Evaporation

Evaporation is a type of vaporization of a liquid that occurs from the surface of a liquid into a gaseous
phase that is not saturated with the evaporating substance. The other type of vaporization is boiling, which is
characterized by bubbles of saturated vapor forming in the liquid phase. Steam produced in a boiler is another
example of evaporation occurring in a saturated vapor phase. Evaporation that occurs directly from the solid
phase below the melting point, as commonly observed with ice at or below freezing or moth crystals is called
sublimation.
Evaporation is an essential part of the water cycle. The sun (solar energy) drives evaporation of water
from oceans, lakes, moisture in the soil, and other sources of water. In hydrology, evaporation and transpiration
(which involves evaporation within plant stomata) are collectively termed evapotranspiration. Evaporation of
water occurs when the surface of the liquid is exposed, allowing molecules to escape and form water vapor; this
vapor can then rise up and form clouds.
Theory
For molecules of a liquid to evaporate, they must be located near
the surface, be moving in the proper direction, and have sufficient kinetic
energy (energy due to its motion) to overcome liquid-phase
intermolecular forces. When only a small proportion of the molecules
meet these criteria, the rate of evaporation is low. Since the kinetic
energy of a molecule is proportional to its temperature, evaporation
proceeds more quickly at higher temperatures. As the faster-moving
molecules escape, the remaining molecules have lower average kinetic
energy, and the temperature of the liquid decreases.

This phenomenon is also called evaporative cooling. This is why

evaporating sweat cools the human body. Evaporation also tends to
proceed more quickly with higher flow rates between the gaseous and
liquid phase and in liquids with higher vapor pressure. For example,
laundry on a clothes line will dry (by evaporation) more rapidly on a
windy day than on a still day. Three key parts to evaporation are heat,
atmospheric pressure (determines the percent humidity) and air
movement.

Factors influencing the rate of evaporation

Concentration of the substance evaporating in the air
If the air already has a high concentration of the substance evaporating, then the given substance will
evaporate more slowly.
Concentration of other substances in the air
If the air is already saturated with other substances, it can have a lower capacity for the substance
evaporating.
Flow rate of air
This is in part related to the concentration points
above. If "fresh" air (i.e., air which is neither already
saturated with the substance nor with other substances) is
moving over the substance all the time, then the concen-
tration of the substance in the air is less likely to go up with
time, thus encouraging faster evaporation. This is the result
of the boundary layer at the evaporation surface decreasing
with flow velocity, decreasing the diffusion distance in the
stagnant layer.
Inter-molecular forces
The stronger the forces keeping the molecules together in the liquid state, the more energy one must get to
escape. This is characterized by the enthalpy of vaporization (heat transferred during pressure)
Pressure
Evaporation happens faster if there is less exertion on the surface keeping the molecules from launching
themselves.
Surface area
A substance that has a larger surface area will evaporate faster, as there are more surface molecules per
unit of volume that are potentially able to escape.
Temperature
of the substance the higher the temperature of the substance the greater the kinetic energy of the
molecules at its surface and therefore the faster the rate of their evaporation.
Transpiration

Overview of transpiration. Stoma in a tomato leaf shown

1-Water is passively transported into the roots and then into the xylem (transport tissues in plants).
2-The forces of cohesion and adhesion cause the water molecules to form a column in the xylem.
3- Water moves from the xylem into the mesophyll (lies between the upper and lower layer) cells,
evaporates from their surfaces and leaves the plant by diffusion through the stomata

Transpiration is the process of water movement through a plant and its evaporation from aerial parts,
such as from leaves but also from stems and flowers. Leaf surfaces are dotted with pores called stomata, and in
most plants they are more numerous on the undersides of the foliage. The stomata are bordered by guard cells and
their stomatal accessory cells (together known as stomatal complex) that open and close the pore. Transpiration
occurs through the stomatal apertures, and can be thought of as a necessary "cost" associated with the opening of
the stomata to allow the diffusion of carbon dioxide gas from the air for photosynthesis. Transpiration also cools
plants, changes osmotic pressure of cells, and enables mass flow of mineral nutrients and water from roots to
shoots.

Mass flow of liquid water from the roots to the leaves is driven in part by capillary action, but primarily
driven by water potential differences. In taller plants and trees, the force of gravity can only be overcome by the
decrease in hydrostatic (water) pressure in the upper parts of the plants due to the diffusion of water out of
stomata into the atmosphere. Water is absorbed at the roots by osmosis, and any dissolved mineral nutrients travel
with it through the xylem.

This table summarizes the factors that affect the rates of transpiration.

Feature How this affects transpiration

Number of More leaves (or spines, or other photosynthesizing organs) means a bigger surface area and more
leaves stomata for gaseous exchange. This will result in greater water loss.
Stomata More stomata will provide more pores for transpiration.
Leaf A leaf with a bigger surface area will transpire faster than a leaf with a smaller surface area.

A waxy cuticle is relatively impermeable to water and water vapour and reduces evaporation from
Presence of the plant surface except via the stomata. A reflective cuticle will reduce solar heating and
plant cuticle temperature rise of the leaf, helping to reduce the rate of evaporation. Tiny hair-like structures
called trichomes on the surface of leaves also can inhibit water loss by creating a high humidity
environment at the surface of leaves.

The rate of transpiration is controlled by stomatal aperture, and these small pores open especially
Light supply for photosynthesis. While there are exceptions to this (such as night or "CAM photosynthesis"), in
general a light supply will encourage open stomata.
Temperature affects the rate in two ways:
Temperature 1) An increased rate of evaporation due to a temperature rise will hasten the loss of water.
2) Decreased relative humidity outside the leaf will increase the water potential gradient.

Relative Drier surroundings gives a steeper water potential gradient, and so increases the rate of
humidity transpiration.

In still air, water lost due to transpiration can accumulate in the form of vapor close to the leaf
surface. This will reduce the rate of water loss, as the water potential gradient from inside to
Wind outside of the leaf is then slightly less. Wind blows away much of this water vapor near the leaf
surface, making the potential gradient steeper and speeding up the diffusion of water molecules
into the surrounding air.
Interception (water)
Interception refers to precipitation that does not reach the soil, but is instead intercepted by the
leaves and branches of plants and the forest floor. It occurs in the canopy (i.e. canopy interception), and
in the forest floor or litter layer (i.e. forest floor interception). Because of evaporation, interception of
liquid water generally leads to loss of that precipitation for the drainage basin, except for cases such as
fog interception.

Some rain collecting on an acer leaf.

Definition of canopy and forest floor interception

Intercepted snowfall does not result in any notable amount of evaporation, and most of the snow
falls off the tree by wind or melts. However, intercepted snow can more easily drift with the wind, out of
the watershed. Conifers have a greater interception capacity than hardwoods. Their needles gives them
more surface area for droplets to adhere to, and they have foliage in spring and fall, therefore
interception also depends on the type of vegetation in a wooded area. The interception depends on the
leaf area index and what kind of leaves they are. Interception may increase erosion or reduce it
depending on the through fall effects.

Depression Storage

Depression storage capacity, in soil science, is the ability of a particular area of land to retain
water in its pits and depressions, thus preventing it from flowing. Depression storage capacity, along
with infiltration capacity, is one of the main factors involved in Horton overland flow, whereby water
volume surpasses both infiltration and depression storage capacity and begins to flow horizontally
across land, possibly leading to flooding and soil erosion. The study of land's depression storage
capacity is important in the fields of geology, ecology, and especially hydrology.
Evapotranspiration
Evapotranspiration (ET) is the sum of evaporation
and plant transpiration from the Earth's land and ocean
surface to the atmosphere. Evaporation accounts for the
movement of water to the air from sources such as the soil,
canopy interception, and waterbodies. Transpiration
accounts for the movement of water within a plant and the
subsequent loss of water as vapor through stomata in its
leaves. Evapotranspiration is an important part of the water
cycle. An element (such as a tree) that contributes to
evapotranspiration can be called an evapotranspirator.

Potential evapotranspiration (PET) is a

representation of the environmental demand for
evapotranspiration and represents the evapotranspiration
rate of a short green crop, completely shading the ground,
of uniform height and with adequate water status in the soil
profile. It is a reflection of the energy available to
evaporate water, and of the wind available to transport the
water vapour from the ground up into the lower
atmosphere. Actual evapotranspiration is said to equal
potential evapotranspiration when there is ample water.

Evapotranspiration and the water cycle

Evapotranspiration is a significant water loss from drainage basins. Types of vegetation and land
use significantly affect evapotranspiration, and therefore the amount of water leaving a drainage basin.
Because water transpired through leaves comes from the roots, plants with deep reaching roots can more
constantly transpire water. Herbaceous plants generally transpire less than woody plants because they
usually have less extensive foliage. Conifer forests tend to have higher rates of evapotranspiration than
deciduous forests, particularly in the dormant and early spring seasons. This is primarily due to the
enhanced amount of precipitation intercepted and evaporated by conifer foliage during these periods.
Factors that affect evapotranspiration include the plant's growth stage or level of maturity, percentage of
soil cover, solar radiation, humidity, temperature, and wind. Isotope measurements indicate transpiration
is the larger component of evapotranspiration.

Through evapotranspiration, forests reduce water yield, except in unique ecosystems called cloud
forests. Trees in cloud forests collect the liquid water in fog or low clouds onto their surface, which drips
down to the ground. These trees still contribute to evapotranspiration, but often collect more water than
they evaporate or transpire.

Estimating Evapotranspiration

Indirect methods

Pan evaporation data can be used to estimate lake evaporation, but transpiration and evaporation
of intercepted rain on vegetation are unknown. There are three general approaches to estimate
evapotranspiration indirectly.

Catchment water balance

Evapotranspiration may be estimated by creating an equation of the water balance of a drainage

basin. The equation balances the change in water stored within the basin (S) with inputs and exports:

The input is precipitation (P), and the exports are evapotranspiration (which is to be estimated),
streamflow (Q), and groundwater recharge (D). If the change in storage, precipitation, streamflow, and
groundwater recharge are all estimated, the missing flux, ET, can be estimated by rearranging the above
equation as follows: