade rshì7 ond An ú ìguìt1 141

ratheí thân â stÍuctÌ-Ìted' centralized âsencìì' Âlthough wc have main could be described as a starfish organization. Spìdcr organizations ar-e
o.ffices, -,l,e clo not irave ân illteÍllational acLnir-risttati'.'c headquartels' tlie organizatton,while starfish organizations are selÊfundecÌ.
fr"rnded by
Thereforc e a,:h Y!1/Ah.I loca-tiotr is responsil-'1e 1i'rr 1rlar-rning outrcacltes, IMB centraily funds missionaries, while missionaries with YWAM raise
rnitiirting trainirrg pr:osi::Ìlns, .rccruitilg staff, fïnancial i:esource dcycl- sLÌppoÍt. It is much easiel to get statistics on the IMB than YWAÌ\4.2a
oÌlnìe[t, nnrl setting priorities ìir carrvit:g out nrinìstt1r.1e Both are great organizations. But Y1VAM is inuch more rnulticultural
well-informcd iltissigt't stâtesman ãlld
alifast with tiran IMB. Y1VAÀ4 has missionaries from over a hundred countlies,
,{ recentiy liad b1e a

aslçecl irim about YVy'AM sratisrics. Ftre sniìled 21ìd said, "No or.re knows
while ï[48 is primnrily a North American-run rnission.
The,4ge of Paradox, a book by Charles F{andy,25 was extremely heip-
íor s,.rre 1-rorv ma.ny missionaÍies they ha..re, or if ttr-iey have a consolidated
-{'his fu1 as rnre in SÍh4 struggled with the ambiguity of decentralization
worich,vide brr,lqel ." approach is intenl.ioflal rird is onc tcasÍ)n fol for:
tlre s ake of intem ation alízation. If we de centr aIíze d to o much, we were
ïWAh4's ama.zitTg multicultural groli/ih.
I receirtiy reacl a stimrilating book calleã T,ke 5tdt,{i5/x nttd thc 51>ìder: in clanger oflosing our vision and core values. Ifwe decentralized too
little, we r.voulcl continue to be Western-oriented mission agency aird
Tht: {Jnstopl:nble Pauer of {'eaderiess C)r3'artì t-atiotts.20 A "spider orgiÌni- a
t-niss out on the üra], God is raising up missionalies frorn ever)r corlntry
zaí.ion" ai,c,tcls irnbiguìty by having a "cingle leadcr: at the top c{ thc or-
q-ânization, ar1 inteÍnational heac|lua.rters anri cettlai|zeci structule. ]f of the rn.orld.
\A/e cxplorecl the concept offederalisnz:
l/orÌ stïitr(e a spi,ciet: cn the head, it dies. Contra,si the spidel rrrìth tire
starf ish. The "stai:ítish orgailization" is fr-rr-rclar-ner:ta-i1v different' FecJer:alisrn seelçs to be both big in some things and smali in others, to
be centralized in some Íespects arrd decenttalized in others. . . . It
The starflsh <loesn't have a head. Its central bodf isn't even iri charge ln
to rn:rxirnj.ze independeuce, providecl that there is a neces-
fact, thc, inelol orgrrn.s ale replicaterl thror:gltout e'rch and evcriy âÌm lf
cncleavors

half' yor"l11 be in,fur a surprise; the animairvon't

sarJ' interdependence; to encourage differer-rce, but within linits; it
,1rorl cìrt tir,: stalfish in
nee,is io i'naint:r,in a stÍong center, but one devoted to the service of the
ciie, anr.1irfcttv -coon you'1i l-rave tror-o star'Íìs.h to cle al rvith. . . . And rvitlr
parts; it can, anrl should, be led fiom the center but has to be n-ranaged
some varreties. t.hc aniinal can repiicate itselÍ fronr.iust a sirl,qle irícce of
by the uarts.2"
ân afttr.21
R.elated to íederaiism is F{andy's description of subsidiarity, or the
The authors, Cri llrafman ancl Rod A^ Eeckslrom, begin thcir book
idea of "leaving po$'er as close to the action as possible."27 "The center's
by asking.trrow the scattered ancl seeming ul-Ìsophisricãteci Apacite soci-
role is to orchestiate the bioad strategicvision, develop the shared ad-
ety could withstand the conquest of the spanish íòrces. Ï-lernar-rclo Cor-
ministrative and organizational infrastructlue, and create the cultural
tés clefea.tecl lhe polrrerful Aztec nation hy killìng the 1-rdad, Monte-
atl-try becausc thcy ''vç1ç glue whicir can cÍeate synergies."23
zr,rma. JJr,tt tbc .A.pa,che clefeateel tire Spanish
deccrrtraiizecl .t'z !l1r,ty cult,-rlal tÍ?Ììts 'r.rerc a.rnbígr,rity, flexibilitl' ancl
M/e iool<ed at SiM as "a fedcration of villages." The headquarters
helpecl to consoliriate ccre r.alues and focus the vision. Our attitucle rvas
shar-ed pornrer'. nsteail oía chief, the Á.pa.,:[t: haci,r hlaut'a1l, ôt'a sliÍi,-
to do u4ra"tever necded to be done to help our tean:ìs to be effective . We
tuaì leader, u4:o 1ectr iry example. Tlìeii lea.rìei Gr:ronimo clid i:r:rt co]I-
shortr:necï the jnten.rational manual and cl-rallenged e ach country to de-
mand an arn-r1, x116ì Liad no coercive ilc14/e1'" I{e led through chatacter
and visioi.r..23
r.elop pol.icies that r.vould fit tireir cultulal needs. We clecentralized
fur-rding ar-rcì strategic ìr-ritiatives. Local leaders were challenged to take
"Fhe lnternational h{ission Board of the Southern Baptist Conveution
codd be coilsiclered a spider organizarion, .rrhr ie Y:ruth 1Ã/ith A i\{issic.n
creative initiative to <ìevelop fresl-r rninistries. I admit there were times
1"!12 Lrrrrlc Âctoss Culrutrs [,c t ìtr' Ìt ip tu II ir L ì,1u i :1t 1.1 :i

whcn, as internâtiou2lÌ director, ï fèit a collntÍy wiÌs Ì1lovil1g otlíside oJ. contributed ro tfrc gicÌrel radío strategy ol'"il'irc V/crrid Ìry 2000." n'he
our coíe vision zrnd Ï asked tirem to r:ethink their strategies ârÌd corne consiiltatiorrs chalicngccì us to look for major uaps il gìoL'rl lrdio eorcr-
back within the 'broad guidelines of tl-re fecieration. The "feder',rtion of age lincl pr:ogr'.trrrinlnq ::,s r,r'eil zÌs unnece ssílÍy ovlilap irrrc{ competitioii.
vil.lagcs" concept malr bs a way {òr mission agetrcies to tneiitt'"iin soine While -wc Citlrr't Lpirc stu:ceed in re:tcliir,.g or-ir: Í:'oil, thc pror-'ess helprtri

celtainty rvhile living r,viti'r the unprccilíctabie and delight{tr-rl creetivity
of arnbiguity.
The l-orci has botir centralized and cieceritrelized or6Janizations
use cì
ìn powerful ways. However, avoidir-rg ambiguity tl'rlor-rgh ce ntraiìzation
will become much more dïfficult as rnission agcncÌes clevelop rntilticriÌ-
tuml paltnerships with sistcr organizations liom aioulìd tlre r,vor1d.
Çoals. Missionarlr lsnd.tt Íì:om ctlltr-rles that avoici r-rnceltaintv rLs-
sume they must predict pre cise outcomes lvithin :r spcciíiccl tinic íianle .
ÌÌs tír be rnore cfl:ccrir.ô trrcl il-Lilt Ìasting coopcrative iclâilonsiìiPs.
While high ur.rcer-r:Lirrty.-2voi,1',t-t.c goaÌs trc i:uÌtulally appropriatc
for rriany rn'Lssíon:irie s, therc are significant limìiãlìuirt.
As lve bor.incerl xioilg, a dusty roacl irr '.r {-aiicl Rovet:, X coulcì see thti
our ilis'.sioli;ri'), rìr'iver- u,as discouraged, Ïn {act he utts readY to quìt ilii
mini trlr" 'llie "'1t1'pe ili' Ìriglily motìvated misi;ioi'iar:v lrtrm tÌrc Urrìtecì
Sttites r.l.as serrtiit$. in :t ini-:si r:halÌenginr'l'egior-r oi-Sollth.1-\r'r'nc:ric';r' Fìir-
toricaÌÌy the are I wa..; ca1[r.i "t.he rnissiorrlry gravei,ll't-{." ]VIissÍt,n;lir,',;

TÌrey dislike the arnbiguity of vagr-re go:tis. Not onh, cio outcomes tle eLi sper-rt ir, rninìsrii; seeing- ÍÌo resrilts. .Êuíter o'osci:vin8; tlÌis niin-
li{èrirne s

to be exact, but the time frame also must be specified. For example, istly lor a couple of r-1q's -[ trs}red hir-i-t vi'hy hc n'as sr: discouraged' 11t:
"Our goal is to plant ten chutches in the next three years," or "We will replicd, "1!'Ii'goaÌ was to plilnt a church with 100 baptízecì belier''eir i,r
distribute 15,000 p:rstors' booi< sets in Cirin:i in the irext 18 rnonths." my first ternÌ, oÍ clse stril' ìtome"" Ï asked hirn horv rlì:Ìny Ìrew beiicvcrs
As the year'2000 approached, mrrny mission organiz'"ttions set plecise they i1x6l7 ",{.fter r.irlee }/eârs, we Ìrave onl1' 70 irerv Ìrclievers, ancl I ír':cÌ
goals. Christian radio stations banded together to Pron'rotc the goal oí like a failure." I g:Lsped. l-fo'"v cotiÌd one of olii'most efÈctive rnisr;ion-
iraving at least oue ltour of broadcasting in crrerv ianguagc p;roup of over' aries, fir-reut in Sl,anis'h "witit a blossoming clLrircll in a most resista-l-rr

a iníllion people by the year 2000. l\ot'e the plecisìoi.r of how.manl' hor-rrs *reri, ícei trirrrscif :i Íallur:r:ì I gentiy tried to cll{-:ourãgr-:l-rirn, r"eririntiirrg
of ìrroadcasting, to a ceítâin-sized language group, by I cer'tirin dzrte. him o[ the air-razirrp; r,:s'.iÌrs lhc Lorci iiad giyett l;c Íãr. Tì-r,lnkf'-rlly trr
Vlission olganizations banded together Íbr "The lVolld by 2000" cl11c bacl< 1br: srveral inofe ssecl thìs :ryea rnrìtlt
i13 1lls, :rlci tire tr-,u,r'd Lrìe

goal to pl;rr-rt a church in every people gror"rp. Br-rt sucl-i a goal'!õ/âs ioo more üew churclrr:s ancl tir';,t-ty nc1r, bélicvers. l\rlissionarjes ti:yiru i";
avoici tincertalfity m'ay iìcr-ls so tlar'rowÌ-,, otl :r prei:ise goal rhll
"i]rc;'-
fuzz), without added definitions. Missiologists wlote pâpers and l-reid
consultations to âgÍee on zr defiriition of "people gÍoup" arrcl "church." miss rlie alnazing things thc Lorcl is cloing ir.i othcr areas"
Other organizations decided they wantecl to evrngelize everY people Anothe r li r-n it:iti ot fbr u ncelta int)r âvoicli rÌ9-; sorrl- s cttels is tlurt l i re ii:
group by the ycar 2000. But then they needecl to define "cvangelize." is oft'e n a cultuì:âl mismr.tch betrn een their iralues end iì-iose of'the peoplc
h4ission committees in high uncertâinty-âr,oidance cllurches begzrn t1-rey serr.e . 1ìor exan-ipie, í or-ice helped to feciiii:ete a go:ti-seiting coirrse
to set comprehensive goals for their^ rnoney. Many air-ned to send 50 in .fos, Nig;ería. ì!tr:rnsr'r-rire li'ing p'"rstor-s cilì1. olì bicycÌes, busses atiri

percent of their members on short-term trips or to p:rrtner r,vith a chr-irch tirxis to â seminer lcd by rnisslologists from r[e lJnitecl Sates. 'T'li':
in the majority rvorld in order to pÌant ten chttrches in five years. Americans began by iraldinq out sheets of grLph pa;ler, askiirg rhè pas-
Many good things result when churches and rnissions in lolv- toÍs to mari< theil churcir's; attcndlnce ten years ago, and lhen to pur: I
tolerance-for-ambieuity cultures set precise goa1s. Goals rnotivate action dot on thc graph tì-,r: rhc citurch's attencil'Lnce tocìly As tÌrey tìr:cw a ìì,lc
and pr:omote cooperation. I sensed a fresh enthusiasm and Íòcus in loca1 betr,rrcen the dots, they rvere asked to extend the lirtc ro íìncÌ thtir" p.cti
churches and mission agencies r,vhe n they began to set gorls. In S{M rve 1Ìl the ÍÌexr ten yearo. S,rt,'r. jriÌst()rs sug!'cstP'i ihet r:hcir cìru::ch rnrrrr-
144 l n:rorrrc Âcno..s CLtLtunts
le::sirip should ìircrease by fifty Peopl': a yeal" T'hen semirar ieaders
t1're
ãÌsked pastor"s to c1lrirt rhis increasr: cn logar:ithnric gr"aph- PapeÍ to show
tha,t tire.perccntage of growth rvoulci ac1:ua.i1y deerease ïf tl'rci' onlv addcd
fiLry meilbei.ç ã ïca.í. Natr-Lrally the Haus,:. prìstors ÌveÍe astor-lndecl that
the cuÍl.e bt:gau to bcn,l clownutârd ei/en i1.c their ciruiclÍ continr-1ed to
g'r:oi&'^ At ti-ir: end of t:he scminar thel' sn-riÌed anti sho',vcci greât appreciâ-
tion fol t:he outsr;anding lectr-rres. frrt lire,-r ,lr11rr't clearly Lit-ÌdeÍstand
them" Over the next ten yexís these same ç.hur,:hes ere',1'Lr;i about 3.00
peÍcent ancl Ïm suic the Amcricair eïFr.tr:ts1-oo1' some of thc credit"
Tiris is not to sr.Ìì,- that churches ia'itl-r a i,:igh ioler'.r.nçe fol ambigLrity
rion't: ha:,,e goals. Tirey clo. Br'rt the se gorrls ai e íl"ame cl ;n tel:ìl.Ìs of ilroar-1
vision oi" a general direction. Ï r,vorheci r.nrith tl-re livangciical Nïissioriary
Society of tirc Evangelical Churchç3 6f Vl./csí: AfLica (trCMlA). I lis-
te ned intcntly to rhc director, R.ev. Pant'a lJaba, r-s he chatlelrge cl chr,rlch
rnernbers in a pacl<ed stadir-rm to talie tlie gospel to u'heLc it had not
been preached befbre. \Ã/ith a por,r'ei-f''r1 '.'oice rrnd dyntrnir: hand n'ro-
1iqìí11i, he picacled, "1,Ã/e ai:e cleJ:tols ir,r L-'hristi iÃ/e received ti-re qospel
Íìee o{tclla.igç, L,ut no.,t, ï/e in jcl.rt :rpt1 nee'l to pa.1 off oLrr clcbt b1'
:ì"Íí)
taking ti-ie go".petr t,-r those rnrho have neveL l,ear:tl." Tirc men respo[ded
r,vitir enthusiastic :houts ald thc womeü lviih a higl"r-pitcired "iov
Chur,:irç:s gave sacfificiaily anrl sent huncirer1s of crosscr-tltuial mission-
aries. These chttr-,:hes had a polve|fìl r'isicn of ',vl]at Gotl could do
t.hrough lhem, brrt the;r dirln't have Projer:tecl. n.rml-'ers and dates' They
1Ãrere molirriÌted Lrl, a God-givcn purpose.
Í?íantúng. lt sceuis that mission :rsencies -t'vith a lo-w tolerance ftlr
ambig,.rit1. do an cxceLlent job of celtt;'alizecl planiring' Thcl' think
through deta.ils an,1 antìcipate Probleins beforc ti'rey happcn. Tl'rey set
strict policics ancl trave thick operaiion ma.nuals. But too oftcn they
hàr,,s "lineï,,l6c1se rvitiroul zeal." On the olher hand, ager,cies r'tith a
lriglr tolcrailcc Íbr ainbiguity n-iay fu;ivç grr:at 'zel'|, yú not be a.s con-
ceri'red rvitlr plinning.
SïV.[ ir;riÌ tradítionall1' been a ilission ãgeÍìcJr that emphasizcd un-
certainty arroiclancc. Cu1 thick polict'lnanuai r,rar.r{ated nrinute detaiis
ilcluilinri litlcs "tliat toilets be kept ils clean;rs possible" and "tl-rat
'monl<e1,'s
shz,.ll. nor, be .irept as pets." As l-i-rc missiot'r iras become tnore
Lct d,:rsÌ; ip on d tl nilt ìgtr ì 11, 145
ír-rliy international, it irirs had to becon-re more opelt to arnbiguity.
Ì met a pastor in Bolivia who longed Íbt' his chr,rrch to be a missionary-
sending chr:rcir, so he bcgrn to inr.estigetc oppoi'tunities in Africa. lle
ned about r, Spanish-speaking corintry, Equatorial Cr.rinea. The
lear
pastor ',lranted to investigate rlinistrv opportunities there, so he col-
lecte eliorigh money to get him as far as Spain, where he haci relatìr'es.
d,
Hc clidn't ha.'e enoLt€ih Íu1cÌs to get from Spail to E,quatorial Guinea,
or to Íe tr-Ìrn to Bolivía, br"rt he heacicd off to Spain an)'wa?v. \,Vitir Cocl's
help he made it to Afi'ica ,rrlrele he disco.rcred that local church,:s
.n'antecl rnissionaries from
Arnerica. He eventr-rally arrived b:ir:k
Sor-rtl-r
in Bolivia, recrnite,l a missionary' flonl the church, and dir.idecl thç
coneregatìon into "12 Tril-res." Eac]r tribe rara.s responsiirle Íbr raising
tnissiona,r"l' slÌFllolt f'or oire ilortth. The last Ì heard, the church w,rs
aheac'l in its supporr' r'equirement and thc mìssionary u'as ef1èctive ii-t
Afrrca. .&,f iniste r:ing r.vitir high tolelance for ambiguitl' seen-rs strallgc io
those .,viro dislilçe ÌÌncertâint)', but m:rkes perfect scnse to many of tlie
emergiir[ ir.ri..sion agencies from the church in t1-re rnajoriti,.u'or'ld.
MLJ Í LM. Í hIG GI_OI3,AL U Í\ D ER STAN PI hIG
c::1" Ït is interestins to note ti-rat tlre fastest growing chr-rrches in thc world ale
usual11, in conntries..vitir higl-r tolerance for uncert'.r.inty-those that rìon't
set prccise goals, plan long-r'ange strategies or cvaluate using precise mr-
merir:al criteria. Chr-rrch gr:orvth in Africa has beer-r phenomenal. Chur:ches
in Ethiopia greu, most rapiclly during the Ìtalian invasion and latel drii-
ing the Communisf era.2e Persecuted cilrrches live in such an-rbiguous
situations that they must tolerate nncertainty and fLrlly trust God.
I4issiologists fi'om tire G1oba1 Souti'r chalicnge the iow-tolerance-
for-arlbiguity missioioey oíÌlurope and the {Jnite d State s. Missidogi:rt
Samr-rel Escoirar criticizes n"vhat he describes as the "scientifi.c" model ,rf
missions, a rnoclel that is tie d to precise meâsllrement.30 In his prescntzt-
tion at the lguassu Dialogue, Escobar descrii:cd the future of evangeli-
cal missiology as rroving ar,vay from u,hat h.e telms "managerial missi-
olog;r"i1 He made tl're claim tf iat tire future of rnissiologywill go beyor.rd
the "post-impeliai missiologv":2 that tries to reduce Christian mission
to a "nl:rnagea-ble enterpr:ise."

t46 LrrorNc Acnoss Currunls
Xfvel], chartrcteristic of this n'rissiology becones r.rndelstandtble
pe rceìveil'lvithin tÌre freme of tl-rat avo,,vec'l qlliÌntifviirg inrelrtion. Cori-
ccpts sLÌclì as "people groups," "unreacired peoples," "i0l40 r,vÌndor,v,"
"rdopt a peoplc," ancl "territorìal spirits" exprcss botir a sense cÍ uiger-icy
urd rn ef-fort to Lrsie eveÍy available instr:ulnent to inal..e thi-" possibÌc"31
lVlission agencies frorn cultures that seeii to avoicl urÌcertiinty need
to listen to the critiqrLe from Latiir An:rericãn lïissiologists. But in thc
saÌrÌe lgurÌssì.1 Dielogue meetings, Darrid Tai-Wooì1g- {-ee tì:orn tr{orc';r
graciously slÌggested ie ss dichotomizatiorr between the moclcis.3'i ÏJaclr
ctútnr;rl value has rdvrrntages and disaclrranteges.
One of the difficulties oí"managerlal r-nissiology" is that it rencls to
ain-r at rhe things that are easily predictatrie and me rsural:le. Since it is
Iess difl.ìcult to preclict âctivitie s than outcornes, 14/e rìre teinpte ci to aim at
what lve can fbreca-st, such as how many i:e ople heaid the gospcl and irow
t-iany Bìbles u,ere ciir;tlibuted. Concelns Íòr strcnp,thening lhe spl:ltual
quelities of r,r iocrÌ cllrrch or Íìghting poverty are liÌrely to íj:r-lsrreie those
with ;l lovv toleriurce íòr'ambiguityrrs Missions miiy irot have been ãs corl-
sistentiv holistic as they should be because of the passion to evoic'1" ambi-
grlity. F{olistic ministry is difficult to pre dict aird qunrrti{r
F)melging rnission enterprises, where goaÌs lnci iletriled pkrrnilg
are ofìen afÌerthoughts, are fincling cÍerÌtive ways ro sercl rnissionaries"
Charlie Dar.is, the ìqrelnational dirc'ctor oíTtrÂl\4 rnission, r,vrites:
A lee<1ei in Vèr-rezuel:r dccidecì to chaiienge his chutcl-r to serrci r buncl-r
oipeopie to tal<e thcir vacltion togetÌrer ir a toll'rr in Vcnczucla end
shale the gospel That rvas the sr-im totai of pienrring. Everyonc
zr11r'veek.
arrir.e cl, fonncl somervhere to ltang theil irarirliocÌ<, figured out irow to
eat rrÍìcr they rrrived, rnd spcnt the afÌelnoons ancl evenings har-rging
out witli neighbors. They sau, over 100 people come to Christ. lt wor.rld
hwe driven any of us LÌÌ1cert2Ìint)' avoidauce peopÌe up the rvalÌ.3ó
Both high- and 1ow-uncertainty-avoidance rnission enterprises have
important strengths ancl significrrnt r,veaknesses. Wê need" each other.
We need to listen to each other and blend an r"rnchrnging ÉìospeÌ iÌìto x
new missiology that is ln tune with an r:npreclictrrbÌe, eve.i'-changing
cultui'al context.
ü
!
'.1.1't
Lu Ct: rtlt i 2 t r'l Àu ú ig r ì t.y
r,vltcn
ri
LHüTI Õ f*,I 5 ü tsd
F'iiEF
N4 [.i t{-T{ fl i-.! tL-ï LJ RAL r-HAm H RS d'+ P ]i
Lisa AntJerson Umana, EN 5;rlvador
"Pide perdón." "Ask Í,:rglver-less."
'VVnyi" ícrt,.'ied ir riyri.
"For arrivinq lãie to the staff t-neetiirg""
When thar iook place, I had aireactry wôrkL'cl it': l-:rtlrr America 1'cr
ten yea!'s so iwas weil eware of tl're Latin view ol'tìnie emd puinctuial-
ity. But I vvas br.,ulrd aird deterrnined that things r;vor-rlri È:e rLln cliffer
entl5r here in Ëi Salvndor. Eir insistinE that iatecorner'5 r'nake a public
apoÍoqy, I worilci .reate ii different subcultut"e lrere, sínrilar to the
one I had adinl:'ecl froil a carnp in the Unitecj States.
AIi ht,i cr'e oi'tire tardy ieaders subjer:ì:ed thetrrsetves [o rn"yr
irrrnriiiatinq requÈsi:'rnc entereci the roÕirr víith en apoiogy.
Èvelyii cii* i1Õ{" 5he reryìained outsicle"
L.ater that week, vvÈ had another staff rrreetillq. llurt tlris tirne
It was lwho e5ked fu;'givenress, thanks to the toithriEhrt cúni:ron-
taiior-r of tire Solv;,:clorians ;ìnd their nâturaÌ rÉsistai.xce to "Yankëe
Ìrrrperialisrr"-whici'r is Ilow they viewed m\i it'!:;Ìstence ol"r âl3oio-
gizÌnç1 íor beirrg late. I count as one of íny rnost loyaI iliends anrct
coleaders tha'. sãíÌre rvelyn who remained outsicje ille ioorrr.
llothirig is as ineffective as â forei'!nerwlro cornes arrci Ì.eils l",at-
ins horru tü-rings shouLi be clone. The promiirent íolê l\orth /{wierica
piayeci in iirfluenclng its southein neiql'rboÍs ii-l modern tinres,
!-ras
as well as tlie lrisioric arrtecedent oÍ having been corrquereci hy
tlre Spaniards, Ínay give Latins tlre propensities to eitl'ìer Íight hacl(
or subnrit to outside influences. Humility would suggest thât our
ieadership development processes and practÍces be rooled and re-
sponsive to the context and people. This type of hurmility has been
soreïy lacking in rnany of ilry efforts to develop leaciers in Christian
camping in Latin Anrerica"
tor me, thii parr of the story is stiil in process.,Altliough I have
lÌvecj anC wori(ed in Laiirr America for alrnost twenty-five years, at
iimes I reel likr I :inr still wanijerinq il-r the ieserr wiih regard tü
t4B Lcaptllc Acnoss Ctrn utrs

crossclrltural cues of how to form leaders who also form other lead-
ers. I am learning not to fear the feeling of being lost and not hav-
ing all the answers as I strengthen my relationship and trust in the
Pillar of Liglrt who guides us by day and by niglrt.

FART IIX

ÇO NT'HXT{"JALI ZI N G LHAF HRS F.I I F

PnRr rnnpn DEALS wrru THE pRoBLEM of how universal biblical

truth intersects with diverse cultural values. It describes a model for
integratìng theology with leadership theory. While the Bible stipu-
lates the ultimate purpose of leadership and a core understanding of
the nature oí reality, it does not prescribe leadership style. Though
tire Bible is our final authority, I suspect that God smiles at most of
our cultural differences.

Theology

F.igure IIi.1. Model of crosscultural leadership