Urban Planning, Sanitation and Beautification

Bureau

Cemetery Management
Manual NO.22/2016
January, 2016
Addis Ababa, Ethiopia
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Table of Contents page

1.1. Introduction.....................................................................................................................................1
1.2. Definitions........................................................................................................................................1
1.3. Rationale of the manual ..............................................................................................................1
1.4. Objectives of the manual ............................................................................................................2
1.4.1. General objective ................................................................................................................2
1.4.2. Specific objectives ............................................................................................................. 2
1.5. Expected Results.......................................................................................................................... 3
1.6. How to Use the Manual ................................................................................................................3
1.7. Scope of the manual......................................................................................................................3
PART TWO: STRUCTURE OF THE MANUAL …………………………………………4
2.1. Major types of cemeteries.............................................................................................................4
2.1.1. Approaches ............................................................................................................................5
2.1.2. Cemetery management experiences ....................................................................................5
2.1.3. Cemetery management in Ethiopia ......................................................................................6
2.1.4. Challenges and opportunities of cemetery management in Ethiopia .....................................6
2.2. Description of standard designs for cemetery ............................................................................8
2.2.1. Based on size of urban centers ...............................................................................................8
2.2.2. Physical structures .................................................................................................................8
2.3. Vegetation component ..................................................................................................................9
2.4. Planting and Trees …………………………………………………………………………..9
2.5. Irrigation and drainage………………………………………………………………………10
2.6. Greening cemeteries…………………………………………………………………………10
2.7. Species selection ..........................................................................................................................11
2.8. Sources of planting materials ......................................................................................................12
2.9. Site preparation ...........................................................................................................................12
2.10. Planting patterns.........................................................................................................................13
2.11. Pit preparation ...........................................................................................................................13
2.12. Sowing /planting ........................................................................................................................14
2.13. Watering.....................................................................................................................................14
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 2.14. Vegetation Management.............................................................................................................14
PART THREE: WEEDING AND WEED CONTROLL TECHNIQUES…………………15
3.1. Weed control techniques ...............................................................................................................15
3.1.1. Mechanical Treatment Methods……………………………………………………….15
3.1.2. Hand Pulling…………………………………………………………………………….15
3.1.3. Mowing and Brush-cutting……………………………………………………………..16
3.1.4. Chemical Treatment Methods…………………………………………………………..16
3.1.5. Biological Treatment Methods…………………………………………………………16
3.2. Manure application .......................................................................................................................17
PART FOUR: COMPOSTING COMPOST APPLIOCATION .........................................................17
4.1. Pile / heap composting………………………………………………………………………17
4.1.1. What to prepare………………………………………………………………………...17
4.1.2. Step by step procedure…………………………………………………………………18
4.2. Pit composting…………………………………………………………………………………18
4.2.1 What to prepare………………………………………………………………………….18
4.2.2. Step by step procedure………………………………………………………………….19
4.2.3. Tips for better composting………………………………………………………………19
4.3. Uses of compost……………………………………………………………………………....20
4.4. Tending operations……………………………………………………………………………20
4.5. Fence Construction Methods…………………………………………………………………21
PART FIVE: PLAT HEALTH MANEGMENT ...............................................................................23
5.1. Replacement planting...................................................................................................................23
5.1.1.Tree Felling and Removal.....................................................................................................23
PART SIX: POLICY & LEGAL FRAMEWORKS & CAPACITY REQUIREMEN.......25
6.1 Relevant Policies and Legal Frameworks ...................................................................................25
6.1.1. Capacity Requirements for the Implementation of the Manual ..........................................25
6.2 Resource requirement ...................................................................................................................25
6.3 Manpower Requirement................................................................................................................26
6.4. Logistics and Finance Requirement ............................................................................................ 26
6.5. Systems Requirement.................................................................................................................. 28
6.6. Institutional Arrangement ............................................................................................................28
6.7. Information Technology ..............................................................................................................28
REFERENCES.................................................................................................................................. 29
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Appendix: Species Description…………………………………………………………………………29

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 PART ONE
BACKGROUND

1.1. Introduction

The climate resilient green economy development strategy of the country stimulates the need for
urban greenery practices across the country. There is urgent need for preparation of green area
management in urban centers of the country due to lack of prior urban green infrastructure
development in most urban centers of the country. This manual will focus on greenery practices in
cemetery management. The following chapters will assess the concepts of cemetery area
management, types of cemetery, experiences of cemetery management, challenges and
opportunities of cemetery management, and greening cemeteries.

1.2. Definitions

Cemetery originates from the Greek work koimētērion, which means "sleeping place". The
meaning of cemetery implies that the land is specifically designated as a burial ground. It is a
spatially defined area where the remains of dead people are buried or otherwise interred. The
older equivalent term to cemetery is graveyard, which is often used interchangeably with
cemetery, but primarily referred to a burial ground within a churchyard. So, cemetery is a more
general term that explicitly defines the burial ground for people of all domains. Cemeteries are
normally distinct from churchyards, which are typically consecrated according to one
denomination and are attached directly to a single place of worship.

People may use different terminologies to refer to cemetery. Some of the terms that are being
used to replace cemetery include grave, burial ground, tomb, mausoleum, columbarium, etc. In
Western cultures, funeral ceremonies are often observed in cemeteries. These ceremonies or rites
of passage differ according to culture and religion.

1.3. Rationale of the manual

Even though the development has been scanty, previous efforts of urban greenery practices have

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been limited within large cities, particularly those which are regional capitals and Addis Ababa
only. Municipalities have no standard manuals to implement cemetery development and
management. This manual is believed to be an important tool to enable all urban center of the
country to involve in urban greenery activities. Every municipality will have the opportunity to
design and implement appropriate sizes and types of cemeteries based on the environmental setting
or context of the town or city.
Authorities will get measureable variables to monitor and evaluate performance of municipalities
and other concerned partners in developing and managing cemeteries and holiday celebration areas.
This will enhance efficiency of implementing organizations and citizens’ satisfaction.

1.4. Objectives of the manual

1.4.1. General objective

The major objective of this manual is enhancing efficiency of implementing organizations and
effectiveness of the green infrastructure standards so that climate resilient green economy
development will be secured in urban settings.

1.4.2. Specific objectives

This manual will specifically address the following objectives.

A. Provide information about the different types of cemeteries so that urban centers will select
the ones that suite to their settings.
B. Enlighten the different functions of cemeteries so that implementing organizations will think
of the multiple benefits of cemeteries during planning and establishment of cemeteries in
their towns or cities.
C. Inform the challenges and opportunities of cemetery management in most towns and cities
of Ethiopia to facilitate careful planning.
D. Describe the physical, biological and hydrological components of cemetery and their spatial
configuration.
E. Explain the techniques of establishing and managing the different components of a cemetery.
F. Sort out the material and human resource requirements of cemetery development and
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 maintenance in urban centers of Ethiopia.

1.5. Expected Results

Upon proper application of the contents of this manual, the following results are expected to
come about.

A. Urban centers of different size located in different agro-ecological zones of the country will
establish cemeteries that match with the existing situations in the town or city.
B. Our cities and towns will be resilient to impacts of climate change and provide diverse
benefits to the residents and even to tourists.
C. All the components of cemetery will be properly installed so that residents and visitors will
get satisfactory services.
D. Cities and towns will be efficient in meeting the climate resilient green development goal
and efficient in resource utilization.

1.6. How to Use the Manual

This manual is expected to serve grass-root level implementers and supervisor of green
infrastructure development and maintenance. So, the field worker has to read the manual
thoroughly prior to planning for field visit so that he/she understands everything in the manual.
He/she has to take the manual with him/her during reconnaissance surveying to get an idea of the
type and size of cemetery to be established in the specific locality. He/she has to carry it during any
field work to get guide to details of the field activities.
For the purpose of better understanding of the contents of the annual, it will be translated to local
languages.

1.7. Scope of the manual

We know that urban green infrastructures provide multiple advantages to urban center
environments and residents, and contribute to sustainable development. Firstly, they are uniquely
placed in the urban setting to deliver a diverse range of inter-related socio-economic and
environmental benefits. Secondly, these benefits arise by linking natural systems to decisions about
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land use planning and landscape management. Like any urban green infrastructure component,
cemeteries and holiday celebration areas deliver similar services. So, cemeteries can serve as a
source of shade from scorching solar energy, a live library, an area for multi-purpose tree planting,
a recreational amenity and an educational resource besides it principal purpose of connecting
people together during ceremonies and rituals. To meet all the benefits, cemeteries should integrate
grey, blue and green components arranged properly so that they can serve the community through
the various benefits listed above.
This manual will help experts and supervisors of urban green development to align their activities
with modern technologies of urban cemetery management. It will specifically support practitioners
to apply scientific methods of green area management in cemeteries that may be located in dega,
woina dega or kola agro-ecology, where Ethiopian urban centers are found

PART TWO
STRUCTURE OF THE MANUAL

2.1. Major types of cemeteries

Cemeteries usually are divided into two broad categories: traditional cemeteries and memorial parks
or gardens. A traditional cemetery, the type used for many generations, has upright monuments,
usually made of stone. Many traditional cemeteries also have private mausoleums for above-ground
interment. Because many have functioned in their communities for over 100 years, traditional
cemeteries typically contain a great deal of history, such as architecture, statuary and other arts, as
well as the personages interred there. They often feature lush landscaping and impressive greenery.

Memorial parks and gardens are a newer type of cemetery introduced about 75 years ago. They
are cemeteries without tombstones, representing parks and gardens where bronze memorials are
placed level with the ground to blend with the beauty of the landscape. They often feature
expansive lawns with a variety of trees, flowering beds and gardens, as well as fountains,
sculpture or memorial architecture.

Some cemeteries have both traditional upright monument sections and garden sections. Both types
of cemeteries may offer above-ground interment in community mausoleums. Both traditional

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cemeteries and memorial parks may be operated on a for-profit or not-for-profit basis. They may be
owned by an individual or by a corporation. Some are owned mutually, and many are the property
of towns, counties and religious or fraternal groups. Both may have chapels, crematories,
community mausoleums, mortuaries or funeral homes and columbarium’s

2.1.1. Approaches

The techniques used to compile this manual include review of international experiences, field
survey data and personal experiences. In addition, the green infrastructure standard design
document has been consulted to prepare the document.

2.1.2. Cemetery management experiences

Cemetery management has a long age experience dating back to the 7th century. Cemeteries depict
th
lots of historical information. An example of a cemetery established in the 16 century is displayed
below(Figure 1).

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 Figure 1: Les Innocents cemetery in 1550 (source: Wikipedia)

Cemeteries have been managed differently based on religion, social status, wealth and other
attributes of the dead. In most cultures those who were immensely rich, had important professions,
were part of the nobility or were of any other high social status were usually buried in individual
crypts inside or beneath the relevant place of worship with an indication of their name, date of death
and other biographical data. In Europe, for instance, this was often accompanied with a depiction of
their coat of arms. Besides the prevailing huge public interest in the historical significance of
cemeteries (Gilbert, 1980), scientists have indicated that cemeteries contain valuable native

2.1.3. Cemetery management in Ethiopia

In Ethiopia, location of burial yards is mainly associated with church compounds of the Christian
religions and a separate place is allocated for the Muslim religion. In most of the observed urban
centers of Ethiopia, cemetery management has not got enough attention of greening. In most areas,
natural vegetation and weeds cover most parts of the cemetery plots. In some of them, artificial
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 flowers were put as decorations. It was also understood from the field observations in most parts of
the country that people care more for the physical aspect of the cemeteries than the green
components.

2.1.4. Challenges and opportunities of cemetery management in Ethiopia

Similar to other green infrastructures, cemetery management suffers from lack of awareness. People
do not consider greening activities in cemeteries and other open spaces as valuable practices. The
perception study conducted in 36 selected urban centers of Ethiopia revealed that people have poor
understanding of the importance of tree planting in cemeteries. Only some respondents considered
that trees in cemeteries have social and environmental significances. Similarly, with regard to
cemetery management, most of the challenges in relation to managing cemetery sites in Ethiopia are
related with culture. People think that cemeteries should not be visited at a convenient time. Instead,
they should be out of the reach of communities to avoid ill spirit. In addition, most of the cemeteries
are not administered by the municipality. As a result, protection and proper management of
cemeteries is under difficulty. No one except the respective religious institutions has been
responsible for protection and management of cemeteries. Prot institutions so, lack of responsible
body is the main cause of poor management of cemeteries in Ethiopia.

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 On the other hand, the people of Ethiopia have great respect to burial yards as a result of
the feelings of humanity in the heart of each individual. This has contributed a lot to the
current cemetery management in different parts of the country, both in rural and urban
settings. The other opportunity for developing greenery management activities around
cemeteries is the greening strategy the country has been undertaking. Ethiopia is at the
forefront in implementing green development strategy. The strategy encompasses urban
greenery initiatives including greening of cemeteries. Therefore, this creates a favorable
environment for future efforts of green area management in cemeteries.

2.2. Description of standard designs for cemetery

The national urban green infrastructure standards document doesn’t show any standard difference
of cemetery management protocols for urban centers in Ethiopia. Specific standards were not
suggested in terms of size and agro-ecology of urban centers. But it is obvious that
recommendations should account for these factors. Therefore, additional literature has been
consulted to describe the greening practices in each category of towns and cities.

2.2.1. Based on size of urban centers

Due to lack of experience of municipal cemetery management in almost all urban centers, there has
not been any observed difference among urban centers in terms of cemetery management.
Therefore, all urban centers should start from scratch. The national urban green infrastructure
standard document doesn’t indicate any information related with the size of cemeteries that should
be established in each urban center. However, it is apparent that cities and large towns should have
bigger areas for cemeteries in accordance with the population size of these urban centers.

2.2.2. Physical structures

What makes cemeteries different from block plantations, parks or street trees is the
presence of physical structures like buildings, light systems, seats, signs, pavements and
sculptures in a unit of land. These physical structures occupy space and their arrangements
should be kept according
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to the design to be made. Enough space must be given to each component so that the
cemetery can serve not only as a burial ground but also as a recreational site. Refer part VII
number 8.2.3 (a & b) and 8.2.2(a),UGIS of 2015

2.3. Vegetation component

It was indicated in the standard design document that cemetery plantings should consist of large
trees for provision of shade, ornamental trees, shrubs, hedges and lawns [1]. Urban centers should
develop designs of the arrangement of these components based on the existing situation.

2.4. Planting and Trees

Trees and other planted areas are essential components of successful and enjoyable public spaces.
A balance must be struck between abundant, lush, and generous planting and the need for adequate
sun and openness in the public cemetery.

A minimum of four trees are required within every public cemetery. For every 100 square meter of
cemetery, four caliper inches of additional trees are required. The use of caliper inches, rather than
an absolute number of additional trees, allows for additional flexibility in planting design. The
requirement can be met by either providing fewer trees with larger diameter trunks or a greater
number of smaller, multi-stemmed species. For example, a 1000 square meter cemetery would be
required to provide 4 trees, plus an additional 40 caliper inches. The additional caliper inches
could be provided in ten 4-caliper inch trees, eight 5-caliper inch trees, or four 10-caliper inch
trees kept according

At least 50% of required trees should be planted flush-to-grade and must be surrounded by a
porous surface at least 2 meters in width that allows water to penetrate to the tree roots while at the
same time accommodating pedestrian circulation. Trees provided in planting beds are required to
have a minimum of 2 meters square of porous area, such as mulch, pebbles, or planted area to
allow for water penetration.

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 Figure 10: A tree with a porous walking surface

To encourage greater landscaping variety and to prevent cemeteries from being excessively hard-
surfaced, 20% of the cemetery should to be covered in ground-level planting. The planting
requirement could take the form of planting beds, groundcover or accessible lawns.

2.5. Irrigation and drainage

To ensure that trees and other plants can successfully establish and grow in an urban environment,
irrigation is required for all planted areas unless drought-resistant species are specified in the
planting plans. Drainage systems are also required in planted areas located above subsurface
structures such as garages or cellars.

2.6. Greening cemeteries

Flowers and other plants can be used to make the cemetery area attractive and commemorate
someone’s life and our connection to him/her. Furthermore, covering open areas of cemeteries
with vegetation provides immense importance. Large trees and ornamental trees provide shade for
visitors and other facilities. Lawns and flowers have beautification potentials. The micro- climate
of the cemetery can be well regulated by the presence of plants so that visitors can enjoy their stay
in the area. Roots of plants absorb nutrients in the soil that would have been entering into nearby
water bodies and avoid bad smells.
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However, it is important to give due attention while greening cemeteries as it requires careful
planning of the greenery activities. Experts should be responsible during species selection, seed
collection or seedling acquisition, site preparation, planting patterns and continuous management
of plants on the site.

2.7. Species selection

You must consider the size of the plant and be respectful of others who will visit the area.
Graveside plantings should be small enough and manageable for long service as natural sentinels
near the plot. Choose carefully when selecting plants for graves to provide a peaceful, non-
invasive setting for a sensitive location.

People engaged in maintenance will have to be able to work around them without damaging the
plants or causing more work. Trees or shrubs that become large or unruly over time are not a good
choice.

When choosing plants for graves, consider what the dead enjoyed the most. Was there a particular
plant or flower that he/she really favored? The graveside garden plot can be used to reflect those
preferences and help bring back good memories and provide solace. Additionally, the choice
should take into consideration the light levels and moisture availability.

Flowers are a natural choice for graveside garden plots. Perennial flowers will provide visitors
with annual color but they do need some maintenance to prevent spreading and messy habits.
Annual flowers are a perfect choice but they require frequent supplemental watering. You will also
have to plant a new display every year. Another way to provide plants for graves is to use
containers. Containers prevent invasiveness and are smaller maintenance spaces. Plots that are
surrounded by trees are a challenge to populate with plants due to the shade. However, you may
select shade loving plants that will be suitable to the condition.

Avoid larger shrubs, which could take over the plot and obstruct the gravestone. Flowers good for
planting on a grave are low-spreading varieties that can handle frequent mowing some varieties of
flowering thyme will make colorful seasonal flower cover for the grave. Consider the height of the
plant when choosing flowers good for planting on a grave. Some flowers will get quite tall and
11
 cover the gravestone.
Planting native species around the grave is one of the best and lowest maintenance ways to
provide greenery or flowers as a memorial. The graveside garden plot that relies upon native
species will not need as much water and will blend into the natural surroundings. These plants will
need less management effort and cannot be considered invasive, as they are a natural part of the
wild species in the area.

Whatever choice you make, amend the soil with plenty of compost to help conserve moisture. If
you are not going to be available to come and water the plants, they may have to rely upon
natural moisture or any extra spray from lawn irrigation.
Some of the plant species that are recommended for cemetery greening are Plumeria alba,
Acalypha wilkesiana, Calpurina aurea, Dodonaea angusitifolia, Olea capensis, Olea europaea
and geranium species. Refer part VI number 3 (c), UGIS 20

2.8. Sources of planting materials

There are private and government organizations that can provide planting materials to urban
centers of Ethiopia in their effort of greening. For example, there are seedling production and
sale companies in Hawassa, which can supply planting materials for towns and cities of the
southern parts of the country. The nursery services around Bishoftu, Addis Ababa and Adama
will supply planting materials to central parts of the country. The seedling production sites in
Bahir Dar and Mekelle will supply planting materials to most urban centers of northern Ethiopia.
Dire Dawa will provide planting materials to cities and towns located in the eastern wing of the
country.

2.9. Site preparation

The cemetery area should be properly fenced with available materials like wood, metal bars,
concrete and barbed wire to prevent intrusion into the green area. Furthermore, the area has to be
cleared and prepared according to the design intended to be implemented in the selected
cemetery site. Then, the spots where plantation will be done should be dug several times to
improve the soil aeration and water percolation. This will make the area suitable for the new
plants. Unless it is proven that the local soil is suitable to the new plants, it is important to
12
import loam soil from nearby areas so that seedling establishment will be facilitated.
In this case, an area of 1 meter radius should be dug down to a depth of about 50 to 100
centimeter to replace the soil with an imported loam soil.

2.10. Planting patterns

The spacing between plants and their arrangement should be decided based on the available
space and the intended plant type. However the following planting intervals should be
maintained as much as possible.

Shade trees should be planted along the edge of the cemetery compound. There should be large
optimum space interval between trees so that they will not distract visual impression. Such trees
will also be planted at locations where there are seats, gravestones and buildings.

Ornamental plants and grasses should be planted based on the design of your development site.
Flowers and other ornamental plants should be selected to decorate the area so that we may get
the old memories we may attach with the dead. Refer part VII number 8.2.1(a-c) UGIS of 2015

2.11. Pit preparation

The size and depth of pits that should be prepared for planting of various species depends on the
rooting behavior of the plant and the agro-ecological zone in which the urban center is located.
Generally, the following points should be kept under consideration.

If the agro-ecology is dega where frost is potential factor affecting performance of the plants, it
is better to dig the pits deeper and fence the surrounding, especially during the early growth
period. When the planting area is located in woina dega, depth of the pits may not be relevant
except if the plant has long root system. For kola ecologies, it is recommended that pits should
be dug deeper to enable the roots get enough moisture deep in the soil profile.

If the rooting behavior of the plants is such that the roots disperse on the surface (fibrous root
system), then the pit depth can be shallow; on the contrary, when plants with long tap root systems
are selected for plantation, it is highly recommended that deep pits are prepared. Refer part VII
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 number 8.2.1(a-c) UGIS of 2015

2.12. Sowing/planting

When planting time is approaching, seedlings have to pass through hardening process so that
they will be better fit to the external environment. The hardening period should be the time the
new plants suffer from moisture limitation so that they will acclimatize to the prevailing moisture
condition of the planting site. As a result, seedling establishment and survival rate will be
improved.
The planting time should be defined based on the agro-ecology where the planting is carried out. It
is recommended that greenery activities are carried out following onset of the long rainy season in
the area. However, for towns and cities that get few days of precipitation, it is advised that the
planting time is arranged to exploit the small amount of precipitation available.
However, in such areas, it is recommended that supplementary watering is applied continuously. In
any case, there should be watering after planting to enable the new plants start rooting into the new
soil environment.

2.13. Watering

Supplemental watering is required during the early growth condition of plants. Therefore,
enough water should be available while planning to plant seedling of trees and grasses. Water
sources should be identified for watering the area with the minimum possible cost of accessing
them. Based on availability of resources, different watering instruments may be used like
sprinklers, hoses, trucks, watering cans, etc. It is highly recommended that watering takes place
early in the morning or late afternoon

2.14. Vegetation management

Existing vegetation in cemeteries should be maintained as they can serve as seed sources or
means of in-situ conservation of genetic resources. Therefore, before any tree shall be cut or
removed in the cemetery, a permit for cutting and removing of the tree shall be first obtained
from the caretaker of the cemetery. Such tree shall be cut and removed under the supervision of
such caretaker.
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As to new planting activities, it is important to depend on scientific recommendations. The species
to be planted in each size of urban center located across agro-ecological zones should be in line with
the principles of species-site matching. Prior to species selection, it is important to study the
characteristics of the site where the plantation will take place.

PART THREE
WEEDING CONTROL TECHNIQUES

Removing weeds from the green area is important to foster growth of the target plants and reduce
completion for solar radiation, water and nutrients. In addition, weeds and other invasive species
growing in the area will reduce quality of the cemetery. These plants will distract visibility and
reduce the visual quality of the cemetery and its surroundings. So, unwanted and invasive plants
should be removed as soon as you observe that they appear on the area.
3.1. Weed control techniques

3.1.1. Mechanical Treatment Methods: - will include the following plans and specifications.
A. Type of equipment to use for management
B. Dates of treatment for effective management
C. Operating instructions (if applicable)
D. Techniques and procedures to be followed
Some of the examples of mechanical weed control include the following.

3.1.2.Hand Pulling

Hand pulling is easy to plan and implement, and is often the best way to control small
infestations, such as when a weed is first detected in an area. Hand pulling may be a good
alternative in sites where herbicides or other methods cannot be used. The key to effective hand
pulling is to remove as much of the root as possible while minimizing soil disturbance. For many
species, any root fragments left behind have the potential to report, and pulling is not effective on
plants with deep and/or easily broken roots.

15
3.1.3. Mowing and Brush-cutting
Mowing and cutting can reduce seed production and restrict weed growth, especially in annuals
cut before they flower and set seed (Hanson 1996). Some species however, re-sprout vigorously
when cut, replacing one or a few stems with many that can quickly flower and set seed. For
example, yellow star thistle (Centauries solstitialis) can be controlled by mowing at the onset of
flowering (when approximately 2 to 5% of the seed heads are flowering), but if mowed earlier,
native species are negatively impacted and yellow star thistle is able to re-sprout. Be sure to
consider the biology of the weed before cutting.
Mowing and cutting are often used as primary treatments to remove aboveground biomass,
in combination with herbicide treatments. It is important to collect the cut fragments of
species capable of re-sprouting from stem or root segments to prevent them from washing
or blowing into un-infested areas.

3.1.4. Chemical Treatment Methods

Although this technique is not a recommended way of weed removal in urban

environment, it may be used seldom. It will include the following plans and
specifications.

A. Acceptable chemical treatment references for containment and management of target

species
B. Document techniques to be used, planned dates and rates of application
C. Evaluation and interpretation of herbicide risks associated with the selected
treatment(s)
D. Any special mitigation, timing considerations or other factors (such as soil texture
and organic matter content) that must be considered to ensure the safest, most
effective application of the herbicide
E. Reference to product label instructions

3.1.5. Biological Treatment Methods: will include the following plans and specifications.

16
 A. Acceptable biological treatment references for the selected biological agent used
to contain and manage the target species
B. Document release date, kind, and number of agents
C. Maximum allowable degree of use on desirable non-target species
D. Special mitigation, precautions or requirements associated with the selected
treatment(s)

3.2. Manure application

The greenery practices should take advantage of the effort of the waste management section. The
waste has to be converted into compost. So, the composting process removes the waste and it
will be used to fertilize the plantation sites in urban green infrastructures including cemeterys. By
so doing, we can save cost of purchasing organic fertilizer and at the same time ensure clean
development that doesn’t pollute the environment.

PART FOUR
Composting and compost application

Composting is the biological decomposition (rotting and decaying) of plant residues, farm
animal manures, and kitchen scraps under controlled conditions. Once these materials are

completely decayed, the end product is called compost. Compost is a decayed organic matter that is
earthy, dark and crumbly.

4.1. Pile / heap composting

4.1.1. What to prepare

A. A semi-shaded 90 cm x 90 cm area
B. Composting materials
1) Green materials that are rich in nitrogen (freshly cut grasses, twigs, branches and
barks that are cut into small pieces, kitchen scraps, farm animal ma

17
 2) Brown materials that are rich in carbon (dried leaves, straws, cornstalks and other
dried plant residues, and cut old newspapers.
3) Garden soil
4) Water
C. Garden fork or shovel

4.1.2. Step by step procedure

A. Spread a layer of about 15 cm thick of the brown materials on the surface soil. This is
the first layer.
B. Add for the next layer, the green materials, about 15 cm thick.
C. Top this with a thin layer of garden soil.
D. Sprinkle enough water to make the layers moist but not wet or soggy.
E. Repeat the steps 1 - 4, until your pile reaches the height of 90 cm.
F. Turn the pile after 2 weeks to heat it up. Use a garden fork or shovel to turn the pile, to
mix and move the decomposing materials at the middle towards the outside and the
outside materials towards the center of the pile. Then, you can mix it every 5-7 days,
thereafter. If your compost has a strong odor, turn it more often as your pile is tightly
packed and is poorly aerated.
G. Ensure that the pile is heating up. When you first turned the pile, you may see steam
rising from it. This signals decomposition. You can cover the pile to keep the heat in.
H. Add nothing to the pile once the composting process has begun.
I. The compost is finished when the pile is no longer heating up and the original materials
turn earthy and black.

4.2. Pit composting

4.2.1 What to prepare

A. Compost pit that is; 1-1.5 m length x 1-1.5 m width x 1 m deep

B. Composting materials
1) Green materials that are rich in nitrogen (freshly cut grasses, twigs, barks and branches

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 cut into small pieces, kitchen scraps, farm animal manures)
2) Brown materials that are rich in carbon (dried leaves, straws, cornstalks and other dried
plant residues, and cut old newspapers
3) Garden soil
4) Wood ash
5) Water
C. Long, sharp, pointed stick(s)

D. Farm implements such as wheelbarrow, watering can, hoe, machete/bolo

4.2.2. Step by step procedure

A. Dig the compost pit in a semi-shaded and non-water logged area.

B. Place dry plant materials as the first layer. This should be about 20-25 cm thick. Sprinkle
enough water to make the composting materials moist but not wet. The next layer will be
composed of green materials, either fresh or wilted grasses or weeds.

C. Twigs and branches can also be added unless they are chopped into smaller pieces. This layer
should also be 20-25 cm thick.

D. Top this with a mixture of animal manure, soil, and ash. This layer should be 10-15 cm thick.

E. Repeat the steps 1-3 until the pile reaches a height of 1 m. You make the pile thicker in the
middle (than the sides) to create a dome-shaped pile. This makes turning the pile easier.

F. Place the stick(s) vertically into the pile to allow the air to circulate into the various layers.

G. Cover the pit with broad leaves of plants like banana, inset, etc.

H. Turn the pile every two weeks. The compost is ready after 3-4 months.

4.2.3. Tips for better composting

A. Keep the pile moist.

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B. Keep the pile well-aerated.
C. Maintain a balance of the green and brown materials. Too much of one slows down
decomposition. The best ratio is 1 part green to 1 part brown material. Shredding and chopping
these materials into smaller pieces will help speed the composting process and increase the pile's
surface area.
D. Do not add diseased plants, human wastes, cats and dogs feces as the harmful pathogens found in
these waste products may not be killed in the process of decomposition.
E. Do not add matured weeds as their seeds may not be killed in the process of decomposition and
may germinate once you use the compost in your field.

4.3. Uses of compost

Compost: is an excellent source of organic matter that has plenty of beneficial organisms. It adds
soil nutrients necessary for plant growth, improves plant growth, controls plant disease pathogens,
controls soil borne pathogens, and improves the soil condition and texture. It breaks up clay soil,
helps sandy soil retains moisture, and relieves compaction. It also improves soil drainage, reduces
soil erosion, helps rehabilitate infertile soils and makes the soil easy to Cultivate .Refer part VII
number 8.2.5, UGIS of 2015

4.4. Tending operations

The trees and shrubs planted in the cemetery compound have to be properly managed to attain the
ultimate objectives of planting in those areas. Otherwise, they will cause numerous problems to
individuals, the community and the urban center. Therefore, proper plant management regimes
have to be carried out at the right time. The following tree management practices should be done
when deemed appropriate. Pruning has to be done to reduce the effect of tree branches on facilities.
Thinning has to be implemented when the number of trees is above the required.
On the contrary, enrichment planting will be conducted when there is death of existing plants or
when the available plants are deemed less than the required. Pollarding should be done to avoid the
visual effect of top parts of the tree like when it obscures visualizing the surrounding topographic
scene or aerial utility lines like electricity and telephone lines. For grasses and other herbaceous
ornamental plants, it may be important to shorten their heights. So, mowing is required to enhance
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attractiveness of grasses.

4.5. Fence Construction Methods

In most cases, fencing is required, particularly when the cemetery is a kind of closed or amorphous
cemetery. The material that will be used for fencing should not influence visibility in the
town/city. Therefore, concreted-based metal frames should be used to build chain-link fences.
The fence shall be constructed in accordance with the details on the plans and as specified herein
using available materials, and all work shall be performed satisfactorily. The first thing during
fencing is to locate the position of the work by establishing and marking the property line or fence
line. The new fence shall be permanently tied to the terminals of existing fences. The finished
fence shall be plumb, taut, true to line and ground contour, and complete in every detail.
The work shall progress in this manner and at the close of the working day the newly constructed
fence shall be tied to the existing fence. Any openings in the fence shall be guarded when stock is
using the adjoining property. The following are important procedures to be followed. Refer part
vi, mumber 4.6(a-d), UGIS of 2015.

A. Clearing fence line:

The site of the fence shall be sufficiently cleared of obstructions, and surface irregularities
shall be graded so that the fence will conform to the general contour of the ground.

B. Removing existing fences:

When shown on the plans, the existing fences, which coincide with or are in a position to
interfere with the new fence location, shall be remove.

C . Installing posts:

The implementer shall fill, cut or trench where necessary to produce a smooth and
uniform ground surface so the bottom of the fabric is not less than 2.5 cm or more than
7.5 cm above the finished ground line. All posts shall be set plumb, true to line and grade.
Terminal posts, defined as end, corner, pull or gate posts, shall be set in concrete. The concrete
footing shall be a uniform thickness around the post and shall have a cone or dome shaped top.

D . Installing fabric:

Fabric shall not be attached to posts until the concrete footings have cured for at least five
21
 days. Fabric shall be securely attached to end, corner, gate and pull posts in accordance with
manufacturer’s recommendations. The fabric shall be attached to the tension wire with hog
rings spaced as shown on the plans. The fabric shall be attached to line posts with wire ties
or bands spaced in accordance with manufacturer’s recommendations. All fabric shall be
taut before attaching to line posts or tension wire.

 Barbed wire and support arm:

If the chain-link fence is required to be topped with barbed wire, the barbed wire support arm
shall be at a 45-degree angle; 5 degrees, from the vertical plane of the fence line extended
above the fence, and shall be fitted with clips, slots or other device for attaching three strands
of barbed wire to the arm. The barbed wire arm shall have sufficient strength to withstand a
weight of 115 kilograms applied at the outer strand of barbed wire without causing any
permanent deflection of the arm. Each strand of barbed wire shall be pulled taut to remove all
sag before the strand is attached to the extension arm.

A. Installing gates:
The gates shall be erected and hung on gate fittings. They shall be attached in such a manner
that the gate cannot be lifted off the hinges. Gates shall be erected to swing in the direction
indicated and shall be provided with gate stops.

B. Electrical grounds:
Electrical grounds shall be constructed (where a power line passes over the fence) at 150
meters intervals).

C. leaning up:
Upon completion of the work, the field worker shall remove construction tools, apparatus,
equipment, unused materials and supplies, and personnel from the project site.

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 PART FIVE
PLANT HEALTH MANEGMENT

Care should be taken to prevent plants from pests and disease to avoid loss of the entire effort.
Therefore, field workers and supervisors ought to get training on identification of at least symptoms
of disease and pest damage on different plants. Then, there should be clear line of reporting
mechanism that the field workers or supervisors will report to the responsible authority that they
observe symptoms of disease and pest infestation. It is highly recommended that the case should be
reported as soon as possible to control the problem at ease; otherwise, the problem may get beyond
control or damage most of the resources.

There should be plant disease and pest management institutions accessible areas to the urban centers
to provide the required technical support. Agricultural research centers an universities may be
delegated by the ministry to deliver this service to towns and cities in their vicinity.

5.1. Replacement planting

When some plants die or are lost because of different reasons, replacement planting is important to
fill the gap and revive aesthetic and environmental services of the plants lost. This will be done
following the rainy time of the year. The species to be replanted should be selected based on
suitability assessment.

5.1.1. Tree Felling and Removal

The following procedures should be followed when felling and removing trees.
A . a site assessment shall be done before cutting and removing any tree. The tree care worker and
their supervisor shall consider the following factors in their plan to safely remove the tree.
o Surrounding area including other trees
o Species, height, and shape of tree
o Lean of tree
o Loose limb and other overhead materials
o Decayed or weak spots (be aware of additional hazards if these conditions exist in the

23
 hinge area)
o Wind force and direction
o Fall location relative to persons, property, and electrical conductors

B. A job briefing shall be held with all crew members before commencing the work.

o Workers shall be positioned and their duties organized so that the actions of one worker
will not create a hazard for any other worker.
C . A planned escape route for all workers shall be prepared before cutting any standing tree or
trunk.
D. The preferable escape route is 45 degrees on either side of a line drawn opposite the
intended direction of the fall.
E. The chain saw operator shall use this path for egress once the cut has been completed.
F. Workers not directly involved shall be clear of the work area.
G. Workers returning to the work area shall not enter until the chain saw operator has
acknowledged that it is safe to do so.
I. All limbs shall be trimmed to a height and width sufficient to allow the tree to fall clear of
any wires and other objects in the vicinity.
J. Wedges, block and tackle, rope, wire cable (except where an electrical hazard exists) or
other appropriate devices shall be used when there is a danger that the tree or trees being
removed may fall in the wrong direction or damage property.
K. Notches shall be used on all trees and trunks over 5 inches in diameter at breast height.
L. Notches and back cuts shall be made at a height above the highest ground level to enable
chain saw operators to safely begin the cut, control the tree or trunk and have freedom of
movement for escape.
M. Notches shall be 45 degrees or greater and large enough to guide the fall of trees and
trunks to prevent splitting.
N. Notch depth should not exceed one-third of the diameter of the tree.
O. The back cut shall not penetrate into the predetermined hinge area.
P. With a conventional notch, the back cut shall be 2.5 - 5 cm above the apex of the notch to
provide an adequate platform to prevent kickback of the tree or trunk. With an open-face
notch (greater than 70 degrees), the back cut should be at the same level as the apex of the
notch.

Q. The two cuts that form the notch shall not cross at the point where they meet. Before commencing
24
 the back cut, there shall be a command such as “stand clear” from the tree care worker operating
the chain saw and a response such as “all clear” from the workers supporting the removal
operation.

R. Once the back cut has been completed, the chain saw operator shall immediately move a safe
distance away from the tree or trunk on the planned escape route.
S. Visual contact should be maintained with the tree or trunk until it is on the ground.

PART SIX
POLICY & LEGAL FRAMEWORKS & CAPACITY REQUIREMENTS

6.1. Relevant Policies and Legal Frameworks

The environmental pollution control proclamation, environmental law of Ethiopia, the climate
resilient urban greening strategy of Ethiopia and other legal documents provide an opportunity
for supporting green infrastructure development, in which cemeterys and holiday celebration
areas play pivotal role in reducing the adverse effects of climate change. Refer part I scope and
part III, UGIS 2015

6.1.1. Capacity Requirements for the Implementation of the Manual

People should have educational background of master’s degree (coordinator) and below.
Technical and vocational training graduates will be required to do most of the jobs. In addition,
the following materials resources need to be provided.

6.2. Resource requirement:

The resource that will be used during greening activities of cemeteries are put in the following

25
 assortment based on their purpose.
A. Surveying instruments:total station, measuring tape, compass, clinometers, water level, etc.
B. Site preparation:spade (shovel), axe, hoe, rake, cart, compactor, tractor, etc.
C. Watering equipment: sprinklers, hoses, trucks, watering cans, water tanker, generator, etc.
D. 5.Plant management: Scissors, pruning saw, mower, sickle, etc.
E. Lighting: Electricity, generator, etc.
F. Safety tools: Helmets, boots, protective clothes, first aid kits, gloves, etc.

Helmet First aid kit Groves boots

6.3. Manpower Requirement

To implement this manual at a town or sub-city level, 1 urban forestry expert, 2 field assistants, 4
daily laborers, a carpenter, and two TVET graduates (one in road construction and one in electricity)
are required. Refer part vi, 4.6(a-d), UGIS.

6.4. Logistics and Finance Requirement

Activities Required Unit Unity Man Remark

materials cost day
(birr) (MD)
Site Cutting and M3 65-90 750
preparation filling MD/ha
(earth work) Leveling M2 15-30 600
MD/ha

26
 Curve stone Cement, sand and Meter 80-120 6 Cost for both labor
Hardscape elements

concrete stone linear and the required

installation and

Tiles Cobblestone and 2

(ML) 420-480 6 Cost for both labor
materials
construction

M
terrazzo, ceramic and the required
Water line Pipe and fixtures ML 108 4MD/500 Cost for both labor and
materials
installation ML materials
Light Wire, switch, bulbs Point/No. 90-250 4MD/500 Cost for both labor
installation and poles ML and the required
Furnishing Seating and bins Spot 5000-7500 16 Cost for
materials both labor and the
required materials.

Lawn grass Grass M2 87-120 500

elements

installation MD/ha
and the required
Shrub planting Ornamental shrubs No. 5-10 1 MD=50 Cost to purchase
trees shrubs is not included
installation

Flower planting Flower plants M2 5-10 20MD/ha Cost to purchase

Softcape

flowers is not
Tree planting Ornamental or No 5-10 1 MD/50 Cost to purchase trees
included
shade trees is not included
Watering trees M2 2.80- 20MD/ha Cost for watering and
8/month the water

Weeding M2 5 20MD/ha Cost only for weeding

Maintenance ETB/mont
Fertilizing Fertilizers M2 3.5-
h 20MD/ha Cost for fertilizing
6/month and the fertilizer
Pruning Pruning tools No. 5-10 1MD/32 Cost only for small
trees and medium trees
Turf grass Grass mowing M2 7 Cost only for grass
pruning
mowing machine ETB/mont 20MD/ha mowing and the rent of
h the machine

Fencing Metal, wooden M2 1250 60MD/ha Cost for laborers and

fence, the material
concrete, cement

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 6.5. Systems Requirement

Cemeteries are public spaces where everybody should have access. Development and
maintenance of such a public facility need to invite participation of the residents at different
levels from planning through implementation to monitoring and evaluation. Recent
development initiatives are participatory by their nature. This manual will exploit the
emerging experience of public participation to be successful.

6.6. Institutional Arrangement

Public participation will be organized through both formal and informal arrangements like
Edir, 1:5 and others.

6.7. Information Technology

Nowadays, technology is becoming an engine of any development initiative. So, global

positioning systems (GPS), geographic information systems (GIS) and drawing applications
like AutoCAD and Archaic will

Effective date
This Ethiopia national Manual for Cemetry management shall be entered into force
as of January, 2016.

H.E Mekuria Haile

Minister for Ministry of Urban Development & Housing

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 REFERENCES

1. Ethiopia’s National Urban Green Infrastructure Standards, second draft, nd.

2. Gilbert L. (1980). A grave look at history. John Ferguson, Sydney.
3. http://www.funeralassistant.com/consumerinfo/cemetery.htm
4. Price G.A. (1979). The vegetation of Duck River and Rookwood Cemetery, Auburn (with a list
of species), (unpublished).

Appendix: Species Description

1. Acalypha wilkesiana

A native of the East Indies and the Pacific, this is one of the most striking
foliage shrubs and is widely used by tropical gardeners. Cultivars of Acalypha
wilkesiana, which can grow as tall as 2 meters, are found in a wide variety of
colors: green and white, green and yellow, red, bronze, coppery, or brown.
The leaves also vary in form.

2. Almeria (Frangipani - Temple Tree)

Frangipani is among the easiest of tropical trees to propagate

from seeds, cutting, and air-layering, which is perhaps one
reason why this native of New World quickly spread to other
warm-weather regions. Another is the beauty of its fragant,
five- petaled flowers, which are used as offerings in both
Buddhist and Hindu ceremonies; it is also planted in Muslim
cemeteries in Malaysia and Indonesia. The small to medium-
sized tree was named after the French botanist Charles
Plumier, who made tree voyages to the Caribbean area in the
17th century.

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3. Codiaeum variegate

The first Coliseum reached England from the East Indies in 1804. Other soon followed, with leaves
of different colors and shapes, and the shrub became a common greenhouse ornamental. Codiaeum
crossed Atlantic towards the end of the 19th century and became the most popular of all potted
house plants. New hydrides continue to be introduced, particularly in Thailand where they are
regarded as bearers of good luck as well as being decorative. Coliseum varies in size from about 1
to around 2.5 meters high and also displays at least six distinct leaf shapes, from large and oval to
long and narrow. The color combinations are almost as wide-ranging as names that ha been given
to the numerous hybrids

30