AN INSIGHT OF

MECHANICAL WORKSHOP
NORTH EASTERN RAILWAY IZATNAGAR BAREILLY

SUBMITTED TO: - SUBMITTED BY:-

MR. MANOJ KUMAR SHARMA ROHIT KUMAR
S.S.E/ BTC/ CHIEF INSPECTOR B.TECH. (IIIrd YEAR MECHANICAL)
IZZATNAGAR WORKSHOP BAREILLY K.I.E.T. GHAZIABAD

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 ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

I ROHIT KUMAR of B.TECH. (MECHANICAL ENGG. IIIrd YEAR). I

would like to say thanks firstly to MR. MANOJ KUMAR SHARMA SIR
(S.S.E/ BTC/ CHIEF INSPECTOR IZZATNAGAR WORKSHOP
BAREILLY). who guided me through this project. and thanks to my
parents who gave full support to me in this project and at last I would
thanks to my friends who helped me.

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 CONTENT
01. INTRODUCTION TO INDIAN RAILWAY

02. PRODUCTION UNITS

03. PARTS OF LOCOMOTIVE

04. FUEL SAVING DEVICE ON DIESEL LOCOMOTIVE

05. ANTI COLLISION DEVICE

06. LAYOUT OF WORKSHOP

07. INFRASTRUCTURE/PRESENT ACTIVITIES/FUTURE PLANS

08. LIST OF VARIOUS SHOPS

09. WHEEL SHOP

10. INTRODUCTION TO TRAIN WHEEL

11. OPERATIONS AND MACHINES IN THE SHOP

12. WHEEL DEFECTS

13. BLACKSMITHY AND SHEET METAL SHOP

14. INTRODUCTION TO FORGING AND SHEET METAL

15. FLOWCHART

16. OPERATION AND MACHINE IN THE SHOP

17. TESTING OF SPRING

18. POWER HAMMER
19. PROFILE CUTTING MACHINE
20. CUTTING NOZZLE FOR MANUAL CUTTING BLOW PIPE

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INTRODUCTION TO INDIAN RAILWAYS
INDIAN RAILWAY
Indian Railways is an Indian owned enterprise owned and operated by the Government of
India through the Ministry of Railways. It is one of the world's largest railway networks comprising
115,000 km (71,000 mi) of track over a route of 65,436 km (40,660 mi) and 7,172 stations. In 2014-
15, IR carried 8.397 billion passengers annually or more than 23 million passengers a day (roughly
half of whom were suburban passengers) and 1050.18 million tons of freight in the year. In 2014–
2015 Indian Railways had revenues of 1634.50 billion (US$26 billion) which consists of 1069.27
billion (US$17 billion) from freight and 402.80 billion (US$6.4 billion) from passengers tickets.

Railways were first introduced to India in the year 1853 from Mumbai to Thane. In 1951 the systems
were nationalized as one unit, the Indian Railways, becoming one of the largest networks in the
world. IR operates both long distance and suburban rail systems on a multi-gauge network
of broad, metered narrow gauges. It also owns locomotive and coach production facilities at several
places in India and are assigned codes identifying their gauge, kind of power and type of operation.
Its operations cover twenty nine states and seven union territories and also provides limited
international services to Nepal, Bangladesh and Pakistan.

Indian Railways is the world's seventh largest commercial or utility employer, by number of
employees, with over 1.307 million employees as of last published figures in 2013. As for rolling
stock, IR holds over 239,281 Freight Wagons, 62,924 Passenger Coaches and
9,013 Locomotives (43 steam, 5,345 diesel and 4,568 electric locomotives).[5] The trains have a 5
digit numbering system and runs 12,617 passenger trains and 7421 freight trains daily.[6] As of 31
March 2013, 20,884 km (12,977 mi) (31.9%) of the total 65,436 km (40,660 mi) route length was
electrified. Since 1960, almost all electrified sections on IR use 25,000 Volt AC traction through
overhead catenary delivery.

PRODUCTION UNITS
Indian Railways manufactures much of its rolling stock and heavy engineering components at its six
manufacturing plants, called Production Units, which are managed directly by the Ministry. Popular
rolling stock builders such as CLW and DLW for electric and diesel locomotives; ICF and RCF for
passenger coaches are Production Units of Indian Railways. Over the years, Indian Railways has
not only achieved self-sufficiency in production of rolling stock in the country but also exported
rolling stock to other countries. Each of these production units is headed by a general manager,
who also reports directly to the Railway Board. The production units are:-

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 YEAR
NAME ABBR. LOCATION MAIN PROUCTS
ESTABLISHED

Bharat Wagon and Passenger Coaches

Engineering BWEL 1978 Muzaffarpur (Bihar) (manufacturing +
Muzaffarpur maintenance).

Jamalpur
Diesel/Electric Loco
Locomotive JLW 1862 Jamalpur (Bihar)
maintenance.
Workshop

Golden Rock Diesel-electric

GOC 1928 Trichy (Tamil Nadu)
Railway Workshop Locomotives

Chittaranjan Chittaranjan,Asansol
CLW 1947 Electric Locomotives
Locomotive Works (WestBengal)

Diesel Locomotive Varanasi

DLW 1961 Diesel Locomotives
Works (Uttarpradesh)

Diesel-Loco
Diesel-electric
Modernisation DMW 1981 Patiala(Punjab)
Locomotives
Works

Integral Coach
ICF 1952 Chennai(Tamil Nadu) Passenger coaches
Factory

Rail Coach Factory RCF 1986 Kapurthala Passenger coaches

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 YEAR
NAME ABBR. LOCATION MAIN PROUCTS
ESTABLISHED

Rail Spring Passenger coach

RSK 1988 Gwalior
Karkhana springs

Railway wheels and

Rail Wheel Factory RWF 1984 Bangalore
axles

Rail Wheel Factory RWF 2012 Chhapra Railway wheels

Rail Coach Factory, Passenger coaches

RCF 2012 Raebareli
Raebareli

LOCOMOTIVES OF INDIA
A locomotive or engine is a rail transport vehicle that provides the motive power for a train. The
word originates from the Latin loco – "from a place", ablative of locus, "place" + Medieval
Latin motivus, "causing motion", and is a shortened form of the term locomotive engine,[1] first used
in the early 19th century to distinguish between mobile and stationary steam engines.

A locomotive has no payload capacity of its own, and its sole purpose is to move the train along the
tracks.[2] In contrast, some trains have self-propelled payload-carrying vehicles. These are not
normally considered locomotives, and may be referred to as multiple units, motor
coaches or railcars. The use of these self-propelled vehicles is increasingly common for passenger
trains, but rare for freight (see Cargo Sprinter). Vehicles which provide motive power to haul an
unpowered train, but are not generally considered locomotives because they have payload space or
are rarely detached from their trains, are known as power cars.

Traditionally, locomotives pull trains from the front. Increasingly common outside North America
is push-pull operation, where one locomotive pulls the train from the front and another locomotive
pushes it from behind. In this arrangement the locomotive at the rear of the train is controlled from a
control cab at the front of the train. Push-pull operation is generally infeasible in North America as,

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even if mid-train or tail-end "helpers" are provided, the front-end might have over 26,000
horsepower (19,000 kW), net for traction, whereas the mid-train and/or tail-end "helpers" might have
only 9,000 horsepower (6,700 kW), net for traction.
The locomotives of India presently consist of Electric and Diesel locomotives. Steam
locomotives are no longer used in India, except in heritage trains. A locomotive is also
called loco or engine.

The Bengal Sappers of the Indian Army were the first to run a steam locomotive in India. The steam
locomotive named ‘Thomason’ ran with two wagons for carrying earth from Roorkee to Piran
Kaliyar in 1851, two years before the first passenger train ran from Bombay to Thane in 1853.

PARTS OF A DIESEL-ELECTRIC LOCOMOTIVE

DIESEL ENGINE
This is the main power source for the locomotive. It comprises a large cylinder block, with the
cylinders arranged in a straight line or in a V. The engine rotates the drive shaft at up to 1,000 rpm
and this drives the various items needed to power the locomotive. As the transmission is electric,
the engine is used as the power source for the electricity generator or alternator, as it is called
nowadays.

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MAIN ALTERNATOR
The diesel engine drives the main alternator which provides the power to move the train. The
alternator generates AC electricity which is used to provide power for the traction motors mounted
on the trucks (bogies). In older locomotives, the alternator was a DC machine, called a generator.
It produced direct current which was used to provide power for DC traction motors. Many of these
machines are still in regular use. The next development was the replacement of the generator by
the alternator but still using DC traction motors. The AC output is rectified to give the DC required
for the motors. For more details on AC and DC traction

AUXILIARY ALTERNATOR
Locomotives used to operate passenger trains are equipped with an auxiliary alternator. This
provides AC power for lighting, heating, air conditioning, dining facilities etc. on the train. The
output is transmitted along the train through an auxiliary power line. In the US, it is known as "head
end power" or "hotel power". In the UK, air conditioned passenger coaches get what is called
electric train supply (ETS) from the auxiliary alternator.

MOTOR BLOWER
The diesel engine also drives a motor blower. As its name suggests, the motor blower provides air
which is blown over the traction motors to keep them cool during periods of heavy work. The
blower is mounted inside the locomotive body but the motors are on the trucks, so the blower output
is connected to each of the motors through flexible ducting. The blower output also cools the
alternators. Some designs have separate blowers for the group of motors on each truck and others
for the alternators. Whatever the arrangement, a modern locomotive has a complex air
management system which monitors the temperature of the various rotating machines in the
locomotive and adjusts the flow of air accordingly.

AIR INTAKES
The air for cooling the locomotive's motors is drawn in from outside the locomotive. It has to be
filtered to remove dust and other impurities and its flow regulated by temperature, both inside and
outside the locomotive. The air management system has to take account of the wide range of
temperatures from the possible +40°C of summer to the possible -40°C of winter.

RECTIFIERS/INVERTERS
The output from the main alternator is AC but it can be used in a locomotive with either DC or AC
traction motors. DC motors were the traditional type used for many years but, in the last 10 years,

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AC motors have become standard for new locomotives. They are cheaper to build and cost less to
maintain and, with electronic management can be very finely controlled. To see more on the
difference between DC and AC traction technology.

To convert the AC output from the main alternator to DC, rectifiers are required. If the motors are
DC, the output from the rectifiers is used directly. If the motors are AC, the DC output from the
rectifiers is converted to 3-phase AC for the traction motors.

In the US, there are some variations in how the inverters are configured. GM EMD relies on one
inverter per truck, while GE uses one inverter per axle - both systems have their merits. EMD's
system links the axles within each truck in parallel, ensuring wheel slip control is maximised among
the axles equally. Parallel control also means even wheel wear even between axles. However, if
one inverter (i.e. one truck) fails then the unit is only able to produce 50 per cent of its tractive
effort. One inverter per axle is more complicated, but the GE view is that individual axle control can
provide the best tractive effort. If an inverter fails, the tractive effort for that axle is lost, but full
tractive effort is still available through the other five inverters. By controlling each axle individually,
keeping wheel diameters closely matched for optimum performance is no longer necessary. This
paragraph sourced from e-mail by unknown correspondent 3 November 1997.

ELECTRONIC CONTROLS
Almost every part of the modern locomotive's equipment has some form of electronic control.
These are usually collected in a control cubicle near the cab for easy access. The controls will
usually include a maintenance management system of some sort which can be used to download
data to a portable or hand-held computer.

CONTROL STAND
This is the principal man-machine interface, known as a control desk in the UK or control stand in
the US. The common US type of stand is positioned at an angle on the left side of the driving
position and, it is said, is much preferred by drivers to the modern desk type of control layout usual
in Europe and now being offered on some locomotives in the US.

CAB

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The standard configuration of US-designed locomotives is to have a cab at one end of the
locomotive only. Since most the US structure gauge is large enough to allow the locomotive to have
a walkway on either side, there is enough visibility for the locomotive to be worked in reverse.
However, it is normal for the locomotive to operate with the cab forwards. In the UK and many
European countries, locomotives are full width to the structure gauge and cabs are therefore
provided at both ends.

BATTERIES
Just like an automobile, the diesel engine needs a battery to start it and to provide electrical power
for lights and controls when the engine is switched off and the alternator is not running.

TRACTION MOTORT
Since the diesel-electric locomotive uses electric transmission, traction motors are provided on the
axles to give the final drive. These motors were traditionally DC but the development of modern
power and control electronics has led to the introduction of 3-phase AC motors. For a description of
how this technology works,. There are between four and six motors on most diesel-electric
locomotives. A modern AC motor with air blowing can provide up to 1,000 hp.

PINION/GEAR
The traction motor drives the axle through a reduction gear of a range between 3 to 1 (freight) and 4
to 1 (passenger).

FUEL TANK
A diesel locomotive has to carry its own fuel around with it and there has to be enough for a
reasonable length of trip. The fuel tank is normally under the loco frame and will have a capacity of
say 1,000 imperial gallons (UK Class 59, 3,000 hp) or 5,000 US gallons in a General Electric
AC4400CW 4,400 hp locomotive. The new AC6000s have 5,500 gallon tanks. In addition to fuel,
the locomotive will carry around, typically about 300 US gallons of cooling water and 250 gallons of
lubricating oil for the diesel engine.

AIR RESERVOIRS
Air reservoirs containing compressed air at high pressure are required for the train braking and
some other systems on the locomotive. These are often mounted next to the fuel tank under the
floor of the locomotive.

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AIR COMPRESSOR
The air compressor is required to provide a constant supply of compressed air for the locomotive
and train brakes. In the US, it is standard practice to drive the compressor off the diesel engine
drive shaft. In the UK, the compressor is usually electrically driven and can therefore be mounted
anywhere. The Class 60 compressor is under the frame, whereas the Class 37 has the
compressors in the nose.

DRIVESHAFT
The main output from the diesel engine is transmitted by the drive shaft to the alternators at one
end and the radiator fans and compressor at the other end.

GEAR BOX
The radiator and its cooling fan is often located in the roof of the locomotive. Drive to the fan is
therefore through a gearbox to change the direction of the drive upwards.

RADIATOR AND RADIATOR FAN

The radiator works the same way as in an automobile. Water is distributed around the engine block
to keep the temperature within the most efficient range for the engine. The water is cooled by
passing it through a radiator blown by a fan driven by the diesel engine.

TURBO CHARGING
The amount of power obtained from a cylinder in a diesel engine depends on how much fuel can be
burnt in it. The amount of fuel which can be burnt depends on the amount of air available in the
cylinder. So, if you can get more air into the cylinder, more fuel will be burnt and you will get more
power out of your ignition. Turbo charging is used to increase the amount of air pushed into each
cylinder. The turbocharger is driven by exhaust gas from the engine. This gas drives a fan which,
in turn, drives a small compressor which pushes the additional air into the cylinder. Turbo charging
gives a 50% increase in engine power.

The main advantage of the turbocharger is that it gives more power with no increase in fuel costs
because it uses exhaust gas as drive power. It does need additional maintenance, however, so
there are some type of lower power locomotives which are built without it.

SAND BOX
Locomotives always carry sand to assist adhesion in bad rail conditions. Sand is not often provided

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on multiple unit trains because the adhesion requirements are lower and there are normally more
driven axles.

TRUCK FRAME
This is the part (called the bogie in the UK) carrying the wheels and traction motors of the
locomotive

MECHANICAL TRANSMISSION
A diesel-mechanical locomotive is the simplest type of diesel locomotive. As the name suggests, a
mechanical transmission on a diesel locomotive consists a direct mechanical link between the
diesel engine and the wheels. In the example below, the diesel engine is in the 350-500 hp range
and the transmission is similar to that of an automobile with a four speed gearbox. Most of the
parts are similar to the diesel-electric locomotive but there are some variations in design mentioned
below.

FLUID COUPLING
In a diesel-mechanical transmission, the main drive shaft is coupled to the engine by a fluid
coupling. This is a hydraulic clutch, consisting of a case filled with oil, a rotating disc with curved
blades driven by the engine and another connected to the road wheels. As the engine turns the
fan, the oil is driven by one disc towards the other. This turns under the force of the oil and thus
turns the drive shaft. Of course, the startup is gradual until the fan speed is almost matched by the
blades. The whole system acts like an automatic clutch to allow a graduated start for the
locomotive.

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GEAR BOX
This does the same job as that on an automobile. It varies the gear ratio between the engine and
the road wheels so that the appropriate level of power can be applied to the wheels. Gear change
is manual. There is no need for a separate clutch because the functions of a clutch are already
provided in the fluid coupling.

FINAL DRIVE
The diesel-mechanical locomotive uses a final drive similar to that of a steam engine. The wheels
are coupled to each other to provide more adhesion. The output from the 4-speed gearbox is
coupled to a final drive and reversing gearbox which is provided with a transverse drive shaft and
balance weights. This is connected to the driving wheels by connecting rods.

HYDRAULIC TRANSMISSION
Hydraulic transmission works on the same principal as the fluid coupling but it allows a wider range
of "slip" between the engine and wheels. It is known as a "torque converter". When the train speed
has increased sufficiently to match the engine speed, the fluid is drained out of the torque converter
so that the engine is virtually coupled directly to the locomotive wheels. It is virtually direct because
the coupling is usually a fluid coupling, to give some "slip". Higher speed locomotives use two or
three torque converters in a sequence similar to gear changing in a mechanical transmission and
some have used a combination of torque converters and gears.

Some designs of diesel-hydraulic locomotives had two diesel engines and two transmission
systems, one for each bogie. The design was poplar in Germany (the V200 series of locomotives,
for example) in the 1950s and was imported into parts of the UK in the 1960s. However, it did not
work well in heavy or express locomotive designs and has largely been replaced by diesel-electric
transmission.

WHEEL SLIP
Wheels slip is the bane of the driver trying to get a train away smoothly. The tenuous contact
between steel wheel and steel rail is one of the weakest parts of the railway system. Traditionally,
the only cure has been a combination of the skill of the driver and the selective use of sand to
improve the adhesion. Today, modern electronic control has produced a very effective answer to
this age old problem The system is called creep control.

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Extensive research into wheel slip showed that, even after a wheel set starts to slip, there is still a
considerable amount of useable adhesion available for traction. The adhesion is available up to a
peak, when it will rapidly fall away to an uncontrolled spin. Monitoring the early stages of slip can
be used to adjust the power being applied to the wheels so that the adhesion is kept within the
limits of the "creep" towards the peak level before the uncontrolled spin sets in.

The slip is measured by detecting the locomotive speed by Doppler radar (instead of the usual
method using the rotating wheels) and comparing it to the motor current to see if the wheel rotation
matches the ground speed. If there is a disparity between the two, the motor current is adjusted to
keep the slip within the "creep" range and keep the tractive effort at the maximum level possible
under the creep conditions.

DIESEL MULTIPLE UNITS (DMUS)

The diesel engines used in DMUs work on exactly the same principles as those used in
locomotives, except that the transmission is normally mechanical with some form of gear change
system. DMU engines are smaller and several are used on a train, depending on the
configuration. The diesel engine is often mounted under the car floor and on its side because of the
restricted space available. Vibration being transmitted into the passenger saloon has always been
a problem but some of the newer designs are very good in this respect.

There are some diesel-electric DMUs around and these normally have a separate engine
compartment containing the engine and the generator or alternator.

THE DIESEL ENGINE

The diesel engine was first patented by Dr Rudolf Diesel (1858-1913) in Germany in 1892 and he
actually got a successful engine working by 1897. By 1913, when he died, his engine was in use
on locomotives and he had set up a facility with Sulzer in Switzerland to manufacture them. His
death was mysterious in that he simply disappeared from a ship taking him to London.

The diesel engine is a compression-ignition engine, as opposed to the petrol (or gasoline) engine,
which is a spark-ignition engine. The spark ignition engine uses an electrical spark from a "spark
plug" to ignite the fuel in the engine's cylinders, whereas the fuel in the diesel engine's cylinders is
ignited by the heat caused by air being suddenly compressed in the cylinder. At this stage, the air
gets compressed into an area 1/25th of its original volume. This would be expressed as a
compression ratio of 25 to 1. A compression ratio of 16 to 1 will give an air pressure of 500 lbs/in²
(35.5 bar) and will increase the air temperature to over 800°F (427°C).

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The advantage of the diesel engine over the petrol engine is that it has a higher thermal capacity (it
gets more work out of the fuel), the fuel is cheaper because it is less refined than petrol and it can
do heavy work under extended periods of overload. It can however, in a high speed form, be
sensitive to maintenance and noisy, which is why it is still not popular for passenger automobiles.

DIESEL ENGINE TYPES

There are two types of diesel engine, the two-stroke engine and the four-stroke engine. As the
names suggest, they differ in the number of movements of the piston required to complete each
cycle of operation. The simplest is the two-stroke engine. It has no valves. The exhaust from the
combustion and the air for the new stroke is drawn in through openings in the cylinder wall as the
piston reaches the bottom of the down stroke. Compression and combustion occurs on the
upstroke. As one might guess, there are twice as many revolutions for the two-stroke engine as for
equivalent power in a four-stroke engine.

The four-stroke engine works as follows: Down stroke 1 - air intake, upstroke 1 - compression,
down stroke 2 - power, upstroke 2 - exhaust. Valves are required for air intake and exhaust, usually
two for each. In this respect it is more similar to the modern petrol engine than the 2-stroke design.

In the UK, both types of diesel engine were used but the 4-stroke became the standard. The UK
Class 55 "Deltic" (not now in regular main line service) unusually had a two-stroke engine. In the
US, the General Electric (GE) built locomotives have 4-stroke engines whereas General Motors
(GM) always used 2-stroke engines until the introduction of their SD90MAC 6000 hp "H series"
engine, which is a 4-stroke design.

The reason for using one type or the other is really a question of preference. However, it can be
said that the 2-stroke design is simpler than the 4-stroke but the 4-stroke engine is more fuel
efficient.

SIZE DOES COUNT

Basically, the more power you need, the bigger the engine has to be. Early diesel engines were
less than 100 horse power (hp) but today the US is building 6000 hp locomotives. For a UK
locomotive of 3,300 hp (Class 58), each cylinder will produce about 200 hp, and a modern engine
can double this if the engine is turbocharged.

The maximum rotational speed of the engine when producing full power will be about 1000 rpm
(revolutions per minute) and the engine will idle at about 400 rpm. These relatively low speeds

15
mean that the engine design is heavy, as opposed to a high speed, lightweight engine. However,
the UK HST (High Speed Train, developed in the 1970s) engine has a speed of 1,500 rpm and this
is regarded as high speed in the railway diesel engine category. The slow, heavy engine used in
railway locomotives will give low maintenance requirements and an extended life.

There is a limit to the size of the engine which can be accommodated within the railway loading
gauge, so the power of a single locomotive is limited. Where additional power is required, it has
become usual to add locomotives. In the US, where freight trains run into tens of thousands of tons
weight, four locomotives at the head of a train are common and several additional ones in the
middle or at the end are not unusual.

TO V OR NOT TO V
Diesel engines can be designed with the cylinders "in-line", "double banked" or in a "V". The double
banked engine has two rows of cylinders in line. Most diesel locomotives now have V form
engines. This means that the cylinders are split into two sets, with half forming one side of the V. A
V8 engine has 4 cylinders set at an angle forming one side of the V with the other set of four
forming the other side. The crankshaft, providing the drive, is at the base of the V. The V12 was a
popular design used in the UK. In the US, V16 is usual for freight locomotives and there are some
designs with V20 engines.

Engines used for DMU (diesel multiple unit) trains in the UK are often mounted under the floor of
the passenger cars. This restricts the design to in-line engines, which have to be mounted on their
side to fit in the restricted space.

An unusual engine design was the UK 3,300 hp Class 55 locomotive, which had the cylinders
arranged in three sets of opposed Vs in an triangle, in the form of an upturned delta, hence the
name "Deltic".

STARTING
A diesel engine is started (like an automobile) by turning over the crankshaft until the cylinders "fire"
or begin combustion. The starting can be done electrically or pneumatically. Pneumatic starting
was used for some engines. Compressed air was pumped into the cylinders of the engine until it
gained sufficient speed to allow ignition, then fuel was applied to fire the engine. The compressed
air was supplied by a small auxiliary engine or by high pressure air cylinders carried by the
locomotive.

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Electric starting is now standard. It works the same way as for an automobile, with batteries
providing the power to turn a starter motor which turns over the main engine. In older locomotives
fitted with DC generators instead of AC alternators, the generator was used as a starter motor by
applying battery power to it.

GOVERNOR
Once a diesel engine is running, the engine speed is monitored and controlled through a governor.
The governor ensures that the engine speed stays high enough to idle at the right speed and that
the engine speed will not rise too high when full power is demanded. The governor is a simple
mechanical device which first appeared on steam engines. It operates on a diesel engine as shown
in the diagram below.

The governor consists of a rotating shaft, which is driven by the diesel engine. A pair of flyweights
is linked to the shaft and they rotate as it rotates. The centrifugal force caused by the rotation
causes the weights to be thrown outwards as the speed of the shaft rises. If the speed falls the
weights move inwards.

The flyweights are linked to a collar fitted around the shaft by a pair of arms. As the weights move
out, so the collar rises on the shaft. If the weights move inwards, the collar moves down the shaft.
The movement of the collar is used to operate the fuel rack lever controlling the amount of fuel
supplied to the engine by the injectors.

FUEL INJECTION
Ignition is a diesel engine is achieved by compressing air inside a cylinder until it gets very hot (say
400°C, almost 800°F) and then injecting a fine spray of fuel oil to cause a miniature explosion. The
explosion forces down the piston in the cylinder and this turns the crankshaft. To get the fine spray
needed for successful ignition the fuel has to be pumped into the cylinder at high pressure. The
fuel pump is operated by a cam driven off the engine. The fuel is pumped into an injector, which
gives the fine spray of fuel required in the cylinder for combustion.

FUEL CONTROL
In an automobile engine, the power is controlled by the amount of fuel/air mixture applied to the
cylinder. The mixture is mixed outside the cylinder and then applied by a throttle valve. In a diesel
engine the amount of air applied to the cylinder is constant so power is regulated by varying the fuel
input. The fine spray of fuel injected into each cylinder has to be regulated to achieve the amount

17
of power required. Regulation is achieved by varying the fuel sent by the fuel pumps to the
injectors. The control arrangement is shown in the diagram left.

The amount of fuel being applied to the cylinders is varied by altering the effective delivery rate of
the piston in the injector pumps. Each injector has its own pump, operated by an engine-driven
cam, and the pumps are aligned in a row so that they can all be adjusted together. The adjustment
is done by a toothed rack (called the "fuel rack") acting on a toothed section of the pump
mechanism. As the fuel rack moves, so the toothed section of the pump rotates and provides a
drive to move the pump piston round inside the pump. Moving the piston round, alters the size of
the channel available inside the pump for fuel to pass through to the injector delivery pipe.

The fuel rack can be moved either by the driver operating the power controller in the cab or by the
governor. If the driver asks for more power, the control rod moves the fuel rack to set the pump
pistons to allow more fuel to the injectors. The engine will increase power and the governor will
monitor engine speed to ensure it does not go above the predetermined limit. The limits are fixed
by springs (not shown) limiting the weight movement.

ENGINE CONTROL DEVELOPMENT

So far we have seen a simple example of diesel engine control but the systems used by most
locomotives in service today are more sophisticated. To begin with, the drivers control was
combined with the governor and hydraulic control was introduced. One type of governor uses oil to
control the fuel racks hydraulically and another uses the fuel oil pumped by a gear pump driven by
the engine. Some governors are also linked to the turbo charging system to ensure that fuel does
not increase before enough turbocharged air is available. In the most modern systems, the
governor is electronic and is part of a complete engine management system.

POWER CONTROL
The diesel engine in a diesel-electric locomotive provides the drive for the main alternator which, in
turn, provides the power required for the traction motors. We can see from this therefore, that the
power required from the diesel engine is related to the power required by the motors. So, if we
want more power from the motors, we must get more current from the alternator so the engine
needs to run faster to generate it. Therefore, to get the optimum performance from the locomotive,
we must link the control of the diesel engine to the power demands being made on the alternator.

18
In the days of generators, a complex electro-mechanical system was developed to achieve the
feedback required to regulate engine speed according to generator demand. The core of the
system was a load regulator, basically a variable resistor which was used to very the excitation of
the generator so that its output matched engine speed. The control sequence (simplified) was as
follows:

1. Driver moves the power controller to the full power position

2. An air operated piston actuated by the controller moves a lever, which closes a switch to supply a
low voltage to the load regulator motor.
3. The load regulator motor moves the variable resistor to increase the main generator field strength
and therefore its output.
4. The load on the engine increases so its speed falls and the governor detects the reduced speed.
5. The governor weights drop and cause the fuel rack servo system to actuate.
6. The fuel rack moves to increase the fuel supplied to the injectors and therefore the power from
the engine.
7. The lever (mentioned in 2 above) is used to reduce the pressure of the governor spring.
8. When the engine has responded to the new control and governor settings, it and the generator
will be producing more power.

On locomotives with an alternator, the load regulation is done electronically. Engine speed is
measured like modern speedometers, by counting the frequency of the gear teeth driven by the
engine, in this case, the starter motor gearwheel. Electrical control of the fuel injection is another
improvement now adopted for modern engines. Overheating can be controlled by electronic
monitoring of coolant temperature and regulating the engine power accordingly. Oil pressure can
be monitored and used to regulate the engine power in a similar way.

COOLING
Like an automobile engine, the diesel engine needs to work at an optimum temperature for best
efficiency. When it starts, it is too cold and, when working, it must not be allowed to get too hot. To
keep the temperature stable, a cooling system is provided. This consists of a water-based coolant
circulating around the engine block, the coolant being kept cool by passing it through a radiator.
The coolant is pumped round the cylinder block and the radiator by an electrically or belt driven
pump. The temperature is monitored by a thermostat and this regulates the speed of the (electric
or hydraulic) radiator fan motor to adjust the cooling rate. When starting the coolant isn't circulated
at all. After all, you want the temperature to rise as fast as possible when starting on a cold

19
morning and this will not happen if you a blowing cold air into your radiator. Some radiators are
provided with shutters to help regulate the temperature in cold conditions. If the fan is driven by a
belt or mechanical link, it is driven through a fluid coupling to ensure that no damage is caused by
sudden changes in engine speed. The fan works the same way as in an automobile, the air blown
by the fan being used to cool the water in the radiator. Some engines have fans with an electrically
or hydrostatically driven motor. An hydraulic motor uses oil under pressure which has to be
contained in a special reservoir and pumped to the motor. It has the advantage of providing an in-
built fluid coupling.

A problem with engine cooling is cold weather. Water freezes at 0°C or 32°F and frozen cooling
water will quickly split a pipe or engine block due to the expansion of the water as it freezes. Some
systems are "self draining" when the engine is stopped and most in Europe are designed to use a
mixture of anti-freeze, with Gycol and some form of rust inhibitor. In the US, engines do not
normally contain anti-freeze, although the new GM EMD "H" engines are designed to use it.
Problems with leaks and seals and the expense of putting 100 gallons (378.5 litres) of coolant into a
3,000 hp engine, means those engines in the US have traditionally operated without it. In cold
weather, the engine is left running or the locomotive is kept warm by putting it into a heated building
or by plugging in a shore supply. Another reason for keeping diesel engines running is that the
constant heating and cooling caused by shutdowns and restarts, causes stresses in the block and
pipes and tends to produce leaks.

LUBRICATION
Like an automobile engine, a diesel engine needs lubrication. In an arrangement similar to the
engine cooling system, lubricating oil is distributed around the engine to the cylinders, crankshaft
and other moving parts. There is a reservoir of oil, usually carried in the sump, which has to be
kept topped up, and a pump to keep the oil circulating evenly around the engine. The oil gets
heated by its passage around the engine and has to be kept cool, so it is passed through a radiator
during its journey. The radiator is sometimes designed as a heat exchanger, where the oil passes
through pipes encased in a water tank which is connected to the engine cooling system.
The oil has to be filtered to remove impurities and it has to be monitored for low pressure. If oil
pressure falls to a level which could cause the engine to seize up, a "low oil pressure switch" will
shut down the engine. There is also a high pressure relief valve, to drain off excess oil back to the
sump.

20
TRANSMISSIONS
Like an automobile, a diesel locomotive cannot start itself directly from a stand. It will not develop
maximum power at idling speed, so it needs some form of transmission system to multiply torque
when starting. It will also be necessary to vary the power applied according to the train weight or
the line gradient. There are three methods of doing this: mechanical, hydraulic or electric. Most
diesel locomotives use electric transmission and are called "diesel-electric" locomotives.
Mechanical and hydraulic transmissions are still used but are more common on multiple unit trains
or lighter locomotives.

INDIAN RAILWAY TO INSTALL NEW FUEL – SAVING

DEVICE ON DIESEL LOCOMOTIVE
The Indian Railways has decided to install a new fuel-saving device called Auxiliary Power Unit
(APU) in diesel locomotives which will result in saving of more than Rs 20 lakh per locomotive
annually.

A railway official said, “To begin with, this device has been installed in twelve existing diesel
locomotives through retrofitting. In future, Indian Railways plans to fit APU on every newly-built
diesel locomotive, which will then result in saving of more than Rs 60 crore annually in future. Use
of APU also results in lower CO2 emission and other pollutants, such as carbon monoxide and
nitrogen oxides.”

In APU System, the main engine shuts down and small 25hp engine starts, and charges batteries
and air brake pipes, when the train is idle for more than 10 minutes. The diesel engine of APU
consumes only three litres of diesel per hour in comparison to 25 litres by the main engine.
Expected savings per locomotive fitted with APU is Rs 20 lakh per year on account of saving in fuel
oil.

ANTI COLLISION DEVICE

The ACD Network is a Train Collision prevention system invented by Rajaram Bojji and patented
by Konkan Railway Corporation Limited (a public-sector undertaking of the Ministry of
Railways, Government of India). ACDs have knowledge embedded intelligence. They take inputs
from GPS satellite system for position updates and network among themselves for exchanging
information using their data radio modems to take decisions for timely auto-application of brakes to
prevent dangerous 'collisions', thus forming a 'Raksha Kavach' (meaning a '(Train) Safety shield').
ACDs fitted (both in locomotive and guard's van of a train) act as a watchdog in the dark as they

21
constantly remain in lookout for other train bound ACDs, within the braking distance required for
their relative speeds. They communicate through their radios and identify each other. If they happen
to find themselves on the same track and coming closer to each other, they automatically restrain
and stop each other, thereby preventing dangerous head-on and rear-end collisions. Loco ACD of a
train also applies brakes to reduce the train speed either to 15 km/h if on approach it receives a
message from other train bound ACD that has stopped in a block section on adjacent track (and
driver of that train has yet not communicated that things are 'Normal') or to bring the train to a stop if
train bound ACDs of other train are radiating 'train parted' message thereby preventing dangerous
side collision that may occur due to infringement of adjacent track by a stopped or a 'parted' train,
respectively. ACD trials have recently been concluded successfully in Southern Railway. Further
implementation on Indian Railway is awaited. The Anti-Collision Device (ACD) is a self-acting
microprocessor-based data communication device designed and developed by Konkan Railway.
When installed on locomotives (along with an auto-braking unit - ABU), guard vans, stations and
level-crossing gates (both manned and unmanned), the network of ACD systems prevents high-
speed collisions in mid-sections, station areas and at level-crossing gates.
The ACD uses both radio frequency and Global Positioning System (GPS) through satellites,
whereby a train is automatically brought to a halt if the track ahead is not clear. The train starts
braking 3 kms ahead of a blockade.

 Anti Collision Device (ACD) is a fully integrated Electronic Control System designed to minimize
collisions and increase safety on Railway system.
 It is a non signaling system and provides additional cover of safety in train operations to prevent
dangerous train collisions caused due to human errors or limitations and equipment failure.
 ACD system does not interfere with normal working of train operations.
 Being the non-signaling and inter locking system it does not replace any existing signaling and
interlocking system and does not alter any procedures of train operations in vogue.
 Network of Anti -Collision Devices (ACDs) are provided comprising of a variety of devices such
as onboard (Mobile) ACDs for Locomotives and Guard vans and track-side (Stationery) ACDs,
Level Crossing ACDs, Loco Shed ACDs, Sensor based ACOs and ACO Repeaters. All these
work on the principle of distributed control systems.
 All ACDs along the ACD route communicate with each other through radio communication when
they are within a radial range of at least 3 kms. On board computers use inputs from Global
Positioning System (GPS) for determination of train location, speed, course of travel and time.

22
 Both mobile and stationary components of ACO system exchange information and take
decisions based on train working rules and embedded software to apply brakes automatically
without any input from the users.
 If two ACOs are deemed to be at a risk of collision, the ACD system activates automatic braking
operation to prevent collisions. Loco ACO is designed to interface with various types of braking
system of locomotives.
 System provides audio-visual "Train Approach" warning to road users at level crossings. At
Manned LC Gates, when approaching Loco ACD detects "Gate Open" condition, the speed of
the train/loco is reduced and kept under a pre-defined speed. Similarly, it can also provide
warning and regulate speed in case of movements of land slopes in deep cuttings that are
"sensed" through Inclinometer grids, embedded in such slopes.
 More than 2,000 Anti Collision Devices have already been installed over 2,700 Route Kms of
track on Indian Railway system out of which about 1900 Route Kms are on North east Frontier
Railway and balance are on Konkan Railway. Further proliferation of this safety device on the
balance BG network of Indian Railways is being planned.

23
24
 DETAILS ABOUT
MECHANICAL WORKSHOP,
IZZATNAGAR BAREILLY

25
INFRASTRUCTURE AVAILABLE
Total area of the workshop - 455700sq. meters

Covered area - 72056 sq. Meters

Total length of MG track inside the workshop - 12 km

Total length of road inside the workshop - 6.75km

Standby power house installed capacity - 600 KW + 350 Kw

Installed pneumatic power supply - 95 cubic m/min

Average power consumption per month - 115016 Kwh

Average water consumption per day - 130 Kl

Number of machine installed - 529

PRESENT ACTIVITIES
POH of coaches - 65 v.u. per month

POH Of wagon - 13 v.u. per month

IOH/POH of YDM locos - 18 loco in this year

Corrosion repair of coaches - 40 WV per month

POH of MG rail bus - 03 rail bus

POH of MG A.C. Coaches - 10 coach per month

POH of steam crane - 02 cranes

FUTURE PLANS
POH of broad gauge coaches

POH of broad gauge A.C. coaches

POH of broad gauge diesel locomotive engines

26
LIST OF VARIOUS SHOPS
1. Black smithy shop
2. Sheet metal shop
3. Diesel PO.H. shop
4. Carriage lifting shop
5. Carriage repair shop
6. Corrosion repair shop
7. Tool room
8. Machine shop
9. Wagon lifting shop
10. Wheel shop
11. Paint shop
12. Mill Wright shop
13. Power maintenance shop
14. Power repair shop
15. Train lightening shop
16. Fabrication shop(welding shop)

27
WHEEL SHOP

28
INTRODUCTION TO WHEEL SHOP

TRAIN WHEEL
A train wheel or rail wheel is a type of wheel specially designed for use on rail tracks. A rolling
component is typically pressed onto an axle and mounted directly on a rail car or locomotive or
indirectly on a bogie, also called a truck. Wheels are castor forged (wrought) and are heat-treated to
have a specific hardness. New wheels are trued, using a lathe, to a specific profile before being
pressed onto an axle. All wheel profiles need to be periodically monitored to insure proper wheel-
rail interface. Improperly trued wheels increase rolling resistance, reduce energy efficiency and may
create unsafe operation. A railroad wheel typically consists of two main parts: the wheel itself, and
the tire (or tyre) around the outside. A rail tire is usually made from steel, and is typically heated and
pressed onto the wheel, where it remains firmly as it shrinks and cools. Monobloc wheels do not
have encircling tires, while resilient rail wheels have a resilient material, such as rubber, between
the wheel and tire.

WHEEL GEOMETRY AND FLANGE

Most train wheels have a conical geometry, which is the primary means of keeping the train's
motion aligned with the track. Train wheels have a flange on one side to keep the wheels, and
hence the train, running on the rails, when the limits of the geometry based alignment are reached,
e.g. due to some emergency or defect. See Hunting. Some wheels have a cylindrical geometry,
where flanges are essential to keep the train on the rail track.

29
Manufactures cast steel wheels by a controlled pressure pouring process. In this process, the raw
material used is pedigree scrap (old used wheel sets, axles etc, rejected as unfit for use by the
Railways). The scrap steel is melted in Ultra High Frequency Electric Arc furnace. The correct
chemistry of molten metal steel is established through a Spectrometer. The wheels are eventually
get cast in the graphite moulds, which are pre-heated and sprayed. After allowing for a pre-
determined setting time the mould is spilt and the risers are automatically separated from the cast
wheel.

The wheel is then subjected to various heat treatments. The wheel undergoes the process of
cleaning, checking, preening and various stages of inspections. The wheel produced by this process
requires no machining except the precession boring of heats central hole (hub) where the axle has
to be fitted.

AXLES

RWF buys high-quality vacuum-degassed steel blooms from large-scale steelmakers. Axles are
manufactured from billets cut from the blooms. These blooms are forged in a precision long-forging
machine supplied from M/s GFM, Austria The billets are heated in a rotary hearth furnace to forging
temperatures. Billets then forged in axles on a special purpose long forging machine. The forged
axles are gas cut to required length. The axles are heat treated through various heat treatment
processes. The physical properties are confirmed before machining of the axles. The forged axles
are machined on various machines. The operations include end machining, rough turning, finish
turning, machining centers, grinding and burnishing. Internationally standardized tests (ultrasonic,
magnetic particle, etc.) are used to confirm the quality of the axles.

WHEEL SETS

The assembly of wheel sets is done on a highly automated wheel assembly complex. The wheel seat
size of the axles is measured on an automated measuring unit and the dimensions are transferred to
two wheel borers. Paired wheels are custom bored as per the wheel seat size to get correct
interference fit. The wheels are then pressed on axle in a 300 T Wheel press.

30
WHEEL SHOP
The main work of the wheel shop is to maintain and repair wheel axle assembly . this shop contain
many machines for different operations .there are given below-

1 V.T.L. boring machine

2 Hagenschele wheel turning machine
3 H.E.C. machine
4 Centre lathe

1 V.T.L. boring machine- In this machine the boring operations with new wheel occur. In the
boring operations the bore of wheel is increase upto desired or standard value.
2 Hagenschele wheel turning machine- This is the machine in which taper and taper
turning operation is done .it is nearly self operating machine which has self lifting and centring
device
3 H.E.C. machine- This machine is used for policing of journal of axle .by this machine only
policing of journal of J.R.S. coaches is done .by the policing operation, the surface of journal
become very smooth and finish.
4 Centre lathe- Centre lathe machine commonly used machine in machine shop .similar in the
wheel shop the turning operation is done with axle .by the turning operation the length and the
diameter of journal is made according to standard parameter or bore of wheel . The diameter of
journal should always larger than the bore of wheel.

OPERATION CARRIED OUT – The operations carried out in wheel shop of

IZZATNAGAR MECHANICAL WORKSHO are

1.Journal turning and burnishing

2.Turning of wheel

3.Turning of axle

4.Boring of wheel

5.Pressing of wheel on axle

31
MACHINES IN THE SHOP

1.Universal AJTB lathe

2.CNC surface wheel lathe – I

3.CNC surface wheel lathe – II

4.Hydraulic wheel press

5.Vertical turret lathe

6.Axle turning lathe

7.Hydraulic bearing extractor

8.MFD wheel press

9.BTL (HMT) machine

UNIVERSAL A.J.T.B LATHE MACHIN

A.J.T.B (AXLE JOURNAL TURNING AND BURNISHING) lathe machine is a manually operated
machine for machining the axle journals of locomotive wheel sets. It is a rigid machine capable for
turning and burnishing of inboard and outboard journals of axle of wheel set. Machine is built on rigid
cast iron bed with fixed cast iron tailstocks on either ends .one or two tool post in cast construction.
The wheel sets are loaded via a crane system for machining inside axle journals .when in the centering
position, the wheel set is picked up and centered on both sides by lathe centre. Being driven by a flat
belt applied to the tread surface, drive is accomplished via a double pole – reversible motor with two
stage operations. Consequently a total of four speeds are available two being suitable for roll finishing,
and the other two for turning on the lathe. The wheel set is broken via the flat belt, gearbox and drive
motor by means of counter current brake. Longitudinal side feed is accomplished via feed gears and
triple pole reversible motor. Clamped tool with reversible carbide tips are used for machining the axle,
journals, roll finishing of the axle journal is accomplished using hardened and polished roll finishing
rollers.

BURNISHING
Burnishing is a surface finishing operations .a set of roller is used to roll on the component surface with
adequate pressure. As a result all the pre machined peaks gets compressed into valleys thus giving a

32
mirror like surface finish. Roller burnishing operation is cold rolling process and therefore work
hardening takes place on the cold worked surface due to which it give a better wear resistance on the
rubbing surface and thereby increasing the part service life

SPECIFICATION

TRACK GAUGE - 1676mm

CENTRE HEIGHT - 750mm

MAX THREAD CIRCLE DIAMETER - 1250mm

MIN THREAD CIRCLE DIAMETER - 800mm

MAX AXLE LENGTH - 2750mm

MIN AXLE LENGTH - 1850mm

MAX AXLE JOURNAL DIAMETER - 155mm

MIN AXLE JOURNAL DIAMETER - 110mm

MAX AXLE JOURNAL LENGTH - 320mm

MIN AXLE JOURNAL LENGH - 100 mm

RADIUS MACHINABLE WITH RADIUS CRANK DEVICE - 6mm

RADIUS RANGE MACHINABLE WITH RADIUS SWIVEL DEVICE - 15-50 mm

MACHINESPACE REQUIREMENT WITH FOUNDATION PLAN - In accordance

TOTAL WEIGHT OF THE MACHINE - 15000 KG

33
HYDRAULIC WHEEL PRESSES
A hydraulic press is a device (see machine press) using a hydraulic cylinder to generate a
compressive force. It uses the hydraulic equivalent of a mechanical lever, and was also known as
a Bramah press after the inventor, Joseph Bramah, of England. He invented and was issued a patent
on this press in 1795. As Bramah (who is also known for his development of the flush toilet) installed
toilets, he studied the existing litreature on the motion of fluids and put this knowledge into the
development of the press.

PRINCIPLE OF HYDRAULIC PRESS MACHINE

The hydraulic press depends on Pascal's principle: the pressure throughout a closed system is
constant. One part of the system is a piston acting as a pump, with a modest mechanical force acting
on a small cross-sectional area; the other part is a piston with a larger area which generates a
correspondingly large mechanical force. Only small-diameter tubing (which more easily resists
pressure) is needed if the pump is separated from the press cylinder.

Pascal's law: Pressure on a confined fluid is transmitted undiminished and acts with equal force on
equal areas and at 90 degrees to the container wall.

A fluid, such as oil, is displaced when either piston is pushed inward. Since the fluid is incompressible,
the volume that the small piston displaces is equal to the volume displaced by the large piston. This
causes a difference in the length of displacement, which is proportional to the ratio of areas of the
heads of the pistons given that volume = area X length. Therefore, the small piston must be moved a
large distance to get the large piston to move significantly. The distance the large piston will move is
the distance that the small piston is moved divided by the ratio of the areas of the heads of the pistons.
This is how energy, in the form of work in this case, is conserved and the Law of Conservation of
Energy is satisfied. Work is force applied over a distance, and since the force is increased on the
larger piston, the distance the force is applied over must be decreased.

With two press cylinders for the pressing on and off of up to six wheel set components (e.g. two
wheels and four brake disks) in one setting or wheels and other components of heavy locomotive
wheel sets, as for example ICE-driving wheel sets

34
pressing force of 2,000 to 5,000 KN centering of the wheel set during the pressing on and off process
design as rolling-in or rolling-through type charging of the wheel press by means of a manually
operated or automatically driven charging trolley automatic positioning of the wheel set components
on the axle by means of a laser-operated measuring device measuring of the radial and axial run out
and post measuring of the wheel sets after the pressing on automatic recording of the course of the
force and stroke for each pressed on component computer-controlled operation of the wheel press
storage in a data-bank of all wheel set data of the different type

MAIN TECHNICAL PARAMETERS

1
1 Max. ram force: 2500kN~4500kN
2
2 Stroke of pressure cylinder ram: 800 mm
3
3 Max. diameter of wheels to be pressed: 350-1350 mm
4
4 Max. approach and return speed of ram: 1800 mm/min
5
5 Mounting speed of pressure cylinder ram: 40-300 mm/min
6

35
 6 Range of Axle length: 1600--2800 mm

7
7 Diameter of wheel seat to be pressed: 150-260 mm
8
8 Capacity of oil tank: 1000 L
9
9 Gross power: 32kW
1
10 Motor power for master hydraulic pump: 18.5kW
1
11 Motor power for auxiliary hydraulic pump: 2.2kW
1
12 Power supply: 380V; 50H; 3PH
1
13 Gross weight: 35000 kg (approx.)
1
14 Overall dimension: 8000*2000*3000 mm

15 Ground space required 8000mm*3500 mm

AXLE TURNING LATHE (CNC)

For reclaiming operations, the lathe may be fitted with an automatic probing system designed to
measure each axle wheel set and determine the depth of cut to restore the finish and remove minimum
material from the axle. Optional tool post mounted burnishing roller are available for surface finish
improvement. The lathe is equipped with an optional elevator, electrically actuated and designed to
interface with material handling system for automatic loading and unloading of axle .the lathe is
completely automatic. The axle drive system is accomplished via end face drives and compressible
center. approximate cycle time is 3.5 minutes

36
SPECIFICATIONS

Length (excluding chip conveyor) - 7.5m

Width - 2.4m

Height - 2.2m

Weight of the machine - 19354 kg

Distance between centers - 2740mm

Maximum axle length - 2600mm

minimum axle length - 1600mm

center height above floor - 1632.8mm

maximum cutting diameter - 355mm

37
swing over bed diameter - 469mm

maximum depth of cut - 3.0mm

spindle motor - 37.3KW

spindle speed - 0-600 RPM

rapid traverse cross slide - 4m/min

feed - 0-0.762mm/rev

PROGRAMMABLE LOGIC CONTROLLER

CPU combines a microprocessor, an integrated power supply input and output circuits in a compact
housing to create a powerful micro PLC.

GENERAL SPECIFICATIONS

Power supply - 85 to 264 V AC(47 to 63 Hz)

User program size EEPROM - 8192 bytes

User data EEPROM - 5120 bytes

Integrated inputs - 24

Integrated outputs - 16

Programming software package - step-7 micro/win programming

38
CNC SURFACE WHEEL LATHE

CNC Surface wheel lathe is an extremely rigid and fully automatic machine for simultaneous profiling
of new or worn out wheels of Railway Wheel Set. Equipped with dual CNC tool post, machine is fully
flexible to turn any wheel profile. Machine is equipped with CNC controlled pre and post
measurement system for economical depth of cut and profile selection. Machine is also capable of
machining inside and outside face of wheel as well as brake discs. Automatic loading and unloading
of wheel set. More than fifty CNC machines in operation.

COMPETITIVE ADVANTAGES OF THE PRODUCT

CNC Surface wheel lathe is an extremely rigid and fully automatic machine for simultaneous profiling
of new or worn out wheels of Railway Wheel Set. Equipped with dual CNC tool post, machine is fully
flexible to turn any wheel profile. Machine is equipped with CNC controlled pre and post
measurement system for economical depth of cut and profile selection. Machine is also capable of
machining inside and outside face of wheel as well as brake discs. Automatic loading and unloading
of wheel sets.

CNC SURFACE WHEEL LATHES

RAFAMET surface wheel lathes are able to execute the following operations:

 Turning of wheel set wheels profiles according to a technological programmed

 Facing of both wheel set wheel rims
 Boring of limit machining groove on wheel set wheels’ outer faces
 Machining of tyres for clamping ring removing
 Brake disk facing

39
SPECIFICATIONS
Track gauge - 1676mm

Tread diameter to be machined - max 1250mm min 800mm

Axle length - max 2750mm

Maximum permissible weight on lifting device - 3000kg

Net weight of the machine - 60,000kg

No. of drives (jaws) per face plate - 4 Nos

Clamping force per jaw (infinitely variable) - max 40KN min 6KN

Centering force (infinitely variable) - max 35 KN

Types of centers required - 60 deg as well as 90 deg

Wheel width - max 145mm min 125mm

Speed range - at cutting speed varying from 25 to 60 meters

Feed range - 0.5 to 4.0mm/rev infinitely variable

Motor power - 2 x 55 kw

Operating voltage - 415 v AC +/- 10% at 5Hz +/- 3%

40
41
 WHEEL DEFECTS
1 Sharp flange 12. Thermal cracks
2. Thin flange 13. Hollow tread
3. Deep flange 14. Damaged or fractured wheel
4. Less root radius 15. Spalling or shelled tread
5. Flat Tyre 16. Skidded wheel (flats)
6. Hollow Tyre 17. Scaled wheel
7. Thin tyre 18. Arris
8. Loose axle 19. Steep flanges
9. Bent axle 20. Hidh flanges
10. grooved axle 21. Short flanges
11. Misaligned brake gear

LESS RADIUS AT ROOT OF FLANGE

When radius given at the root of flange is reduced to 13mm or less from 16mm in standard profile
and 14mm in WWP it is less radius at root of flange. It is first defect develop on the wheel before deep
flange and hallow tyre.

SHARP FLANGE
When the radius given at the tip of flange 14.5mm is worm out to 5mm is called sharp flange. This
develops due to running on the curves section or due to defects in suspension gear.

REPERCUSSIONS
Sharp Flange can take wrong route at a gaping in facing point or damaged switch rails. It will cause
train to take a wrong route and get declared.

DEEP FLANGE
When the depth of the flange is increased to 35mm it is called deep flange. This happens due to the
one sided wear of the wheel head at the root of flange.

42
REPERCUSSIONS
A deep flange can cause derailment by hitting fish plate, fish bolts and also check blocks and check
rails.

THIN FLANGE
When the thickness of the flange is reduced from 28.5mm std profile or 29.4mm WWN wheel profile to
22 in coaching, 16 in goods is considered thin flange. It should be checked 13mm below from tip.

REPERCUSSIONS
Due to excessive flange force is curves thin flange will cause breakage of flange and derailment.

HOLLOW TYRE
Due to biased wear on the wheel head at the at the root of flange and forces of brake block act on the
head 1 in 20 inclination wear out and hollow tyre is formed.

REPERCUSSIONS
Due to inclination wheel and rail as point contact for free movement of wheel on rail. Due to hollow
tyre. This inclination is host and the point contact becomes line contact and it will cause rough retching
and very difficult to negotiate curves and more handing power required for movement of this rolling
stock.

SKIDDED WHEEL
This defect is caused due to defective brake gear {Brake block, brake shoe, brake cylinder, piston
stroke}

When a rolling stock is kept running with brakes in applied condition due to defects in brake gear. The
Wheels slide over the rail and the smooth profile of the wheel is lost. This cause heavy noise and
damage the tracks.

METALLURGICAL WHEEL DEFECTS

Due to the use of composite brake blocks in rolling stock. Especially ‘K’ type brake block due to high
frictional value of 0.28 to 0.3.due to this metallurgical defects are formed.

43
HEAT CHECKS

Thermal cracks are dipper & need to be distinguished from fine, Superficial cracks visible on the tread
or adjacent to the braking surface. Such wheels need not be withdrawn but should be carefully
distinguished from the thermal cracks.

THERMAL CRACKES

The cracks on the wheel tread, progresses in a transverse & a radial direction & visible on the outer
face of the Rim or tread crack as reached the outer edge (non gauge face) of the ring. Such wheels
should be withdrawn from service & send to shop for examination & rejection.

SHELLED TREAD
Can be identified by the pieces of metal braking out of the tread surface in several places around the
Rim. Such wheels should be withdrawn from service & send to shop for examination & Re-profiling.

SHATTERED RIM
A Fracture on the wheel treads or flange. It’s a reject able defect.

SPREAD RIM
The wideness out for a short distance on the front face due to internal defect. It’s a reject able defect.

44
Black smithy
& sheet metal
SHOP

45
 FORGING
INTRODUCTION
Forging is an oldest shaping process used for the producing small articles for which accuracy in
size is not so important. The parts are shaped by heating them in an open fire or hearth by the
blacksmith and shaping them through applying compressive forces using hammers. Thus forging is
defined as the plastic deformation of metals at elevated temperatures into a Predetermined size or
shape using compressive forces exerted through some means of hand Hammers, small power
hammers, die press or upsetting machine. It consists essentially of Changing or altering the shape
and section of metal by hammering at a temperature of about 980°C, at which the metal is entirely
plastic and can be easily deformed or shaped under Pressure. The shop in which the various
forging operations are carried out is known as the Smithy or smith’s shop. A metal such as steel
can be shaped in a cold state but the application of heat lowers the yield point and makes
permanent deformation easier. Forging operation can be accomplished by hand or by a machine
hammer. Forging processes may be classified into hot forging and cold forgings and each of them
possesses their specific characteristics, merits, demerits and applications. Hand forging process is
also known as black-smithy work which is commonly employed for production of small articles using
hammers on heated jobs. It is a manual controlled process even though some machinery such as
power hammers can also be sometimes used. Black-smithy is, therefore, a process by which metal
may be heated and shaped to its requirements by the use of blacksmith tools either by hand or
power hammer. In smithy small parts are shaped by heating them in an open fire or hearth. Shaping
is done under hand control using hand tools. This work is done in a smithy shop. In smith forging or
hand forging open face dies are used and the hammering on the heated metal is done by hand to
get the desired shape by judgment. Forging by machine involves the use of forging dies and is
generally employed for mass production of accurate articles. In drop forging, closed impression dies
are used and there is drastic flow of metal in the dies due to repeated blow or impact which
compels the plastic metal to conform to the shape of the dies. The final shape of the product from
raw material is achieved in a number of steps. There are some advantages, disadvantages and
applications of forging operations which are given as under.

ADVANTAGES OF FORGING
Some common advantages of forging are given as under.
1. Forged parts possess high ductility and offers great resistance to impact and fatigue loads.
2. Forging refines the structure of the metal.

46
3. It results in considerable saving in time, labor and material as compared to the production of
similar item by cutting from a solid stock and then shaping it.
4. Forging distorts the previously created unidirectional fiber as created by rolling and increases the
strength by setting the direction of grains.
5. Because of intense working, flaws are rarely found, so have good reliability.
6. The reasonable degree of accuracy may be obtained in forging operation.
7. The forged parts can be easily welded.

DISADVANTAGES OF FORGING
Few dis-advantages of forging are given as under.
1. Rapid oxidation in forging of metal surface at high temperature results in scaling which wears the
dies.
2. The close tolerances in forging operations are difficult to maintain.
3. Forging is limited to simple shapes and has limitation for parts having undercuts etc.
4. Some materials are not readily worked by forging.
5. The initial cost of forging dies and the cost of their maintenance is high.
6. The metals gets cracked or distorted if worked below a specified temperature limit.
7. The maintenance cost of forging dies is also very high.

APPLICATION OF FORGING
Almost all metals and alloys can be forged. The low and medium carbon steels are readily hot
forged without difficulty, but the high-carbon and alloy steels are more difficult to forge and require
greater care. Forging is generally carried out on carbon alloy steels, wrought iron, copper-base
alloys, alumunium alloys, and magnesium alloys. Stainless steels, nickel based super-alloys, and
titanium are forged especially for aerospace uses. Producing of crank shaft of alloy steel is a good
example which is produced by forging. Forging processes are among the most important
manufacturing techniques utilized widely in manufacturing of small tools, rail-road equipments,
automobiles and trucks and components of aeroplane industries. These processes are also
extensively used in the manufacturing of the parts of tractors, shipbuilding, cycle industries, railroad
components, agricultural machinery etc.

FUELS USED IN FORGING SHOP

The fuels used in forging shop are classified as solid, liquid and gaseous fuels which are
Discussed as under.

47
SOLID FUELS
Wood, coal, anthracite, peat, charcoal, coke, pulverized fuel etc.

LIQUID FUELS
Crude oil, petroleum, kerosene, tar oil etc.

GASEOUS FUELS
Natural gas and some artificially produced gases are used generate heat.
A good fuel should have always possesses the following essential characteristic which are
given as under.
1. The fuel should be able to generate the required heat.
2. It should have complete combustion.
3. It should be highly efficient.
4. It should not produce excess smoke and flying ash.
5. It should be easy to fire, cheap and easily available.

FORGABLE MATERIALS
Two-phase and multi-phase materials are deformable if they meet certain minimum requirements.
The requirement of wrought metals is satisfied by all pure metals with sufficient number of slip
planes and also by most of the solid solution alloys of the same metal. Wrought alloys must
possess a minimum ductility that the desired shape should possess. To be a forgeable metal, it
should possess the required ductility. Ductility refers to the capacity of a material to undergo
deformation under tension without rupture. Forging jobs call for materials that should possess a
property described as ductility that is, the ability to sustain substantial high plastic deformation
without fracture even in the presence of tensile stresses. If failure occurs during forging, it is due to
the mechanism of ductile fracture and is induced by tensile stresses. A material of a given ductility
may fail very differently in various processes, depending on the deforming conditions imposed
Forging 263 on it. Forgeable metals are purchased as hot-rolled bars or billets with round or
rectangular cross the sections. Forgeable materials should possess the required ductility and
proper strength. Some forgeable metals are given as under in order of increasing forging difficulty.
1. Aluminium alloys 2. Magnesium alloys
3. Copper alloys. 4. Carbon and low alloy steels
5. Martensitic stainless steels 6. Austenitic stainless steels
7. Nickel alloys 8. Titanium alloys
9. Columbium alloys 10. Tantalum alloys

48
11. Molybdenum alloys 12. Tungsten alloys
13. Beryllium.

SHEET METAL WORK

INTRODUCTION
Products made through the sheet metal processing include automobile bodies, utensils, almirah,
cabinet’s appliances, electronic components, electrical parts, aerospace parts, refrigeration and air
conditioning parts etc. Sheet metal is generally considered to be a plate with thickness less than
about 5 mm. Articles made by sheet metal work are less expensive and lighter in weight. Sheet
metal forming work started long back 5000 BC. As compared to casting and forging, sheet-metal
parts offer advantages of lightweight and versatile shapes. Because of the good strength and
formability characteristics, low carbon steel is the most commonly utilized in sheet-metal processing
work. The metal stampings have now replaced many components, which were earlier made by
casting or machining. In few cases sheet metal products are used for replacing the use of castings
or forgings. Sheet metal work has its own significance in the engineering work. Sheet metal
processing has its own significance as a useful trade in engineering works to meet our day-to-day
requirements. Many products, which fulfill the household needs, decoration work and various
engineering articles, are produced from sheet meta1s. A good product properly developed may lead
to saving of time and money. In sheet-metal working, there is no need for further machining as
required for casting and forging works. The time taken in sheet-metal working is approximately half
of that required in the machining process. For carrying out sheet metal work, the knowledge of
geometry, mensuration and properties of metal is most essential because nearly all patterns come
from the development of the surfaces of a number of geometrical models such as cylinder, prism,
cone, and pyramid. In sheet metal work, various operations such as shearing, blanking, piercing,
trimming, shaving, notching, forming, bending, stamping, coining, embossing etc. are to be
performed on sheet metal using hand tools and press machines to make a product of desired shape
and size. Generally metals used in sheet metal work are black iron, galvanized iron, stainless steel,
copper, brass, zinc, aluminium, tin plate and lead.

METALS USED IN SHEET METAL WORK

49
The following metals are generally used in sheet metal work:

BLACK RON SHEET

It is probably the cheapest of all the metal used for sheet metal work. It is bluish black in
appearance and is used generally in form of uncoated sheet. It can be easily rolled into the desired
thickness. Since it is uncoated it corrodes rapidly. Hence to increase its life it can be painted or
enameled. This metal is generally used in the making or roofs, food containers, stove pipes, furnace
fittings, dairy equipments, tanks, cans and pans, etc.

GALVANIZED IRON (G.L.)

It is popularly known as G.I. sheets. It is soft steel coated with molten zinc. This coating resists rust
formation on surface and improves appearance and water resistance. Articles such as pans,
furnaces, buckets, cabinets etc. are made from GI sheets.

STAINLESS STEEL
It is an alloy of steel with nickel, chromium and small percentages of other metals. It has good
corrosion resistance. It is costlier but tougher than GI sheets. 1t is used in kitchenware,food
processing equipments, food handling articles, tools and instruments for surgery work in hospitals
and components of chemical plants etc. Other metal sheets used for sheet metal work are made up
of copper, aluminum, tin, and lead.

SHEET METAL TOOLS

The following tools are commonly used for sheet-metal work:
(i) Hand shears or snips
(ii) Hammers
(iii) Stakes and stake holder
(iv) Cutting tools
(v) Measuring tools
(vi) Miscellaneous hand tools such as chisels, groovers, seamers, rivet sets and hand punches.
Some of the important sheet metal tools are described as under.

FLOWCHART
50
 PLATE FROM STORE

SHEARING OF PLATE

BENDING OF PLATE ON FABRICATED IN

SHEARING MACHINE FABRICATION SHOP

PHOSPHATING OF
CORROSION ITEMS

OPERATION CARRIED OUT – The operations carried out in black smithy and sheet
metal shop of IZZATNAGAR MECHANICAL WORKSHO are

51
Shearing of late

Angle banding

Phosphating of all corrosion items

Forging

Heat treatment

Spring load testing

MACHINES IN THE SHOP

1 .Phosphating plant

2. Trimming press machine

3. Universal profile cutting machine

4. Pneumatic power hammer

5.200tonns press brake machine

6. BAYKAL hydraulic shearing machine

7. JODY shearing machine

8. Airless centrifugal shot blasting plant

9. COVENTRY spring load testing machine

10. Coil spring load deflection testing machine

11. Welding section

12. Oil fired furnace

PHOSPHATING PLANT
In the past, more often than not, manufactures had been inclined to ignore or underplay the

52
importance of Phosphating plant is precleaning and pretreating a component/article in a
methodical and scientific manner, prior to paint finishing. Phosphating plant was the general belief
that all that mattered to the finish of a component was the paint alone, and that the durability of the
finish could be improved by merely applying more coats or a thicker one.
Let us examine the results of painting a product which has not been precleaned and pretreated
properly.
First of all. it is to be noted that a product, after going through various operations, when brought for
painting will have any or more of the following contaminants on its surface: dirt, grease, rust, scale.
Direct painting on such components without removing the impurities on their surface results in a
sketchy coat or an inferior finish. The coat of paint does not adhere properly to the surface, and
there is a tendency for the paint film to fail or peel off. Moreover, there is a gradual deterioration’s of
the painted surface since there is rust formation underneath the paint coat and these creeps slowly
to the adjoining areas without being arrested. One often finds a painted surface thus freckled with
rust spots. It is, therefore, obvious that a good appearance or durability cannot be achieved by the
application of paint on an uncleaned and untreated metallic surface.
Precleaning of the surface alone does not also ensure a good quality finish. A cleaned surface is a
very active one, and when exposed to atmosphere it is again liable to get rusted or oxidized within a
very short time. Even if the component is immediately painted, any rust spot trapped underneath
the paint film, or any chipping off of the paint from an area at any point of time, will result in rust
formation and also rust creep, eventually destroying the paint film.
Therefore, the need to provide surface protection for the component after cleaning will be
recognized. This is achieved by treating the cleaned surface in suitable solutions, whereby a certain
thickness of a protective coat is formed which prevents rust formation and rust creep. In addition,
the pretreated component presents a very good adhesive surface for the application of paint. The
precleaning stage normally consists of a degreasing and a derusting/pickling operation for the
removal of all contamination from the surface of the component to be painted. Water rinse
operations after each solution operation /treatment are a 'must' in order to prevent carryover of one
solution into another.

In the pretreatment or surface protection stage there is a phosphating/ chromatising operation

which provides the protective coat and later, after a cold water rinse, a passivating operation,
wherein the phosphate coat is made less active, further reducing the chances of rust formation.
In general, there are two alternative pretreatment systems, or phosphating plant as they are called,
viz. the dip system (cold or hot process) and the spray system. The former is the conventional
system and can be used for almost all applications, whereas the latter is specialized, and is

53
normally very effective and economical for articles having even, straight surface, and also a large
volume of production.

It has been reassuring to note that in recent times there has been a growing awareness of the
prime importance of pretreatment in a painting set- up, and that it is no longer considered as an
unwanted or luxury item in a paint shop. Descriptions of pretreatment plants installed and working in
various modern establishments will follow shortly.

Meanwhile, ask for details of our complete painting plants consisting of pretreatment and stoving
equipment, conveyor, spray booths and spray painting equipment.

54
SPECIFICATIONS AND LEADING PARAMETERS

Inner size of cradle (LxWxH) - 2700x650x100mm

Inner size of tank (LxWxH) - 3100x1050x1500mm

Minimum height of material handling - 3.5mm

equipment from the bottom of tank level

OTHER PARAMETERS

Phosphate coating - minimum 4.3 g/m² weight of treated surface

Approximate cycle time for complete process - 75 minutes

Available space with consignee - 15mx22.5mx6m (LxBxH)

PLANT

Gross weight - Approx 25 tons

Space requirement of complete plant - 15mx22.5mx6m (LxBxH)

Height of the chimney - 15m from the ground level

Total power requirement for plant - 50KW approx for the plant & fume exhaust

55
 PROCESS SEQUENCE

TANK 1: DEGREASING TANK

Components shall be placed in the cradle and dipped into the degreasing tank containing an
aqueous alkaline solution. the bath shall be agitated with compressed air. This bath shell be
capable of cleaning the oil/grease/scales sticking on the component surface.

56
Tank capacity - 4000 litre

Chemical - unikleen 20M (40g to 60g per litre)

Temperature - 60ºC to 75ºC

Dipping time - 5 to 15 minutes

Extra chemical added - 10 kg unikleen 20M(every 8 hrs)

TANK 2 RINSE WATER TANK

After the degreasing process, the cradle shall be lifted and loaded in to the rinsing tank
containing counter flowing water at ambient temperature, to remove the already loosened
grime from the component surface.

57
Tank capacity - 4000 litre

Dipping time - 30 to 60 seconds

TANK 3 DERUSTING TANK

58
The cradle shall then be lifted and lowered into the derusting tank containing dilute acidic solution
with suitable inhibitor at ambient temperature. Agitation shall be done with compressed air.

Tank capacity - 4000 litre

Chemical - unikleen 160 (25% of tank capacity)

Dipping time - 5 to 20 minutes

Extra chemical added - 10-16 ltr unikleen 160(every 8 hrs)

TANK 4 RINSE WATER TANK

59
The cradle shall then be dipped in the rinsing tank containing counter flowing water at ambient
temperature.

TANK CAPACITY - 4000 litre

DIPPING TIME - 30 to 60 seconds

60
TANK 5 PHOSPHATING TANK
The cradle containing the thoroughly rinsed components shall then be dipped in the phosphating
tank containing dilute solution of phosphoric acid with suitable accelerator kept preheated .in this
tank components that covered with layer of ZINC CHROMATE.

Tank capacity - 4000 litre

Chemical - 1) FOSCOAT-22(5% of tank capacity)

2) FOSCOAT-60 (2MGper litre)

Temperature - 55ºC to 65ºC

Dipping time - 10 to 20 minutes

Extra chemical added - 1) FOSCOAT-22(4 to 6 litre every 8 hrs)

2) FOSCOAT-60 (100 g to 150 g every 8 hrs)

61
TANK 6 RINSE WATER TANK

The cradle contacting the phosphate components should then be thoroughly rinsed in a rinse tank
containing counter flowing water at ambient temperature and agitated by compressed air.

TANK CAPACITY - 4000 litre

DIPPING TIME - 30 to 60 seconds

62
TANK 7 PASSIVATION TANK

In this tank chemical are used after phosphating to improve point bonding properties and also
provide additional corrosion resistance property of the phosphated components. In the passivation
stage the cradle containing the thoroughly rinsed phosphate components is lowered into the tank
containing a dilute solution of CHROMIC ACID preheated to a temperature of 60ºC to 75ºC .

Tank capacity - 4000 litre

Chemical - FOSCOAT KNA (0.1% of tank capacity)

Temperature - 60ºC to 75ºC

Dipping time - 45 to 60 second

Extra chemical added - 200-300 mg (every 8 hrs)

63
BAYKAL HYDRAULIC SHEARING MACHINE

When you apply a high pressure tool through a metal plate and remove part of the metal, the
process is called shearing. Shear machining devices include punching machines, which make small
discs, and blanking machines, which produce washers and similar objects.

Direct tool ordinary machining is NOT the same as shear machining. With standard tool machining,
a single or multiple point tool can be employed to take out a piece of metal from the metal sheet
and/or block. This process required repeated pounding of the metal until the required dimensions
are achieved. With shear machining, the tool's cutting edge removes the metal from the plate. While
this happens, maximum pressure is applied. The tool, however, only touches the metal one time.

Both mechanical and hydraulic machines can perform shear machining. Hydraulic shears cut and
score sheet metal quickly and accurately. They work well for factories that do a lot of metal
fabrication. In addition, hydraulic shears are best if the operation requires intense pressure. They
don't require a lot of maintenance, will operate continuously, and are fast and quiet. Hydraulic shear
machines also take up less space than mechanical shear machines while applying the same
amount of pressure.

When the metal is inserted into hydraulic machines, it is secured by clamps so it does not shift
under high pressure. To ensure that the cut is smooth and even for a 90 degree cut, a squaring arm
or back gauge must be used. Minute burrs may be formed by the edge of the cut metal; these must
be removed by grinding. If you use hydraulic shears, be careful of the little marks left by the cutting
blades and holding clamps while working. You will need to remove them or otherwise account for
them.

There are a wide variety of hydraulic shear machine models on the market that accommodate a
large range of metal plate sizes. Many metal cutting applications can be used, and the metals can
often be reused. You may be surprised at the appearance of modern hydraulic shears. Rather than
being clunky and loud, they are finely enclosed within large standalone units that operate without
much noise.

The machines are equipped with several sets of sharp blades that cut the metal into specified
shapes and sizes. Onlookers find it difficult to believe that, within that attractive compartment,
extreme pressure is being generated to cut the metal. Since the current models of hydraulic shears

64
normally don't require any installation into the floor itself, they can easily be moved to any place
they are needed within the production line.

You need to always exercise caution when operating a hydraulic shear machine, even though all
the shearing components may be located internally. It is important to keep the machine's blades
sharp since this will prevent off-cuts and maximize the machine's efficiency. In addition, it is
essential that all moving parts be cleaned and lubricated frequently. To avoid damaging the
machine, be sure the machine has the proper levels of hydraulic fluid.

65
CUTTING PROCESS

After pressing the foot switch, the beam start the down movement and the hold down cylinder
compress the plate on the work table. The cutting process occurs from the left to the right side of
the plate. After the beam (blade) completes its strokes (down movement), the sheared part of the
plate falls down from the backside of the machine

SPECIFICATION

Shearing length - 4070mm

Shearing capacity - 16mm

Rake angle - 0.5-3º

Length - 4800mm

Width - 3370mm

Height - 3260mm

66
Weight - 23500kg

System pressure - 240kg/cm²

Hold down pressure - 100kg/cm²

Number of hold down - 21pcs

Strokes per minute - 6-12cuts/min

Pump flow rate - 64cm³/rev

Oil tank volume - 400ltr

Back gauge range - 1000mm

Main motor, 3phase 380v 50hz - 30kw

Back gauge, 3phase 380v 50hz - 0.55kw

STANDARD EQUIPMENTS

Electric motor380 v, 50 Hz, 3phase

Top and bottom blades

Electronic control unit

Figure protection grid

Side squaring arm

Front support arms

1000mm power bake gauge

Oil tank level indicator

Rear sensor guarding

Foot switch

67
 TESTING OF SPRING

PROCESS SEQUENCE

1. Arrival of springs from carriage lifting shop.

2. Cleaning in bosch tank.

3. Shot blasting in airless centrifugal shot blasting plant.

4. Visual checking (dent mark, cut mark, crack etc).

5. Load testing on load testing machine.

6. Loop binding on spring.

7. Coat of primer on spring.

8. Coat of black Japan paint on spring.

9. Grouping of spring into A, B, C group.

10. Springs are returned to carriage lifting shop.

HELICAL COIL SPRING TESTING MACHINE

Helical coil spring testing machine is used for testing coil spring under compression loads. The
machine consists of:

1. STRAINING UNIT

It consists of a hydraulic cylinder and a table coupled with the ram of the hydraulic cylinder mounted
on a robust base. The crosshead is connected to two screwed columns and is driven by a motor for
rapid adjustment of test height.

2. CONTROL PANEL

It consists of a power pack complete with drive motor and an oil tank, control valve a pendulum
dynamometer a load and deflection indicating system and an autographic recorder.

68
3. POWER PACK

The power pack generates the maximum pressure of 200 Kgf /cm², the hydraulic pump provides
continuously non pulsating oil flow. Hence the load application is very smooth.

4. HYDRAULIC CONTROL

Hand operated wheels are used to control the flow to and from the hydraulic cylinder. Incorporated
in the hydraulic system is a regulating valve which maintains a practically constant rate of table
movement

5. LOAD AND DEFLECTION INDICATOR SYSTEM

It consists of a large dial and a pointer. A dummy pointer is provided to register the maximum load
reached during the test. The deflection indicator system operates electronically and deflection is
read directly on the digital display with least count of 0.1mm .the encoder is mechanically coupled
to the main hydraulic ram for getting signal of deflection

6. PENDULUM DYNAMOMETER

7. AUTOGRAPHIC ELONGATION RECORDER

PRINCIPAL OF OPERATIONS

Operation of the machine is by hydraulic transmission of load from the test specimen to a
separately housed load indicator. The hydraulic system is ideal since it replaces transmission of
load through levers and knife edges, which are prone to wear and damage due to shock on rupture
of test pieces .load is applied by a hydrostatically lubricated arm. Main cylinder is transmitted to
the cylinder of the pendulum dynamometer system housed in the control panel. The cylinder of the
dynamometer is also of self lubricating design. The load transmitted to the cylinder of the
dynamometer is transferred through a lever system to a pendulum. Displacement of the pendulum
actuates the rack and pinion mechanism which operates the load indicator pointer and the
autographic recorder. The deflection of the pendulum represents the absolute load applied on the
testing specimen. Return movement of the pendulum is effectively damped to absorb energy in the
event of sudden breakage of a specimen

69
AIRLESS CENTRIFUGAL SHOT BLASTING PLANT

Airless shot blast equipment utilizes cast steel shot or grit, as well as other types of abrasive media,
and is used for metal cleaning, removal of paint, rust, mill scale, sand, ceramic and shell removal
from diecastings, steel and iron castings, or investment castings, metal surface preparation prior to
paint or coating, automotive parts remanufacturing and shot peening for metal fatigue life and stress
relief.

Once the machine is started, the blast wheel will come into rotation. No sooner the wheel attains its
maximum speed; the shots will be fed automatically by a solenoid valve and pneumatic cylinder
opening mechanism. These shots are propelled on the rotating components at high velocity thereby

70
blasting them. After blasting the shots fall down inside the hopper of the cabinet and are gravity fed
to the lower screw conveyor. The screw conveyor conveys the shots from the cabinet to the boot of
the bucket elevator which in turns lifts the shots and feed them to separator screen. The usable
shots, unusable shots (fine) and heavy dust will be filtered through the screen and unusable shots
(bigger size) and other big particles will stay on the screen and should be removed through refuse
pipe time to time

The shots which have passed from screen are subjected to an air wash system which drains all the
dust and broken shots. Only usable shots come in to storage hopper which is recycled. the fines
and broken shots come to a refuse hopper and are rejected from the system through a refuse pipe
.the fine dust produced in the blast chamber is absorbed by the dust collector

71
COMPARISON BETWEEN AIRLESS & AIR TYPE BLAST
CLEANING MACHINES

Blast cleaning is mainly of two types depending on the method of propelling of abrasives: • Airless
Blast Cleaning uses motor driven bladed wheel rotating at high speed. The abrasive is propelled by
this bladed wheel, which employs the combination of radial and tangential forces to impart the
necessary velocity to the abrasive. The position of the wheel from which the shot is projected is
controlled to concentrate the blast in the desired direction. Among the advantages of the wheel
method of propulsion are easy control of shot velocity, high production capacity, and freedom from
the moisture problem encountered with compressed air. • Air blasting systems introduces the shot

72
either by gravity or by direct pressure, into a stream of compressed air directed through a nozzle
onto the work. Apart from being more economical for limited production quantities, develop higher
intensities with small abrasive sizes, permits the blast cleaning of deep holes and cavities and has
lower initial cost when a source of compressed air is also available. Over the years with the
advancement in technology both the types have increased in area of operation. Except the
propelling of a abrasives which is different in both types the following things are in common: 1. Shot
cycling arrangements 2. Work handling system 3. Shot separation system 4. Dust & fine Suction
system As with many other processes the two forms of blast cleaning are not competitive, but are
complimentary and the comparison may be summed up as follows:

AIR OPERATED VERSUS CENTRIFUGAL BLAST CLEANING

MACHINE

AIR – BLAST ADVANTAGES

1. Extremly flexible

2. Simple to operate

3. Unlimited scope

4. May be used in & out of works

5. Cost of simple plants relatively low.

6. Compressed air has to be completely dry.

7. The intensity of blasting is factor of nozzle size and pressure.

I. Intensity Air Pressure

II. Intensity Nozzle aperture

III. Abrasive low rate

AIR PRESSURE CENTRIFUGAL-BLAST ADVANTAGES

1. High production rates

2. Low cleaning cost

3. Compact plants

4. Self sufficient (no auxiliary plant required)

73
5. Compressed air eliminated

6. No moisture problem

7. High efficiency

AIR – BLAST DISADVANTAGES

1. Costly compressor air installation

2. Hold up due to choking or damp abrasive

3. Low efficiency

CENTRIFUGAL-BLAST DISADVANTAGES

1. High initial cost

2. Lack of flexibility

3. High maintenance

4. Limitations

• Distortion of material

• Unable to treat hidden area-pipes, tubes etc.

• Immobile

PRESS BRAKE MACHINE

A press brake, also known as a brake press, is a machine tool for bending sheet and plate material,
most commonly sheet metal. It forms predetermined bends by clamping the workpiece between a
matching punch and die.

Typically, two C-frames form the sides of the press brake, connected to a table at the bottom and
on a moveable beam at the top. The bottom tool is mounted on the table with the top tool mounted
on the upper beam.

74
75
TYPES
A brake can be described by basic parameters, such as the force or tonnage and the working
length. Additional parameters include the amplitude or stroke, the distance between the frame
uprights or side housings, distance to the back gauge, and work height. The upper beam usually
operates at a speed ranging from 1 to 15 mm/s.

There are several types of brakes as described by the means of applying force:
mechanical, pneumatic, hydraulic,and servo-electric.

In a mechanical press, energy is added to a flywheel with an electric motor. A clutch engages the
flywheel to power a crank mechanism that moves the ram vertically. Accuracy and speed are two
advantages of the mechanical press.

Hydraulic presses operate by means of two synchronized hydraulic cylinders on the C-frames
moving the upper beam. Servo-electric brakes use a servo-motor to drive a ballscrew or belt
drive to exert tonnage on the ram. Pneumatic presses utilize air pressure to develop tonnage on the
ram. Until the 1950s, mechanical brakes dominated the world market. The advent of better
hydraulics and computer controls has led to hydraulic machines being the most popular. Pneumatic
and servo-electric machines are typically used in lower tonnage applications. Hydraulic brakes
produce accurate high quality products are reliable, use little energy and are safer because, unlike
flywheel-driven presses, the motion of the ram can be easily stopped at any time in response to a
safety device i.e. a light curtain.

Recent improvements are mainly in the control and a device called a back gauge. A back gauge is
a device that can be used to accurately position a piece of metal so that the brake puts the bend in

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the correct place. Furthermore the back gauge can be programmed to move between bends to
repeatedly make complex parts. Early brakes relied on the tooling to determine the bend angle of
the bend. The animation to the right shows the operation of the back gauge, setting the distance
from the edge of the material or previous bend to the center of the die.

Press brakes often include multi-axis computer-controlled back gauges. Optical sensors allow
operators to make adjustments during the bending process. These sensors send real-time data
about the bending angle in the bend cycle to machine controls that adjust process parameters.

DIES
Press brakes can be used for many different forming jobs with the right die design. Types of dies
include:

 V-dies—the most common type of die. The bottom dies can be made with different-sized die
openings to handle a variety of materials and bend angles.
 Rotary bending dies—a cylindrical shape with an 88-degree V-notch cut along its axis is seated
in the "saddle" of the punch. The die is an anvil over which the rocker bends the sheet.
 90 degree dies—largely used for bottoming operations. The die opening dimension depends on
material thickness.
 Acute angle (air-bending) dies—used in air bending, these can actually be used to produce
acute, 90 degree, and obtuse angles by varying how deeply the punch enters the die by
adjusting the ram.
 Gooseneck (return-flanging) dies—The punch is designed to allow for clearance of already
formed flanges
 Offset dies—a combination punch and die set that bends two angles in one stroke to produce a
Z shape.
 Hemming dies—two-stage dies combining an acute angle die with a flattening tool.
 Seaming dies—there are a number of ways to build dies to produce seams in sheets and tubes.
 Radius dies—A radiused bend can be produced by a rounded punch. The bottom die may be a
V-die or may include a spring pad or rubber pad to form the bottom of the die.
 Beading dies—A bead or a "stopped rib" may be a feature that stiffens the resulting part. The
punch has a rounded head with flat shoulders on each side of the bead. The bottom die is the
inverse of the punch.
 Curling dies—the die forms a curled or coiled edge on the sheet.

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 Tube- and pipe-forming dies—a first operation bends the edges of the sheet to make the piece
roll up. Then a die similar to a curling die causes the tube to be formed. Larger tubes are
formed over a mandrel.
 Four-way die blocks—A single die block may have a V machined into each of four sides for
ease of changeover of small jobs.

Channel-forming dies—A punch can be pressed into a die to form two angles at the bottom of the
sheet, forming an angular channel.

 U-bend dies—Similar to channel forming, but with a rounded bottom. Spring back may be a
problem and a means may need to be provided for countering it.
 Box-forming dies—while a box may be formed by simple angle bends on each side, the
different side lengths of a rectangular box must be accommodated by building the punch in
sections. The punch also needs to be high enough to accommodate the height of the resulting
box's sides.
 Corrugating dies—such dies have a wavy surface and may involve spring-loaded punch
elements.
 Multiple-bend dies—A die set may be built in the shape of the desired profile and form several
bends on a single stroke of the press.
 Rocker-type dies—A rocker insert in the punch may allow for some side-to-side motion, in
addition to the up-and-down motion of the press.

SPECIFICATION

Capacity - 200 tonne

Stroke - 200mm

Tank capacity - 800litres

Total H.P. - 25

Maximum thickness for pressing - 16mm

Pressing length - 4000mm

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JODY SHEARING MACHINE

SPECIFICATION

Maximum pressure - 280 kgf/cm²

Capacity - 18 tonne

Voltage - 380v

Frequency - 50Hz

Shearing length - 3100mm

Shearing capacity - 16mm

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POWER HAMMER

Power hammers are mechanical forging hammers that use a non-muscular power source to raise
the hammer preparatory to striking, and accelerate it onto the work being hammered. Also called
"Open Die Power Forging Hammers." They have been used by blacksmiths, bladesmiths,
metalworkers, and manufacturers since the late 1880s, having replaced trip hammers.

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DESIGN AND OPERATION

A typical power hammer consists of a frame, an anvil, and a reciprocating ram holding a hammer
head or die. The workpiece is placed on the lower anvil or die and the head or upper die strikes the
workpiece. The power hammer is a direct descendant of the trip hammer, differing in that the power
hammer stores potential energy in an arrangement of mechanical linkages and springs, in compressed
air, orsteam, and by the fact that it accelerates the ram on the downward stroke. This provides more
force than simply allowing the weight to fall. Earlier designs like trim hammer, steam drop hammers,
board or strap hammers use the power source to raise the ram, but let its fall be propelled solely by
gravity.

Power hammers are rated by weight of moving parts that act directly on the work piece. This includes
the weight of the parts that may consist of upper die, ram, mechanical linkage arms and spring(s) or
ram, piston, and associated connecting rod(s). Specific design elements are dictated by the power
source. The largest power hammer was powered by steam and was rated at 125 short tons (113 t).

TYPES
Power hammers are generally categorized by their power source.

STEAM
Steam hammers use steam to drive the hammer. These tended to be the largest models as the
great energy of steam was needed to operate them. Locomotive works was one location such large
hammers were needed. The workpieces were sometimes so large it required an overhead crane
and several men to position the piece in the hammer, and a man to operate the machine.

MECHANICAL
These hammers tended to be smaller and were operated by a single man both holding the
workpiece and operating the machine. The majority of these mechanical linkage machines were
powered by line shaft flat belt systems or later electric motors that rotated a crank on the machine
that drove the ram.

AIR
Air-power hammers use pneumatics to drive the hammer.

HISTORY
Steam and mechanical power hammers were made into the middle of the 20th century in the United
States. At the end of the 19th century the mechanical power hammer became popular in smaller

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blacksmith and repair shops. These machines were typically rated between 25 and 500 pounds of
falling weight. Many may still be seen in use in small manufacturing and artist-blacksmith shops
today. In the middle of the 20th century power hammers driven by compressed air began to gain
popularity and several manufacturers are currently producing these hammers today.

PROFILE CUTTING MACHINE

in fabrication, a profile consists of the more or less complex outline of a shape to be cut in the sheet
of material using a profile cutting machine .a typical profile cutting machine has a magnetic needle
which traces out the template (made of ferrous material) which is the replica of the profile to be
generated; the cutting head may use a torch which burns oxy-acetylene or other oxy gas.

CUTTING NOZZLE FOR MANUAL CUTTING BLOW PIPE

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 OPERATING DATA FOR MILDSTEEL CUTTING

Nozzle size Thickness to Pressure of

Type a Be cut Oxygen

M.M INCHES In M.M. In Kgf/cm²

0.79 1/32” 3-6 1.5
1.19 3/64” 6-9 3.0
1.59 1/16” 19 - 75 4.0
1.59 1/16” 75 - 100 5.0
1.98 5/64” 100 - 150 6.0
2.38 3/32” 150 - 200 7.5
2.78 7/64” 200 - 250 8.0
3.17 1/8” 250 - 300 8.0

Acetylene pressure should be 0.15Kgf/cm² for all caces

TYPE - A / ANM / ANME / / PNM / PNME

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THANKS

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