Accepted Manuscript

Title: A review of sex estimation techniques during

examination of skeletal remains in forensic anthropology
casework

Author: Kewal Krishan Preetika M. Chatterjee Tanuj

Kanchan Sandeep Kaur Neha Baryah R.K. Singh

PII: S0379-0738(16)30020-2
DOI: http://dx.doi.org/doi:10.1016/j.forsciint.2016.02.007
Reference: FSI 8314

To appear in: FSI

Received date: 20-1-2015

Revised date: 2-2-2016
Accepted date: 6-2-2016

Please cite this article as: K. Krishan, P.M. Chatterjee, T. Kanchan, S. Kaur, N. Baryah,
R.K. Singh, A review of sex estimation techniques during examination of skeletal
remains in forensic anthropology casework, Forensic Science International (2016),
http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.forsciint.2016.02.007

This is a PDF file of an unedited manuscript that has been accepted for publication.
As a service to our customers we are providing this early version of the manuscript.
The manuscript will undergo copyediting, typesetting, and review of the resulting proof
before it is published in its final form. Please note that during the production process
errors may be discovered which could affect the content, and all legal disclaimers that
apply to the journal pertain.
Acknowledgments

Acknowledgements

This review article on methodological issues has been the outcome of the

authors’ experiences (KK and TK) in the field of sex estimation and forensic

anthropology of over a decade. It is hoped that the results of these experiences would

t
ip
be fruitful to future researchers. The corresponding author wishes to acknowledge

Department of Anthropology (UGC Centre for Advanced Studies in Anthropology, DST

cr
PURSE Grant), Panjab University, Chandigarh, India for providing platform for writing

us
such exhaustive work in forensic anthropology.

an
M
d
p te
ce
Ac

Page 1 of 39
*Title Page (with authors and addresses)

Review article

Title: A review of sex estimation techniques during examination of skeletal

remains in forensic anthropology casework

t
ip
Authors with Affiliations

Kewal Krishan1, MSc, PhD (Associate Professor)

cr
Preetika M. Chatterjee, 1, MSc (UGC Junior Research Fellow)

us
Tanuj Kanchan2, DFM, MD (Associate Professor)

Sandeep Kaur1, MSc, PhD (Research Scholar)

Neha Baryah1, MSc (Research Scholar)

RK Singh3, MD, (Professor and Head) an

M
d
te

1
Department of Anthropology, Panjab University, Chandigarh, India
2
Department of Forensic Medicine and Toxicology, Kasturba Medical College (Affiliated
p

to Manipal University), Mangalore, India

ce

3
Department of Forensic Medicine, Pt. J.N.M. Medical College, Raipur, Government of
Chhattisgarh, India
Ac

Funding: Centre for Advanced Study (CAS) in Anthropology, DST PURSE grant,
Department of Anthropology, Panjab University, Chandigarh, India

Conflict of interest- The authors declare that there is no conflict of interest regarding
this manuscript

Page 2 of 39
Corresponding Author:

Dr Kewal Krishan, PhD

Department of Anthropology,
Panjab University, Chandigarh-160 014, India
E-mail: gargkk@yahoo.com, kewalkrishan@pu.ac.in
Phone: +91-172-2534224 (Office)

t
+91-9876048205 (Mobile)

ip
cr
us
an
M
d
p te
ce
Ac

Page 3 of 39
*Highlights (for review)

Highlights

 The article reviews sex estimation methods used in forensic anthropology

casework

 It also discusses the reliability of morphological, metric, molecular and

radiographic methods

t
ip
 Direct methods of sex estimation are found to be more reliable than the other

cr
methods

 GM and DSP methods are emerging as valid and widely used techniques in

us
forensic anthropology

an
M
ed
pt
ce
Ac

Page 4 of 39
*Manuscript (without author details)

Review article

A review of sex estimation techniques during examination of skeletal remains

in forensic anthropology casework

ABSTRACT

Sex estimation is considered as one of the essential parameters in forensic

t
anthropology casework, and requires foremost consideration in the examination of

ip
skeletal remains. Forensic anthropologists frequently employ morphologic and metric

cr
methods for sex estimation of human remains. These methods are still very

us
imperative in identification process in spite of the advent and accomplishment of

molecular techniques. A constant boost in the use of imaging techniques in forensic

an
anthropology research has facilitated to derive as well as revise the available

population data. These methods however, are less reliable owing to high variance
M
and indistinct landmark details. The present review discusses the reliability and

reproducibility of various analytical approaches; morphological, metric, molecular

ed

and radiographic methods in sex estimation of skeletal remains. Numerous studies

have shown a higher reliability and reproducibility of measurements taken directly on

pt

the bones and hence, such direct methods of sex estimation are considered to be
ce

more reliable than the other methods. Geometric morphometric (GM) method and

Diagnose sexuelle probabiliste (DSP) method are emerging as valid methods and widely
Ac

used techniques in forensic anthropology in terms of accuracy and reliability.

Besides, the newer 3D methods are shown to exhibit specific sexual dimorphism

patterns not readily revealed by traditional methods. Development of newer and

better methodologies for sex estimation as well as re-evaluation of the existing ones

will continue in the endeavour of forensic researchers for more accurate results.

Page 5 of 39
Keywords

Forensic Sciences; Forensic anthropology; Sex estimation methods; Skeletal

remains; Direct methods versus indirect methods

1. Introduction

t
Forensic anthropology deals with the identification of human remains in a

ip
legal context. It refers to the application of the science of physical/ biological

cr
anthropology in forensic context [1,2]. Forensic anthropology thus, is a

us
multidisciplinary field that deals with a wide spectrum of issues ranging from

osteology to human physiognomy [3]. In the present scenario, forensic anthropology

an
has acquired the status of a full-fledged sub-discipline in the broad arena of Forensic

Sciences. Forensic anthropology is a complete speciality in various universities and

M
forensic institutes worldwide, and is a major division of professional societies such as

American Academy of Forensic Sciences (AAFS), International Association of

ed

Identification (IAI), International Academy of Legal Medicine (IALM), International

Association of Forensic Sciences (IAFS), European Academy of Forensic Sciences

pt

(EAFS) and other associations and societies of forensic sciences and legal
ce

medicine. In addition, there are forensic anthropology professional societies such as

British Association of Forensic Anthropology (BAFA), Forensic Anthropology Society

Ac

of Europe (FASE- A section of the IALM), Brazilian Association of Forensic

Anthropology (ABRAF- Associação Brasileira de Antropologia Forense), Latin

American Forensic Anthropology Association (ALAF), American Board of Forensic

Anthropology (ABFA), Society of Forensic Anthropologists (SOFA) and Midwest

Bioarchaeology and Forensic Anthropology Association (BARFAA).

Page 6 of 39
 The need for identification of remains arises in both natural as well as man-

made disasters where the dead bodies may be highly decomposed, dismembered

and mutilated beyond recognition. The identification of highly decomposed, mutilated

or skeletal remains is a humanitarian need and imperative for legal recourse [4].

Identification is of paramount importance in forensic cases where decomposed

t
bodies and human remains are brought by the criminal investigating agencies for

ip
examination. Bones are the framework of the vertebrate body, and thus the source of

cr
information about the adaptive mechanisms to its environment [5]. The study of

us
bones and their anatomical measurements not only gives information about their

origin but also ancestry, sex, stature and age at death thus, helping in establishing
an
the identity of an individual. Forensic anthropologists are thus, involved in death

investigations, and assist in determining the identity, cause and manner of death.
M
Identification in forensic anthropology is a two-step procedure that includes

assessment of group and individualistic traits. Initial estimation of group traits such
ed

as age, sex, stature, and ancestry serves as an important clue to identification that is

followed by examination of individual traits. The individualistic characteristics of the

pt

person such as moles, scars, tattoo marks, or any abnormality and deformity evident
ce

on a body in a decomposition state and/or of the skeleton assist in the ante-mortem

and post-mortem comparison of the traits. The whole procedure is aimed at

Ac

narrowing down the search from a group to an individual. The comparison process

especially in the mass fatality incidents is quite difficult to achieve due to the lack of

ante-mortem data for comparative analysis [6-8].

Sex estimation is an integral and foremost step for developing a reliable

biological profile during examination of skeletal remains. Accurate estimation of sex

is vital in estimation of age, ancestry and stature as there are observable differences
3

Page 7 of 39
in ageing and growth patterns between sexes, and variations in morphological traits

related to ancestry [5,9]. It is relatively more convenient and reliable to sex an

unknown adult skeleton than a neonate or a juvenile one owing to the insignificant

sex differences exhibited in the skeletal morphology during the pre-pubertal period.

Geometric and statistical shape analysis methods have been utilized by some

t
studies for sexing during pre-pubertal period, and are largely focussed on pelvis and

ip
skull [10]. All in all it is nearly impossible to sex the sub-adult skeleton on the basis of

cr
the morphological features. On the other hand, all parts of the adult skeleton varying

us
from small bones of hand and foot [11], long bones [12], patella [13], pelvis [14,15],

sternum [16] and cranium and its parts [17-19] have been utilized for sex estimation
an
in different populations worldwide. The reliability and accuracy of sex prediction

depends directly on the anatomical region of the available skeletal remains [20].
M
2. Sex estimation – An overview of factors influencing skeletal morphology

Biological sex represents the genotype while gender is the phenotype of the
ed

individual. Sex is the biological characterization of sexually reproducing species

based on reproductive role and attributes [21], that is shown to exhibit inter and intra
pt

population variability. Genetic characteristics varies according to functional

ce

dissimilarities among sexes which ultimately are depicted in body tissues [22]. Thus,

the ultimate function adopted by the tissue rules the final appearance and various
Ac

responses of the same. Biomechanical loading and stress along with the functions

undertaken by the body part determines the morphology of that part [1].

Besides, secular changes are observed in the size and height [23], and in the

size of individual bones [23-25] between generations. Males exhibit larger stature,

more robust cranial and facial features, greater muscularity, strength and speed as

compared to females [26]. Differences in pre- and post-natal hormone levels, growth
4

Page 8 of 39
rates and diseases too have differential effects in both sexes [27]. Age related

changes are observed in skeletal material that at times can cause erroneous

conclusions. It is quite possible that post-menopausal females develop more

masculine cranial features while young men show more gracile and feminine cranial

features [28]. While sexing the human remains especially the skulls, the investigator

t
should also take into consideration the pedomorphism in the human skeleton. The

ip
human adult skulls may retain some juvenile traits which may result in erroneous

cr
conclusions. The female skulls are much more pedomorphic than the males. After

us
the onset of puberty, the differences between the male and female skull become

clearer as the male skull develops some adult characteristics, however, the female

skulls tend to retain pedomorphic features [29].

an
Pelvis followed by skull is reported as the most reliable parts in sexing of an
M
adult or an immature skeletal remains utilizing metric or non–metric approaches [30].

Sexing techniques are primarily directed to the pelvis for exhibiting the reproductive
ed

differences in the bone, and the cranium in which the variability in size and

morphologies among the sexes is represented at its best [31]. Apart from the pelvis
pt

and skull, long bones are the most actively studied skeletal elements [32,33]
ce

followed by ribs [34,35], vertebrae [36], clavicle [37], sternum [38,39] and the bones

of hands and feet [40].

Ac

The utilization of skeletal material in sexing is based on its anatomical position

in the body for its variable appearance and function in males and females. This

explains the greater attention received by some bones in sex prediction over others

[41]. Accuracy of sexing of unknown skeletal remains depends on the element

present for analysis and its preservation state [42].

3. Approaches in sex estimation

5

Page 9 of 39
 Two principle approaches in sex estimation are based on the methods of

Iscan and Derrick [43] and Phenice [44]. These approaches form the basis of

multiple methodologies developed prior to 2000. In spite of continual improvements

in the existing methods of sex estimation and introduction of new methods from time

to time, there is still a great demand for generating population specific standards

t
accurately using more reliable methods [31,45]. Sex estimation methods have been

ip
developed using almost every part and element of the skeleton with varying degree

cr
of accuracies.

us
The methods used commonly for sex estimation can be broadly classified as

non-metric (morphologic) or metric in nature. These are very imperative in

an
identification process in spite of the advent and accomplishment of molecular

techniques like DNA fingerprinting [4]. Molecular methods are highly sophisticated,
M
and demand higher level of skill and latest equipments. These methods have greater

degree of reliability, but are complicated, invasive, highly expensive, and time
ed

consuming [46,47].

Population differences in skeletal framework have a great influence on metric

pt

and non-metric assessment of the biological profile. A minimum threshold of 95%

ce

representing the optimum level of sex estimation accuracy and reliability is

acceptable in forensic setting which can vary depending upon the condition of
Ac

remains available for examination [1]. Burning of corpse causes shrinkage of bones

in the range of 10% to 12% in addition to deformation rendering it near impossible to

allocate morphologic features that are sex specific [46]. Some studies [48-51]

showed that although, the heat related fragmentation, warping and the dimensional

changes in the bones affect the sex determination process, nevertheless, high

accuracy can be achieved with new osteometric references for sex determination in
6

Page 10 of 39
human remains. However, in cases of badly decomposed or incomplete specimens

which cannot provide the required information sufficient enough to allow diagnosis,

morphologic methods need to be supplemented with molecular methods. Thus,

simpler methods are usually applied initially, and to adopt a higher method, the

factors to be kept in mind are degree of completeness, state of preservation of the

t
skeleton, degree of clarity of features present and precision required in a particular

ip
case. Chronology and geographic origin forms the basis of selecting a parameter to

cr
be included in any sex prediction model [52]. The sexual probability of an individual

us
and the bone parameters are related to one another in a non–linear manner [53,54].

4. Methods of sex estimation

4.1 Morphological methods

an
Morphological methods rely on the visual assessment of sexually dimorphic
M
traits [53] giving valuable results and quick preliminary assessment. These traits

however, are greatly influenced by the level of subjectivity [56,57]. Many features of
ed

sex assessment like glabellar prominence, shape of the pubic bone or mandibular

ramus flexure can only be assessed morphologically [58,59]. These features are
pt

difficult to measure, show inter and intra observer errors, classification difficulties and
ce

problems in analysis. Morphological assessment gives better results with intact

bones while their degree of accuracy tends to decrease in cases of fragmented

Ac

bones or incomplete skeletons. Walker [54] used the criteria given by Buikstra and

Ubelaker [45] for visual scoring on the rating scale of 1-5 and reported a sexing

accuracy of 90% for skulls. The features were also subjected to univariate analysis

with a sexing accuracy of 70%, and multivariate analysis with a sexing accuracy of

80%-88%. In the study conducted by Loth and Henneberg [60], the accuracy

achieved was 81% using morphologic analysis of symphyseal region and anterior
7

Page 11 of 39
body of the mandible in juveniles, however, this accuracy decreased to 64% in a

blind test conducted by Scheuer [61] using the same method, exhibiting great

dissimilarity among the two studies. These observations emphasise on the fact that

visual scoring methods have limited objectivity and reproducibility [47,54,62].

4.2 Metric methods

t
Metric studies are based on the basic principle of variability in male and

ip
female dimensions and mostly utilize different statistical methods to derive models/

cr
equations that can be used for sexing of individuals. Numerical results obtained from

us
metric studies are easier to assess and interpret [47,63-67]. In a study by Franklin et

al. [68] on five tribes of South Africa depicting inter-population differences; nine
an
measurements on the mandible presented male and female differences among

groups which were compared using ANOVA (Analysis Of Variance).

M
Metric studies have utilized different statistical approaches such as simple

proportions, limiting points, identification points, sectioning points, demarking points,

ed

logistic regression analysis and discriminant function analysis for sexing [69,70]. The

accuracy in sexing obviously may vary based on the statistical method utilized. Apart
pt

from sexing based on measurements directly, indices have been derived for their
ce

applicability in estimation of sex. These indices, though independent of other factors

such as body build and stature have not yielded large sex differences [16,71-72].
Ac

4.2.1 Methods utilizing digital radiography

Apart from studies on the various bone collections, researchers have

observed that digital forensic osteology provides a similar accuracy in sexing as by

other classical osteometric studies [73,74]. While the accuracy ranges from 85-95%

in traditional osteometric methods for sex estimation [54,61,73-84], the accuracy in

the tunes of 96% has been reported using virtual morphognostic sexing methods
8

Page 12 of 39
[85]. Digital radiographs provide an alternative and accurate measuring technique

that can be employed in cases of semi-fleshed, charred or otherwise highly

decomposed and degraded samples where maceration cannot be tried prior to the

analysis. Radiographs taken directly on bones [86] or on living individuals [85] have

shown almost similar results in terms of high accuracies in sex estimation, as

t
obtained from minimum supero-inferior neck diameter and maximum head diameter

ip
of femur. Congruent inferences have been reported in black Malawians by Igbigbi

cr
and Msamati [87] from digital radiographs and X-ray films in a retrospective study of

us
496 pelvis with in the age range of 18-70 years where femoral head diameter was

used to determine sex. Both the diameters i.e. vertical and antero-posterior
an
diameters were considered and identification and demarking points used for

Nigerians were employed. These methods were less sophisticated; fewer

M
measurements of femoral head diameter were required, and high level of accuracy

was obtained [88].

ed

4.2.2 Methods utilizing Computed Tomography (CT) and Magnetic Resonance

Imaging (MRI)
pt

CT and MRI are non-invasive methods having vital role in actual forensic
ce

scenario along with a systematic up-gradation and re-evaluation of traditional

anthropological methods making them more responsive and accurate in the ever
Ac

changing contemporary populations [88]. Although these methods are quite

expensive to use, they provide encouraging results in sex determination. Multislice

computed tomography employed by Biwasaka et al. [89] in Japanese sample using

greater sciatic notch to construct a three dimensional image for analyzing sex

provided an accuracy of 89.4%. The observations appear to be promising as it is

Page 13 of 39
reported that sexing could be done for deeper and more resistant parts using this

technique in forensic case scenario.

Rooppakhun et al. [90] in their study of craniometric assessment from Thai

population applied an advanced method on the data derived from 3-D computed

tomography. This method studied the 3-D anatomical land marks in a digital format

t
instead of any physical measurements on a sample of 91 Thai dry skulls. The study

ip
revealed that Thai males were larger mainly in the parameters such as maximum

cr
cranial length, basion-bregma height, nasion-basion length, nasion-basion breadth

us
and bizygomatic breadth. In another study, volume–rendered cranial CT scans were

examined to evaluate 50 crania for morphological sex estimation by Ramsthaler et

an
al. [91]. Utilizing the scoring system adapted from Knussmann, 60 of 100 crania were

identified as males and 40 of 100 crania as females with an accuracy level of 96%.
M
Arcus superciliaris alone allowed the most accurate sex estimation among males

(85.5%) and females (84.2%). Besides, insignificant difference between accuracy

ed

rates among the two sexes and very low inter-observer biases were observed.

4.2.3 Geometric morphometric methods

pt

Geometric morphometric analysis is a relatively new method used to quantify

ce

morphology of rigid structures having curves and bulges which cannot be analysed

and mostly ignored by traditional methods [56,83,92,93]. These methods used to

Ac

quantify shape since 1980’s have gained popularity in physical anthropology in the

recent times [94,95]. It allows detailed assessment of morphological traits which

display differences among skeletons. The problem of overlooking of important

morphological characters can be avoided at par with its ability to include surface

topography using x, y coordinates [56]. The analysis is done in such a manner that

the effect of size as a parameter is eliminated and even subtle differences are
10

Page 14 of 39
considered increasing the accuracy level manifold [83,88,96]. In this method the

sample is photographed and put into a computer [83], the landmark coordinates are

then digitized and analysed using generalised procrustes analysis in which these are

represented as points in the shape space of Kendall [97] through the process of

scaling and alignment. It uses centroid size (CS) in which all the specimens are

t
scaled. Subsequent multivariate analysis is done using superimposed coordinates

ip
and CS. Principal Component Analysis with covariance matrix is done on

cr
generalised procrustes analysis variables. A multivariate analysis of covariance

us
(MANCOVA) is then done using Principal Component Analysis scores to check

significance of size and sex on shape of male and female in each group. These
an
groups are further subjected to Discriminant Analysis of covariance if satisfactory

results are not obtained.

M
Kimmerle et al. [83] used Microscribe 3D digitizer to analyse 3D coordinates of

16 craniofacial landmarks near mandible and alveolar bone on 118 adults from W.M.
ed

Bass donated collection and Forensic Data Bank. The study observed a significant

influence of sex on the shape but not on size in American Black and Whites thus,
pt

contrasting the findings of Rosas and Bastir [95] who reported great influence of size
ce

and sex on shape in craniofacial region using 2D geometric morphometrics for sex

estimation in Portugese population. However, results considering both size and

Ac

shape outperformed discriminant functions developed using traditional osteometric

methods. A study by Styen et al. [56] using TPSDIG program to digitize landmarks

observed narrower greater sciatic notch shape in South African black males that was

otherwise wider in black and white females with scattered shape variation in white

males rendering it unfit to be used for sex estimation. With Geometric Morphometric

Analysis using 2D photographs digitization [98] an average of 90.9% accuracy was

11

Page 15 of 39
reported with both semi-landmark and multivariate statistical methods for the greater

sciatic notch while the accuracy with shape variables for ischio-pubic complex was

93.4% and 90.1% for DFA. Although landmark based Geometric Morphometric

Analysis appears to be the most appropriate method, its biggest disadvantage is that

the available number of landmarks may not be sufficient to define the shape of a

t
specimen. Besides, it remains a time consuming procedure [83].

ip
4.2.4 Diagnose Sexuelle Probabiliste method (DSP)

cr
Murail et al. [99] devised a virtual method of sex determination based on

us
metric database derived from 2040 hipbones of known sex from twelve different

reference populations [100]. The database is based on the hypothesis that all the
an
modern human populations share a common pattern of sexual dimorphism in their

hip bone. In order to validate this method, four different geographical areas namely
M
Europe, Africa, Asia, and North America were included along with one to three

subgroups for each population group. Seventeen measurements of hipbone of

ed

individuals with known age and sex were taken into account. In this method, the

common sexual dimorphism pattern was derived using discriminant analysis.

pt

Variables were selected on the basis of their discriminant power and preservation
ce

rate. This pooled sample from worldwide collections was utilized to develop DSP.

Sex diagnosis was based on any combination of at least four variables among those
Ac

which have been proposed. Sex determination was done by comparing the

measurements derived metrically and computing the probability of specimens for

males and females. Chapman et al. [100] examined the accuracy of DSP as

compared to other methods of virtual sex determination and its accuracy for both

hipbone and pelvic girdle to determine its utility in forensic casework. They achieved

100% accuracy between the manual and virtual DSP method. DSP was reported to
12

Page 16 of 39
be a robust method and applicable in forensic casework including both hipbone and

pelvic girdle with 100% accuracy. Mestekova et al. [101] tested the reliability of DSP

method on CT images of the hip bone from 52 and 54 females of a modern French

sample. They took 10 linear measurements on three dimensional CT images and

achieved 92.3% accuracy in males and 97.2% accuracy in females. The study

t
supported the view that DSP is a reliable method of sexing based on CT images of

ip
hip bone in French sample too. A large number of combinations make sex

cr
determination of both well preserved as well as damaged sample, a simple and easy

us
criteria, thus, making DSP one of the methods of choice for forensic purposes in this

regard.
an
5. Analysis and models employed in sexing of remains

Metric studies have utilized different statistical approaches such as simple

M
proportions, identification points, sectioning points, demarking points, logistic

regression analysis and discriminant function analysis for sexing. The accuracy in
ed

sexing obviously may vary based on the statistical method utilized. Of all the

statistical methods, discriminant function analysis (DFA) remains the most widely
pt

employed statistical method in sexing of skeletal material as of date.

ce

5.2.1 Discriminant Function Analysis

Osteometric analysis with use of discriminant function statistics has become a

Ac

popular trend to determine sex of unidentified remains because it eliminates

subjective criteria for sex estimation and is simple to use without any prior

experience [69]. In cases of poor preservation of skeletal material, indices and

discriminant functions have a vital role in estimation of sex [31]. DFA helps in

assigning any subject having unknown identity to one of the two or more groups

based on linear multivariate observation [47]. Discriminant functions obtained in FDA

13

Page 17 of 39
are highly population specific [11,63,102,103-105] and the percentage accuracy vary

from one measurement set to another [31]. It is applied to analyse a set of axes

which give highest possibility of discrimination among two or more groups [106].

Firstly, it distinguishes among the groups and computes classification scores. After

that the individuals are classified according to the group for which they show highest

t
classification score. These are then cross validated to evaluate the accuracy

ip
achieved. In cross validation analysis, the cases are classified with the functions

cr
derived from all the cases other than the case that is to be classified. Thus, a series

us
of analysis is performed; excluding one individual at a time i.e. leave one out cross

validation [96].
an
This method was used in the studies carried out by Thieme and Schull [107],

Hanihara [108], and Giles [109]. Hanihara [108] reported 90% accuracy with DFA on
M
a Japanese sample using just three cranial dimensions. Degree of resistance to

taphonomic phenomenon is more in skull as compared to pelvis [110-111].

ed

Availability of complete crania is a rare occurrence in different archaeological and

forensic settings. Thus, DFA is also utilized on robust skeletal elements as femur
pt

[63,73,105], calcaneous and talus [112]. The results of DFA are highly dependent on
ce

sample size, robusticity and sexual dimorphism of the population for which the

discriminant functions have been developed [54]. Sakaue [113] reported distal
Ac

articular surface of humerus to be a good sex indicator (95% accuracy) using

stepwise DFA while a study by Mall et al. [114] reports humeral head to be a reliable

variable in sexing with an overall accuracy of 93.15%. These differences in accuracy

are attributed to population differences in sex estimation. Bidmos and Dayal [115]

used univariate and multivariate DFA for sex estimation using sixty White South

African tali and reported accuracy of 85% with length measurements giving more
14

Page 18 of 39
reliable sexual dimorphism. DFA has been used to determine sex from bones such

as patella, pubis, and based on lateral cephalometry [116-118], commonly attaining

an accuracy ranging from 83.3% in patella to 100% in lateral radiographic

cephalometry [87].

5.2.2 Fordisc

t
Fordisc utilizes the global database of known sex samples available in

ip
forensic data bank [fdb] to compute discriminant functions for sexing, stature

cr
estimation and race determination using various anthropometric measurements

us
[119,120]. Along with that this software also performs the similar tests using Howells

data on world wide variation among past populations [121,122]. It also provides
an
accurate statistical data best suited for forensic anthropologists. The basis of this

software is the very nature of discriminant function analysis which implies the
M
knowledge of ancestry of an unknown specimen in order to get adequately reliable

results. Fordisc 2.0, an earlier version was able to analyse sex and ancestry as
ed

separate units. With the newer Fordisc 3.0 versions, selection of appropriate groups,

use of large combination of measurements at ones disposal, and use of the whole
pt

forensic data bank added up to the accuracy of the software but was unable to
ce

enhance the reliability. The basis of published discriminant functions for sex

estimation is pp>0.5, and Fordisc 3.0 uses this by default in the study conducted by
Ac

Guyomarch and Bruzek [120]. Choice of function relies on the degree of

comparability of unknown sample with reference data bank and availability of certain

required measurements. While some published discriminant functions [75] show

better results as compared to Fordisc 3.0 software, a few others do not show very

encouraging results. A study shows that the French samples give better results with

African American discriminant functions than compared to those with White

15

Page 19 of 39
individual based discriminant functions [120]. A degree of accuracy of 63.7% on the

whole and 77.8% in French subsample obtained in this study however, does not fulfil

the reliability criteria needed in forensic anthropology case work. One of the major

problems in the study [120] is the non-homogeneous nature of forensic data bank

and group selection. Another criticism raised on this software is related to ancestry

t
assessment [123-125], however, continuous reviews are being done starting from its

ip
basics to its applicability [126-129] in forensic field.

cr
5.2.3 Neural network method

us
Neural network method, also known as multilayer preceptor method, is one of

the least preferred methods in sexing since very high mathematical skills are
an
required to develop models based on this method. This despite of the fact that the

derived models are more efficient in depicting relationships among variables than
M
DFA and other multivariate non-linear methods of sex estimation having greater

prudent model designs [52,53,130]. Instead of an equation this method uses a matrix
ed

having values represented as nodes similar to that of the neural network of human

brain to show the relationship among variables. This network comprises of an input
pt

layer and an output layer having one or several inter-linked layers. All types of
ce

nonlinear functions between input and output can be modelled without any

requirement of distributional assumptions as in case of DFA. In a comparison study

Ac

conducted by Jardin et al. [52], neural network method having one hidden layer

showed higher accuracy of 93.4% with lesser asymmetry among male and females

than compared to other two methods i.e. DFA and linear regression method using

four parameters obtained from upper part of femur. In an earlier study conducted on

patella using the same method, Mahfouz et al. [53] had reported higher sex

16

Page 20 of 39
estimation accuracy of 96% when compared to DFA that reported an accuracy of

90.3%.

6. Molecular methods

Poor preservation and loss of skeletal elements sometimes does not allow

sex diagnosis using morphological or morphometric methods. In such situations,

t
molecular methods come to the rescue of the investigators [131]. Molecular sex

ip
typing using PCR multiplex [Genderplex] [132] uses two different sized amelogenin

cr
targets, one STY target and four X chromosomal STRs featuring short length

us
amplicons. It is a very useful technique in sex estimation due to the reason that it

utilizes parallel testing at multiple sites of genomes. These methods are useful in
an
less degraded and high quality DNA sample, however, short amplicons may prove to

be helpful in analysis of heavily degraded DNA also.

M
7. Conclusions and recommendations

Defining a biological profile and identification are both essential in forensic

ed

anthropology casework. Processes of sex estimation are ambiguous until after

growth spurt and consequently, the sex estimation is more challenging in

pt

adolescents when compared to adult population [133,134]. Accuracy of sexing

ce

depends on the element present for analysis and its preservation state when sexing

unknown skeletal remains and also varies with one measurement set to another.
Ac

Morphological observations are simpler to make but harder to judge as most of them

depend on nutrition, occupation, ancestry and geographical origins [135]. However,

in the hands of an experienced observer, this method can allow accurate and precise

sex assessment. Traditional metric methods although more objective in essence,

often suffer from inter and intra-observer discrepancies if landmarks are not properly

defined. To defend ones findings in the court of law, nowadays forensic scientists
17

Page 21 of 39
preferentially use a combination of non– metric and metric methods. Although digital

image processing method for sexing using digital photographs and technical drawing

software to trace and measure required dimensions provides high percentage of

accuracy [136], inter-population variance needs to be taken care of. This method can

serve as an alternative and not as replacement to osteometric methods, latter being

t
more economical. CT and MRI are although expensive methods nevertheless are

ip
useful in actual forensic scenarios, systematic re-evaluation and improvement of

cr
existing anthropological methods pertaining to secular changes in and among

us
populations in a non-invasive manner. Besides, volume-rendered CCT images are

useful in collecting morphological sex estimation parameters. However, higher

an
degree of variance has been observed in certain measurements when derived from

radiological methods and the direct measurement methods [137]. The problem of
M
excluding the assessment of shape variation between landmarks in linear

measurement analysis is greatly omitted by the use of Geometric Morphometrics. It

ed

is extremely useful in morphometric difference studies among skeletal collections

allowing the researcher to visually identify exact areas causing variation among
pt

specimens. DSP method of sex determination from hip bones has proved to be a
ce

reliable method too in sexing following successful testing on many populations.

Discriminant function analysis is the most popular statistical model for sex
Ac

estimation enabling the forensic scientists to update their anthropometric data

[138,139]. Discriminant function analysis utilizes the group differences by

determining the combination of variables giving best prediction of sex assessment.

However, it requires the variables to follow a multilayer normal distribution,

congruent values of variance- covariance matrices and low correlation among

variables thus, giving DFA somewhat rigid nature. Further, DFA using Fordisc 3.0
18

Page 22 of 39
version software can provide reliable results only if the geographic origin of the

sample is available in the databank [140]. This is useful in comparison studies where

the sample can be compared with specific databases. Neural network method can

provide more accurate results than DFA but is more complicated and time

consuming. On the other hand, the molecular methods are highly sophisticated,

t
expensive, skill based and invasive, thus used in cases in which classical

ip
anthropological methods are not applicable at all or the results obtained are

cr
insufficiently reliable.

us
8. Present scenario and future perspectives

Traditionally forensic anthropologists have always preferred primary data to

an
be derived from direct physical examination of the sample. In contemporary era

where well documented skeletal collections are a rare occurrence and those
M
available are not representative of the current population owing to secular changes,

Digital Radiographs, CT Scans and MRIs provide an alternative to this problem

ed

[141]. Many studies however, support the reliability and reproducibility of data

derived by direct measurements on skeletal material than that derived from

pt

biomedical imaging techniques. Continuous boost in the use of imaging techniques

ce

in biomedical field has facilitated anthropologists to derive data using indirect

measurements, however, higher degree of variance has been observed in all these
Ac

methods due to indistinct nature of landmark details.

Geometric Morphometrics and DSP method are emerging as valid methods in

sexing. New 3D methods can show specific sexual dimorphism patterns not readily

revealed by the traditional methods. However, that does not undermine the

significance of already standardized and widely used methods for sex estimation in

forensic anthropology. In forensic case scenario, quicker and more efficient methods
19

Page 23 of 39
are and will be employed preferentially to analyze skeletal remains for sex estimation

studies. Development of newer and better methodologies for sex estimation as well

as re-evaluation of the existing ones will continue in the endeavour of forensic

researchers for more accurate results.

t
References

ip
[1] K.R. Burns, Forensic Anthropology Training Manual, 3 rd Ed, Pearson/Prentice

cr
Hall, Upper Saddle River, N.J., 2012.

us
[2] S. Black, Forensic anthropology—regulation in the United Kingdom, Sci. Justice

43 (4) (2003) 187–192

[3]
an
C. Cattaneo, Forensic Anthropology: developments of a classical discipline in

the new millennium, Forensic Sci. Int. 165 (2007) 185–193.

M
[4] A. Kemkes-Grottenthaler, The reliability of forensic osteology - a case in point

case study, Forensic Sci. Int. 117 (2001) 65–72.

ed

[5] T.D. White, P.A. Folkens, The Human Bone Manual, Academic press

publications, Elsevier, 2005.

pt

[6] D.W. Steadman, W.D. Haglund, The scope of anthropological contributions to

ce

human rights investigations, J. Forensic Sci. 50 (1) (2005) 23–30.,

[7] M.P. Djuric, Anthropological data in individualisation of skeletal remains from a

Ac

forensic context in Kosovo—a case history, J. Forensic Sci. 49 (3) (2004) 464–

468.

[8] D. Komar, Lessons from Srebrenica: the contributions and limitations of

physical anthropology in identifying victims of war crimes, J. Forensic Sci. 48

(4) (2003) 713–716.

20

Page 24 of 39
[9] T. D. Stewart, Essentials of Forensic Anthropology, Springfield, Illinois: C.C.

Thomas, 1979.

[10] Dawson C, Ross D, Mallet X, Sex Determination, In S. Black, E. Ferguson,

Forensic Anthropology: 2000 to 2010, (2011). Boca Raton, FL, CRC Press;

2011.

t
[11] E. Gualdi-Russo, Sex determination from the talus and calcaneus

ip
measurements, Forensic Sci. Int. 171 (2007) 151–156.

cr
[12] Kranioti EF, Apostol MA. Sexual dimorphism of the tibia in contemporary

us
Greeks, Italians, and Spanish: forensic implications. Int. J. Leg. Med.

2014 (In Press), DOI: 10.1007/s00414-014-1045-6.

[13]
an
M.R. Dayal, M.A. Bidmos, Discriminating sex in South African blacks using

patella dimensions, J. Forensic Sci. 50 (6) (2005) 1294–1297.

M
[14] Y. Hayashizaki, A. Usui, Y. Hosokai, J. Sakai, M. Funayama, Sex

determination ofthe pelvis using Fourier analysis of postmortem CT images,

ed

Forensic Sci. Int. 246 (2015) 122.e1-e9.

[15] M. Trautmann, I. Trautmann, A simple metric sexing method for unknown

pt

skeletal remains: the Sacro-Clavicular Index (SCI), Anthropol. Anz. 71 (2014)

ce

57-64.

[16] H.V. Chandrakanth, T. Kanchan, K. Krishan, Osteometric analysis for sexing

Ac

of modern sternum - an autopsy study from South India, Leg. Med. (Tokyo) 16

(2014) 350-356.

[17] S. Uysal, D. Gokharman, M. Kacar, I. Tuncbilek, U. Kosa, Estimation of sex

by 3D CT measurements of the foramen magnum, J. Forensic Sci. 50 (6)

(2005) 1310–1314.

21

Page 25 of 39
[18] Y.P. RaghavendraBabu, T. Kanchan, Y. Attiku, P.N. Dixit, M.S. Kotian,

Sex estimation from foramen magnum dimensions in an Indian population, .J.

Forensic Leg. Med. 19 (2012) 162-167.

[19] J. Bruzek and P. Murail, Methodology and reliability of sex determination from

the skeleton, Chapter-9 from forensic anthropology and medicine:

t
complementary sciences from recovery to cause of death. Edited by A. Schmitt,

ip
E. Cunha and J. Pinheiro. Humana Press Inc., Totowa, New Jersey, 2006, 225-

cr
242.

us
[20] L.L. Mai, M.Y. Owl, P. Kersting, The Cambridge Dictionary of Human Biology

and Evolution. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press; 2005.

an
[21] J.M. Plavcan, Sexual dimorphism in primate evolution, Yearb. Phys. Anthropol.

44 (2001) 25-53.
M
[22] L.L. Kelpinger, Stature, maturation variation and secular trends in forensic

anthropology. J. Forensic Sci. 46 (1999) 788 – 790.

ed

[23] R.L. Jantz, Cranial change in Americans: 1850 – 1975. J. Forensic Sci. 46

(2001) 784 – 787.

pt

[24] V. Alunni-Perret, P. Staccini, G. Quatrehomme, Re-examination of a

ce

Measurement for Sexual Determination Using the Supero-Inferior Femoral

Neck Diameter in a Modern European Population, J. Forensic Sci. 48 (3)

Ac

(2003). 517-520.

[25] K. Krishan, T. Kanchan, Stature and Build in Encyclopedia of Forensic

Sciences (Second Edition, vol.1), Editors-in-Chiefs: J.A. Siegel, P.J. Saukko,

Academic Press, Elsevier, London, UK, 2013, pp 49-53.

[26] D.W. Frayer, Sexual Dimorphism, Ann. Rev. Anthropol. 14 (1985) 429-73.

22

Page 26 of 39
[27] W.A. Stini, Growth rates and sexual dimorphism in evolutionary perspective.

In The Analysis of Prehistoric Diets, ed. R. I. Gilbert, J. H. Mielke, (1985).pp.

191-226. Orlando, Florida: Academic Press.

[28] M. Brickley, Determination of sex from archaeological skeletal material and

assessment of parturition, Guidelines to the Standards for Recording Human

t
Remains, 2004,Pp. 23-25.

ip
[29] L. Scheuer, S. Black. Osteology, In T. Thompson, S. Black (Ed) Forensic

cr
Human identification- An Introduction, CRC Press, Taylor and Francis Group,

us
Boca Raton, FL, 2007:199-220.

[30] A. Christensen, N. Passalacqua, E. Bartelink, Forensic Anthropology -

an
Current Methods and Practice, Amsterdam; San Diego, CA: Elsevier

Academic Press, 2014.

M
[31] W.M. Krogman, M.Y. Iscan, The Human Skeleton in Forensic Medicine,

Charles C. Thomas, Springfield, IL, 1986.

ed

[32] M. Steyn, M.Y. Iscan, Sex determination from the femur and tibia in South

African Whites, Forensic Sci. Int. 90 (1997) 111–119.

pt

[33] M.Y. Iscan, S. Loth, C. King, D. Shihai, M. Yoshino, Sexual dimorphism in the
ce

humerus : A comparative analysis of Chinese, Japanese and Thais. Forensic

Sci. Int. 98 (1998) 17-29.

Ac

[34] M.Y. Iscan, Osteometric analysis of sexual dimorphism in the sternal end of

the rib, J. Forensic Sci. 30 (1985) 1090–1099.

[35] E.K. Wiredu, R. Kumoji, R. Seshadri, R.B. Biritwum, Osteometric analysis of

sexual dimorphism in the sternal end of the rib in a west African population, J.

Forensic Sci. 44 (1999) 921–925.

23

Page 27 of 39
[36] I. Gama, D. Naveg, E. Cunha, Sex estimation using the second cervical

vertebra: a morphometric analysis in a documented Portuguese skeletal

sample, Int. J. Legal Med. 129(2015) 365-372.

[37] W.F. McCormick, J.H. Stewart, H. Greene, Sexing of human clavicles using

length and circumference measurements, Am.J. Forensic Med. Pathol. 12

t
(1991) 175–181.

ip
[38] O. Ekizoglu, E. Hocaoglu, E. Inci, M.G. Bilgili, D.Solmaz, I. Erdil, I.O. Can,

cr
Sex estimation from sternal measurements using multidetector computed

us
tomography, Medicine (Baltimore) 93 (2014) e240.

[39] P. García-Parra, A. Pérez Fernández, M. Djorojevic, M. Botella, I. Alemán,

an
Sexual dimorphism of human sternum in a contemporary Spanish population,

Forensic Sci. Int. 244 (2014) 313.e1-e9.

M
[40] D. Navega, R. Vicente, D.N. Vieira, A.H. Ross, E. Cunha, Sex estimation from

the tarsal bones in a Portuguese sample: a machine learning approach, Int. J.

ed

Legal Med. 129(2015) 651-659.

[41] P.L. William, R. Warwick, M. Dyson, L.H. Bannister, Gray’s anatomy.

pt

Edinburgh: Churchill Livingstone, 1989.

ce

[42] V.G. Naikmasur, R. Shrivastava, S. Mutalik, Determination of sex in South

Indians and immigrant Tibetans from cephalometric analysis and discriminant

Ac

functions, Forensic Sci. Int. 197 (2010) 122.e1–122.e6.

[43] M.Y. Iscan, K. Derrick, Determination of sex from the sarcoilliac joint: A visual

assessment technique, Florida Science, 47 (1984) 94-98.

[44] T.W. Phenice, A newly developed visual methods of sexing os pubis, Am. J.

Phys. Anthropol. 30 (1969) 297–301.

24

Page 28 of 39
[45] J.E. Buikstra, D.H. Ubelakar, Standards for data collection from human

skeletal remains. Fayetteville, A.R: Arkansas Archaeological Society, 1994.

[46] F.W. Rosing, M. Grawb, B. Marre, S. Ritz-Timmed, M.A. Rothschilde, K.

Rotzscherf, A. Schmelingg, I. Schroderh, G. Geserickg, Recommendations for

the forensic diagnosis of sex and age from skeletons, HOMO 58(1) (2007) 75-

t
89.

ip
[47] P.A. Lachenbruch, M. Goldstein, Discriminant Analysis: Perspectives in

cr
Biometry, Published by: Int. Biometric Society, Biometrics 35 (1) (1979) 69-85.

us
[48] D. Gonçalves. The reliability of osteometric techniques for the sex

determination of burned human skeletal remains. Homo 62 (2011) 351-358.

[49]
an
D. Gonçalves, T.J. Thompson, E. Cunha. Osteometric sex determination of

burned human skeletal remains. J. Forensic Leg. Med. 20 (2003) 906-911.

M
[50] D. Gonçalves, E. Cunha, T.J.U. Thompson, Estimation of the pre-burning

condition of human remains in forensic contexts, Int. J. Legal Med. 2014 (In
ed

Press), DOI: 10.1007/s00414-014-1027-8.

[51] D. Gonçalves, E. Cunha, T.J.U. Thompson, Weight references for burned

pt

human skeletal remains from Portuguese samples, J. Forensic Sci. 58

ce

(2013):1134-1140.

[52] P. du Jardin, J. Ponsaille, V. Alunni-Perret, G. Quatrehomme, A comparison

Ac

between neural network and other metric methods to determine sex from the

upper femur in a modern French population, Forensic Sci. Int. 192 (2009)

127.e1–127.e6.

[53] M. Mahfouz, A. Badawi, B. Merkl, E.E. Fatah, E. Pritchard, K. Kesler, M.

Moore, R. Jantz, L. Jantz, Patella sex determination by 3D statistical

25

Page 29 of 39
 shape models and nonlinear classifiers, Forensic Sci. Int. 173 (2007) 161–

170.

[54] P.L. Walker, Sexing skulls using discriminant function analysis of visually

assessed traits, Am. J. Phys. Anthropol. 136 (2008) 39–50.

[55] M.A. Bidmos, V.E. Gibbon, G .Strkalj, Recent advances in sex identification of

t
human skeletal remains in South Africa, S. Afr. J. Sci. 106 (11/12) (2010) 238-

ip
243.

cr
[56] M. Steyn, E. Pretorius, L. Hutten, Geometric morphometric analysis of the

us
greater sciatic notch in South Africans, Homo 54 (2004) 197–206.

[57] A. Kemkes-Grottenhaler, F. Löbig, F. Stock Mandibular ramus flexure and

an
gonial eversion as morphologic indicators of sex, Homo. 53 (2002) 97–111.

[58] S.R. Loth, M. Henneberg, Mandibular ramus flexure: a new morphologic

M
indicator of sexual dimorphism in the human skeleton, Am. J. Phys. Anthropol.

99 (1996) 473–485.
ed

[59] M. Patriquin, S.R. Loth, M. Steyn, Sexually dimorphic pelvic morphology in

South African whites and blacks, Homo 53 (2003) 255–262.

pt

[60] S.R. Loth, M. Henneberg, Sexually dimorphic mandibular morphology in the

ce

first few years of life. Am. J. Phys. Anthropol. 115 (2001) 179–186.

[61] L. Scheuer, Application of Osteology to Forensic Medicine, Clinical Anat. 15

Ac

(2002) 297–312.

[62] D.E. Walrath, P. Turner, J. Bruzek, Reliability test of the visual assessment of

cranial traits for sex determination, American Journal of Physical

Anthropology 125 (2004) 132–137.

[63] M.Y. Iscan, P. Miller-Shaivitz, Determination of sex from the femur in Blacks

and Whites, Coll. Anthropol. 2 (1984) 169–175.

26

Page 30 of 39
[64] M. Steyn, M.Y. Iscan, Sexual dimorphism in the crania and mandibles of

South African whites, Forensic Sci. Int. 98 (1998) 9–16.

[65] M.Y. Iscan, M. Steyn, Craniometric determination of population affinity in

South Africans, Int. J. Legal Med. 112 (1999) 91–97.

[66] S.A. Asala, Sex determination from the head of the femur of South African

t
whites and blacks, Forensic Sci. Int. 117 (2001) 15–22.

ip
[67] E. Pretorius, M. Steyn, Y. Scholtz, Investigation Into the Usability of

cr
Geometric Morphometric Analysis in Assessment of Sexual Dimorphism, Am.

us
J. Phys. Anthropol. 129 (2006) 64–70.

[68] D. Franklin, P. Ohiggins, C.E. Oxnard, I. Dadour, Discriminant function sexing

an
of the mandible of indigenous South Africans, Forensic Sci. Int. 179 (2008)

84.e1- 84.e5.
M
[69] G.R. Dabbs, Is Dwight right? Can maximum height of the scapula be used for

accurate sex estimation? J. Forensic Sci. 54 (2009) 529-530.

ed

[70] G.R. Dabbs, P.H. Moore-Jansen, A method for estimating sex using metric

analysis of the scapula. J. Forensic Sci. 55 (2010) 149-152.

pt

[71] S.A. Hunnargi, R.G. Menezes, T. Kanchan, S.W. Lobo,S. Uysal, N.G.
ce

Herekar, K. Krishan, R.K. Garg, Sternal index: Is it a reliable indicator of sex

in the Maharashtrian population of India? J. Forensic Leg. Med. 16 (2009) 56-

Ac

58.

[72] K.R. Nagesh, T. Kanchan, B.K. Bastia, Sexual dimorphism of acetabulum-

pubis index in South-Indian population, Leg Med (Tokyo). 9 (2007) 305-308.

[73] R. DiBennardo, J.V. Taylor, Multiple discriminant function analysis of sex and

race in the postcranial skeleton, Am. J. Phys. Anthropol. 61 (1983) 305–314.

27

Page 31 of 39
[74] S. Mays, M. Cox, Sex determination in skeletal remains, in: M. Cox, S. Mays

(Eds.), Human Osteology in Archaeology and Forensic Science, Greenwich

Medial Media, London, 2000, pp. 117–130.

[75] E. Giles, O. Elliot, Sex determination by discriminant function analysis of

crania, Am. J. Phys. Anthropol. 21 (1963) 53–68.

t
[76] F. Ramsthaler, K. Kreutz, M.A. Verhoff, Accuracy of metric sex analysis of

ip
skeletal remains using Fordisc based on a recent skull collection, Int. J. Legal

cr
Med. 121 (2007) 477–482.

us
[77] D.H. Ubelaker, Application of Forensic Discriminant Functions to a Spanish

Cranial Sample, Forensic Sci. Comm. 4 (2002).

[78]
an
B.A. Williams, T. Rogers, Evaluating the accuracy and precision of cranial

morphological traits for sex determination, J. Forensic Sci. 51 (2006) 729–

M
735.

[79] D.H. Ubelaker, FORDISC 2.0: personal computer forensic discriminant

ed

functions, Int. J. Osteoarchaeol. 8 (1998) 128–131.

[80] W.M. Bass, Human Osteology: A Laboratory and Field Manual of the Human
pt

Skeleton, Missouri Archaeological Society, Columbia, 1971.

ce

[81] W.M. Bass, Human Osteology: A Laboratory and Field Manual of the Human

Skeleton, Missouri Archaeological Society, Columbia, 1971.

Ac

[82] V. Novotny, M.Y. Iscan, S.R. Loth, Morphologic and osteometric assessment

of age, sex, and race from the skull, in: M.Y. Iscan, R.P. Helmer (Eds.),

Forensic Analysis of the Skull, Wiley-Liss, New York, 1993, pp. 71–88.

[83] E.H. Kimmerle, A. Ross, D. Slice, Sexual Dimorphism in America: Geometric

morphometric analysis of the craniofacial region, J. Forensic Sci. 53 (1)

(2008) 54-58.
28

Page 32 of 39
[84] T.L. Rogers, Determining the sex of human remains through cranial

morphology, J. Forensic Sci. 50 (2005) 493–500.

[85] E.M. Mostafa, A.H. El-Elemi, M.A. El-Beblawy, A. El-Wahab, A. Dawood,

Adult sex identification using digital radiographs of the proximal epiphysis of

the femur at Suez Canal University Hospital in Ismailia, Egypt, Egypt. J.

t
Forensic Sci. 2 (2012) 81–88.

ip
[86] E. Kranioti, N. Vorniotakis, C. Galiatsou, M.Y. Iscan, M. Michalodimitrakis,

cr
Sex identification and software development using digital femoral head

us
radiographs, Forensic Sci. Int. 189 (1) (2009) 113.e1–7.

[87] P.S. Igbigbi, B.C. Msamati, Sex determination from femoral head diameters in
an
black Malawians. East Afri. Med. J. 77 (3) (2000) 147-151.

[88] S. Black, Forensic osteology in the United Kingdom, in: M. Cox, S. Mays
M
(Eds.), Human Osteology in Archaeology and Forensic Sciences, GMM,

London, 2000, pp. 491–504.

ed

[89] H. Biwasaka, Y. Aoki, T. Tanijiri, K. Sato, S. Fujita, K. Yoshioka, M.

Tomabechi, Analysis of sexual dimorphism of contemporary Japanese using

pt

reconstructed three dimensional CT images-curvature of the best fit

ce

circle of the greater sciatic notch, Leg. Med. 11 (2009) S260-S262.

[90] S. Rooppakhun, S. Piyasin, N. Vatanapatimakul, Y. Kaewprom, K.

Ac

Sitthiseripratip, Craniometric study of Thai skull based on three-dimensional

computed tomography (CT) data, J. Med. Assoc. Thai. 93 (1) (2010) 90-98.

[91] F. Ramsthaler, M. Kettner, A. Gehl, M.A. Verhoff, Digital forensic osteology:

Morphological sexing of skeletal remains using volume-rendered cranial CT

scans, Forensic Sci. Int. 195 (2010) 148–152.

29

Page 33 of 39
[92] F.J. Rohlf, Multivariate analysis of shape using partial-warp scores. In: Mardia

KV, Gill CA (eds) Proceedings in Current Issues in Statistical Shape Analysis.

Leeds University Press, Leeds, (1995) 154–158.

[93] A.C. Oettle, E. Pretorious, M. Styen, Geometric morphometric analysis of

mandibular ramus flexure. Am. J. Phys. Anthropol. 128 (2005) 623-629.

t
[94] R.J. Hennessy, C.B. Stringer, Geometric morphometric study of the regional

ip
variation of modern human craniofacial form, Am. J. Phys. Anthropol. 117

cr
(2002) 37–48.

us
[95] A. Rosas, M. Bastir, Thin-plate spline analysis of allometry and sexual

dimorphism in the human craniofacial complex, Am. J. Phys. Anthropol.

117(3) (2002) 236–245.

an
[96] P.N. Gonzalez, V. Bernal, S. I. Perez, Analysis of sexual dimorphism of
M
craniofacial traits using geometric morphometric techniques, Int. J.

Osteoarchaeol. 21 (2011) 82–91.

ed

[97] D.G. Kendall, Shape-manifolds, Procrustean metrics and complex projective

spaces. Bull. London Mathemat. Soc. 16 (1984) 81–121.

pt

[98] P.N. Gonzalez, V. Bernal, S. I. Perez, Geometric morphometric approach to

ce

sex estimation of human pelvis, Forensic Sci. Int. 189 (2009) 68–74.

[99] P. Murail, J. Bruzek, F. Houët, E. Cunha, DSP: A tool for probalistic sex
Ac

diagnosis using worldwide variation in hip-bone measurements, Bull. Mém.

Soc. Anthropol. Paris. 2005;17:167–176.

[100] T. Chapman, P. Lefevre, P. Semal, F. Moiseev, V. Sholukha, S. Louryan, M.

Rooze, S. Van Sint Jan, Sex determination using

the Probabilistic Sex Diagnosis (DSP: Diagnose Sexuelle Probabiliste) tool

in a virtual environment, Forensic Sci Int. 234 (2014)189.e1-e8.

30

Page 34 of 39
[101] S. Mestekova, J. Bruzek, J. Veleminska, K. Chaumoitre, A Test of

the DSP Sexing Method on CT Images from a Modern French Sample, J.

Forensic Sci. 2015: doi: 10.1111/1556-4029.12817.

[102] M. Slaus, D. Strinovic,J. Skavic, V. Petrovecki, Discriminant Function Sexing

of Fragmentary and Complete Femora: Standards for Contemporary Croatia,

t
J. Forensic Sci, 48 (3) (2003) 509-512.

ip
[103] M.A. Bidmos, M.R. Dayal, Further evidence to show population specificity of

cr
discriminant function equations for sex determination using the talus of South

us
African Blacks, J. Forensic Sci. 49 (2004) 1–6.

[104] A. Kemkes-Grottenhaler, Sex determination by discriminant analysis: an

an
evaluation of the reliability of patella measurements, Forensic Sci. Int. 147

(2005) 129–133.
M
[105] M.Y. Iscan, P. Miller-Shaivitz, Determination of sex from the tibia. Am. J.

Phys. Anthropol. 64 (1984) 53-57.

ed

[106] B.F.J. Manly, Multivariate Statistical Methods: A Primer, 2 ndedn. Chapman &

Hall, London, 1994.

pt

[107] F.P. Thieme, W.J. Schull, Sex determination from the skeleton, Hum. Biol. 29
ce

(1957) 242–273.

[108] K. Hanihara, Sex diagnosis of Japanese skulls and scapulae by means of

Ac

discriminant functions, J. Anthropol. Soc. Nippon 67 (1959) 21–27.

[109] E. Giles, Discriminant function sexing of the human skeleton, in: T.D. Stewart

(Ed.), Personal Identification in Mass Disaster, National Museum of Natural

History, Washington, DC, (1970) 99–107.

[110] T. Waldron, The relative survival of the human skeleton: implication for

palaeopathology, in: A. Boddindton, A.N. Garland, R.C. Janaway (Eds.),

31

Page 35 of 39
 Death, Decay and Reconstruction: Approaches to Archaeology and Forensic

Science, Manchester University Press, Manchester, 1987, pp. 55–64.

[111] C.M. Stojanowski, R.M. Seidemann, G.H. Doran, Differential skeletal

preservation at Windover Pond: causes and consequences, Am. J. Phys.

Anthropol. 119 (2002) 15–26.

t
[112] D.G. Steele, The estimation of sex on the basis of the talus and calcaneus,

ip
Am. J. Phys. Anthropol. 45 (1976) 581–588.

cr
[113] K. Sakaue, Sexual determination of long bones in recent Japanese,

us
Anthropol. Sci. 112 (2004) 75-81.

[114] G. Mall, M. Hubig, A. Büttner, J. Kuznik, R. Penning, M. Graw, Sex

an
determination and estimation of stature from the long bones of the arm,

Forensic Sci. Int. 117 (2001) 23-30.

M
[115] M.A. Bidmos, M.R. Dayal, Sex determination from the talus of South African

whites by discriminant function analysis, Am. J. Forensic Med. Pathol. 24,

ed

(2003) 322–328.

[116] Y.C. Luo, Sex determination from the pubis by discriminant function analysis.
pt

Forens. Sci. Int. 74 (1995) 89-98.

ce

[117] F.J. Introna, G. Di Vella, and C.P. Campobasso.Sex determination by

discriminant analysis of patella measurements. Forensic Sci. Int. 95 (1998)

Ac

39-45.

[118] T.H. Hsiao, H.P. Chang, K.M. Liu, Sex determination by discriminant function

analysis of lateral radiographic cephalometry. J. Forensic Sci. 41 (1996) 792-

795.

32

Page 36 of 39
[119] R.L. Jantz, S.D. Ousley, FORDISC 1.0–3.0: Personal computerized forensic

discriminant functions. Forensic Anthropology Center, The University of

Tennessee, Knoxville, (1993–2005).

[120] P. Guyomarch, J. Bruzek, Accuracy and reliability in sex determination from

skulls: A comparison of Fordisc1 3.0 and the discriminant function analysis,

t
Forensic Sci. Int. 208 (2011) 180.e1–180.e6.

ip
[121] W.W. Howells, Cranial Variation in Man: A Study by Multivariate Analysis of

cr
Patterns of Difference Among Recent Human Populations, Harvard

us
University, Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1973.

[122] P. Urbanová, A.H. Ross M. Jurda, M.I. Nogueira, Testing the reliability of
an
software tools in sex and ancestry estimation in a multi-ancestral Brazilian

sample, Leg. Med. (Tokyo) 16 (2014) 264-273.

M
[123] M. Elliott, M. Collard, Fordisc and the determination of ancestry from cranial

measurements, Biology Letters 5 (2009) 849–852.

ed

[124] S.O.Y. Keita, On Meroitic Nubian crania, Fordisc 2.0, and human biological

history, Curr. Anthropol. 48 (2007) 425–427.

pt

[125] B. Pritchard, Egyptian identities: application of Fordisc 2.0 to an Egyptian

ce

burial population, Newsletter Can. Assoc. Phys. Anthropol. (2007) 25.

[126] C.L. Brace, Region does not mean race – reality versus convention in forensic
Ac

anthropology, J. Forensic Sci. 40 (1995) 171-175.

[127] G.J. Armelagos, D.P. Van Gerven, A century of skeletal biology and

paleopathology: contrasts, contradictions, and conflicts, Am. Anthropol. 105

(2003) 53– 64.

33

Page 37 of 39
[128] S. Ousley, R. Jantz, D. Freid, Understanding race and human variation: why

forensic anthropologists are good at identifying race, Am. J. Phys. Anthropol.

139 (2009) 68–76.

[129] L.W. Konigsberg, B.F.B. Algee-Hewitt, D.W. Steadman, Estimation and

evidence in forensic anthropology: sex and race, Am. J. Phys. Anthropol. 139

t
(2009) 77–90.

ip
[130] M.M. Corsini, A. Schmitt, J. Bruzek, Aging process variability on the human

cr
skeleton: artificial network as an appropriate tool for age at death assessment,

us
Forensic Sci. Int. 148 (2005) 163–167.

[131] C. M. Bauer, H. Niederstatter, G. McGlynn, H. Stadler, W. Parson,

an
Comparison of morphological and molecular genetic sex-typing on mediaeval

human skeletal remains, Forensic Sci. Int. Gen. 7 (2013) 581–586.

M
[132] A. Esteve-Codina, H. Niederstatter, W. Parson, GenderPlex: a PCR multiplex

for reliable gender determination of degraded human DNA samples and

ed

complex gender constellations, Int. J. Leg. Med. 123 (2009) 459–464.

[133] R.H. Biggerstaff, Craniofacial characteristics as determinants of age, sex and

pt

race in forensic dentistry, Dent. Clin. North Am. 21 (1) (1977) 85–97.
ce

[134] K. Krishan, T. Kanchan, N. Passi, J. DiMaggio, Sexual dimorphism in foot

length ratios among North Indian adolescents, J. Forensic Leg. Med. 36

Ac

(2015) 96-101.

[135] E.F. Kranioti, M.Y. Iscan, M. Michalodimitrakis, Craniometric analysis of the

modern Cretan population, Forensic Sci. Int. 180 (2008) 110.e1–110.e5.

[136] S.Benazzi, C. Maestri, S. Parisini, F. Vecchi, G. Gruppioni, Sex assessment

from the acetabular rim by means of image analysis, Forensic Sci. Int. 180

(2008) 58.e1-e3.
34

Page 38 of 39
[137] A. H. Richard, C. Parks, K. Monson, Accuracy of standard craniometric

measurements using multiple data formats, Forensic Sci. Int. 242 (2014) 177-

185.

[138] M.Y. Iscan, Forensic anthropology of sex and body size, Forensic Sci. Int. 147

(2005) 107–112.

t
[139] K. Krishan, Anthropometry in Forensic Medicine and Forensic Science –

ip
Forensic Anthropometry, Internet J. Forensic Sci. 2007. Available at…

cr
https://ispub.com/IJFS/2/1/10656 (Accessed on 10th January 2015).

us
[140] D. Freid, M.K. Spradley, R.L. Jantz, S.D. Ousley, The truth is out there: how

NOT to use Fordisc, Am. J. Phys. Anthropol. S40 (2005) 103.

an
[141] D. Franklin, Forensic age estimation in human skeletal remains: Current

concepts and future directions, Leg. Med. (Tokyo) 12 (2010) 1–7.

M
ed
pt
ce
Ac

35

Page 39 of 39