Volumetric dynamics of respiration

as measured by electrical impedance plethysmography’

R. D. ALLISON, 2,3 E . L . HOLMES, AND J. NYBOER

Departments of Physiology and Pharmacology, Wayne State University
College of Medicine, and Cardiovascular Physiology Research Laboratory,
Haroer Ho@ital, Detroit, Michigan

ALLISON, R. D., E. L. HOLMES, AND J. NYBOER. Volumetric with electrodes positioned on the chest (5). He recorded the
dynamics of respiration as measured by electric impedance plethysmog- largest respiratory excursion at the level of the 6th rib in dog
raphy. J. Appl. Physiol. Ig(i): 166-173. I g64.-Electrical and man and he developed a method for recording electro-
resistive impedance changes of the chest related to pulmonary cardiograms and respiratory changes from the same pair of
air volumes were quantitatively evaluated in ten normal male electrodes (6). He used a spirometer before and after the experi-
adults. A four-electrode, I oo-kc, electrical impedance plethys- mental study as a means of comparing the electrical pulses to a
mograph was used for these determinations. A I 3.5-liter Collins standard spirometer volume. We feel that these investigators
respirometer was used to measure changes in pulmonary gas recognized the need for an adequate direct method for evaluat-
volume. In all studies reported the electrodes were positioned ing pulmonary air volumes. The purpose of this paper is to
on the posterior aspect of the thorax. The current was delivered describe a quantitative method for determining pulmonary air
to the outer pair with one attached to the neck and the other volumes independent of the spirometer and based on direct
below the level of the diaphragm. The voltage drop related to electrical properties of the chest segment. So far as we are
variations in resistance was detected between the inner two aware this has not been achieved previously.
electrodes at a constant length of 30 cm. Inspiration and
expiration were associated with changes in electrical resistive MATERIAL AND METHODS
impedance. Calculations of changes in pulmonary gas volumes
Impedance Amplijier and Recording Devices
were based on electrical variations associated with respiration.
The calculated values closely approximated recorded volumes The electrical impedance recording system has been de-
on the spirometer for values of IOO-2,500 ml. This technique scribed (I I). In brief, a radio-frequency impedance amplifier
would eliminate carbon dioxide absorbents, nose clips, con- ( IOO kc) was used throughout this problem and a Sanborn
ventional airway hindrances and have adequate frequency model I 54-100 polygraph direct writer was used as an end
response for a normal range of test conditions. Some of the recorder. In the impedance network an electrical generator
limitations in the practical application of the system currently feeds a radio-frequency current to transformers connected to
under study are discussed. four electrodes on the subject. The signal introduced through
an outer pair of electrodes (12, 12) was detected across a known
pulmonary air volume determination resistive impedance distance between two inner electrodes (E,, Ez). As the conduc-
measurements of the chest pulmonary function tion of tissues between El and Ez changed during respiration,
respiration the unbalanced impedance variations were amplified and
graphically recorded. Following a pulmonary study, leads from
the amplifier were removed from the subject and connected to a
General Radio decade-resistance substitution box. Null balance
T HE PULSATILE EFFECTS of respiration on direct and alternat- by substitution
and expressed
represented
the gross resistive
the impedance
impedance
between El and E2
of the biological
ing electrical current applied to biological conductors have
been observed by many investigators. Qualitative and semi- system as defined by the detecting electrodes. Skin-contact
quantitative methods have been used to relate these effects to electrodes were fashioned from electrocardiograph electrodes
held in position with rubber straps and lead strips (5 X I. cm)
pulmonary gas volumes. Goldensohn and Zablow compared
affixed with adhesive tape to the skin after application of
amplitudes of electrical pulses recorded from wrist positions
electrode jelly.
and those recorded simultaneously on a spirometer (7). Geddes
and co-workers recorded resistance changes during breathing,
Respirometer
Received for publication I 7 April 1963.
A Collins 13.5-liter respirometer was equipped with a low-
1 This study was supported in part by grants-in-aid from the
Michigan Heart Association. resistance, high-velocity breathing valve, and calibrated by
2 In partial fulfillment of the degree Doctor of Philosophy, displacement of air from a closed system with known volumes of
Summer 1962, Wayne State University, Detroit, Mich. water. Before each study the spirometer was well rinsed with
3 Present address : Dept. of Physiology, Lovelace Foundation room air and the spirometer water level accurately adjusted.
for Medical Education and Research, 4800 Gibson Blvd., SE, The spirometer contained approximately 6 liters of room air at
Albuquerque, N. Mex. the beginning of each study.
166
ELECTRICAL IMPEDANCE PLETHYSMOGRAPHY

Flowmeter Standardica tion

Constant-orifice flowmeters were constructed to evaluate
Following each complete study, the mouthpiece and nose
the frequency response of the impedance system. Each was
clip were removed from the subject. Electrodes were removed
equipped with five discs of varying diameters. The diameters
from the subject and connected to the decade-resistance box.
ranged in size from 0.5 in. to 0.75 in. The principle upon which
Null balance was obtained by adjusting the substitution box to a
the meters operated concerned the changes in pressure and
value which represented the subject’s resistance, expressed in
velocity of a gas as it moved through spaces of varying cross-
ohms, and corresponded to the recorded base line. A recorded
sectional areas. The velocity of a gas, passing through a tube
i-ohm series standard was a reference for all volumes at the
provided with a constriction at one point, is increased as the gas
designated gain. The impedance record of pulses expressed in
passes through the constricted portion. Flow varies as the square
terms of “electrical” volume was compared to the spirometer
root of the pressure drop in orifice flowmeters. Statham pressure
kymograph paper which was read to the nearest 5o-ml volume.
transducers, PL5-0-2-350, Hato Rey, Puerto Rico, were used to
During one phase of the problem a 2o-ohm potentiometer in
monitor the differential pressure changes.
series with a 6-v battery was connected to the center chain on
the spirometer bell. This system, coupled to the end recorder,
Studies on Human Subjects
was used to record spirometer excursions in addition to the
One subject was well trained in the use and purpose of all spirometer kymograph paper (Figs. 3 and 4). This system was
equipment in this study, and adverse psychic effects common to useful in determining the electrode position which reflected the
conventional spirometers were probably at a minimum in this total vital capacity range. To get an idea of the speed of re-
subject. For these reasons, we consider the preliminary studies sponse of the impedance system, simultaneous tracings of the
on this subject and those related to the development of this re- pressure drop across the orifice flowmeter were obtained. From
cording system adequate standards for comparison. Ten other this information flow in liters per minute was obtained and com-
normal male subjects were also studied. Subjects with shirts
removed were seated on an open-back stool while breathing
into the spirometer at the time impedance studies were simul-
taneously recorded. All volumes were corrected to BTPS.
Electrodes were fastened to the subject at various positions to
determine the location which would follow the pattern of the
spirome ter, and suitable connections were made to the im-
pedance amplifier. T he amplifier was balanced and the end-
recorder pen adjusted for convenient excursions.
The following volumes were recorded at designated electrode --E, AMPLIFIER
positions: r) a series of tidal volumes; 2) a series of inspiratory
reserve volumes; 3) a series of plateaus produced by holding the
breath intermittently at various inspiratory levels; 4) a series of
vital capacity measurements. Maximal breathing capacities
were not performed because of the reported inaccuracy of the
spirometer (I 5). In addition to the reported limitations of the
spirometer at high frequencies, results from the impedance
system at excessive rates of pulmonary gas volume exchange are
considered with caution. We did not study the effect of exces-
sive altered breathing patterns on the conductive changes as Ro=4.6fi
lJ
might be present during exercise, nor did we evaluate the effect
2924 2107 1763 1483 I333
of variations in carbon dioxide concentrations. We consider SPIROMETER VOLUMES (CC)
these variants beyond the scope of this problem.

Criteria for Electrode Positions

The following criteria relating to electrode and pulse
characteristics were adopted as an approach to quantitating
electrical and spirometer information. I) The electrodes
should be placed in a position that would minimize body move-
ment related to thoracic respiratory movement. 2) The elec- R =S.Sfb
trodes should be placed in such a manner that the critical
length between the electrodes (El, E2) is essentially constant
during respiration. 3) The position of the electrodes should be
such that the electric current distribution covers the pulmonary SPIROMETER VOLUMES (CC)
field. 4) The pulse excursions should be large enough for accu-
rate graphic recording and analysis. 5) If possible, the sensi- FIG. I. When the electrodes are placed on the posterior thorax
as shown, an increase in electrical resistance is indicated by an
tivity of instruments should be constant and be adequate for a
upward deflection. Upper tracing relates the increased electrical
complete range of ventilatory excursions. S) Direct-current
resistance associated with an increase in lung volume as recorded
carrier preamplifiers must be incorporated in the recording Lower recording relates the sustained in-
from the spirometer.
system for adequate monitoring of balanced segmental re- creased electrical resistance associated with breath holding at
sistance information. 7) The electrical signal should reflect three different inspiratory positions. Smaller impedance deflections
proportional volume changes over the full vital capacity range, superimposed on the respiratory pattern are synchronous with
including the extremes. each heart cycle as shown by the ECG recording.
 168 ALLISON, HOLMES, AND NYBOEK

pared to the impedance changes in terms of direction and ciated with respiration made simultaneous definition with the
phase. spirometer difficult (Fig. 3).
In all cases the impedance recording system was adjusted Deltoid-deltoid. This electrode position was attended by gross
so that inspiration was an upward deflection. The recorded shoulder movement especially at the high volumes. The forced-
pulses were compared to an absolute electrical series standard. expiratory phase of respiration did not illustrate adequate im-
The flowmeter was adequate as an integrated volume standard pedance excursions (Fig. 3).
in the midrange of flow rates for each disc. The extreme rates of Torso. Impedance changes related to this electrode position
flow for each disc demonstrated nonlinear flow characteristics. were favorable except for measurements of vital capacity. The
forced-expiratory phase of respiration did not illustrate ade-
quate impedance excursions (Fig. 3).
EXPERIMENTAL RESULTS
Posterior thorax and lumbar qion. Simultaneous studies using
Demonstration of Electrical Impedance Changes Related to two impedance amplifiers demonstrated inverse resistive
Pulmonary Air Volumes in the Human Thorax Using a changes between the posterior thorax and lumbar region during
Four-Electrode Impedance Amplifier forced expiration (Fig. 3).
Posterior thorax. The best electrode position and length of
Four lead electrode strips (I X 5 cm) were placed on the detecting pathway was found to be between the crest of the
posterior aspect of the thorax (Fig. I). The inner detecting pair shoulders and the level of the diaphragm on the posterior
was 20 cm apart. Inspiration was associated with an increase in thorax (Fig. 4). To insure minimal movement of the current
electrical resistance; expiration with a decreased electrical re- electrodes and adequate distribution of the current, they were
sistance. Superimposed on the respiratory excursions were pul- positioned on the neck (Ii) and below the level of the dia-
sations synchronous in time with the electrocardiogram. The
phragm (12). The detecting electrode (El-E2) position of a
direction and amplitude of these pulsations were demon-
3o-cm length of the posterior thorax was selected as the best
strated more clearly when the subject held his breath at various
arrangement for recording impedance variations as an index of
inspiratory levels. There was a consistent decrease in resistance
pulmonary air volumes in the subjects studied. The current
associated with heart systole independent of the level of in-
. . electrodes (11, 12) and detecting electrodes (El, E2) were paired.
spiration.
The distance between the two El and Ez contacts was usually
Evaluation of Electrical Impedance Variations Associated 20 cm.

With Changes in Air-ow Rate and Volume

In studies using the constant-orifice flowmeter (velocity) WRIST-WRIST DELTOID-DELTOID

impedance changes occurred in the same time interval as
movement of air (displacement) (Fig. 2). The impedance sys-
L=l53cm L= 33.0 CrP
tem demonstrated adequate speed of response for a wide range
Ro= 191.8 t2 Ro =67.8 fl
of airflow rates. The rates of airflow ranged from I I liters/min
for disc I (I .25 cm) to I 80 liters/min for disc 5 (I .CJ cm).

Evaluation of Impedance Variations Related to Respiratory

Activity Detected From Various Body Segments
POSTERIOR THORAX_
TORSO
The following studies were made to determine which elec-
trode placement would yield calculated lung volumes compar- =30-O cm
L= 42.0 cm
able to volumes measured by the spirometer. ,=I58 Q
R,=l6.5 0
Wrist-wrist. Positioning of electrodes on the wrists was con-
venient, but the attending arm and muscle movement asso-

L= 5.0 cm
R,=6.2 I)

FIG. 3. Electrodes were placed on the body in the positions

FIG. Upper
2. tracing records the changing rate of airflow indicated. When placed on the wrists, deltoid areas, or on the
associated with inspiration. An upward deflection records an torso, electrical resistance changes did not follow the full range of
increase in rate of airflow. Lower tracing records the increase in respiratory volumes as indicated by the spirometer. When elec-
electrical resistance associated with inspiration. A downward trodes were placed on the posterior thorax 30.0 cm apart, electrical
deflection records an increase in electrical resistance. At the end resistance changes followed the full range of respiratory volumes.
of inspiration when airflow has ceased, the impedance record When placed below the diaphragm (lumbar region) forced-
indicates maximum increase in electrical resistance. expiratory efforts cannot be recorded by electrical impedance.
ELECTRICAL IMPEDANCE PLETHYSMOGKAPHY

Further Studies of Electrical Resistance Changes From

Various Segments of the Posterior Thorax I nstd.

The subject was instructed to inspire a constant air volume

from the spirometer. He was able to do this by watching the
spirometer kymograph. One detecting electrode (El) remained
in position and the other (EJ was moved to designated positions
(Fig. 5). The amplitude of impedance excursions was greatest
when the detecting electrodes were 30 cm apart. It was pos-
sible, by calculation, to approximate the recovery of the in-
spired constant volumes by summation of segmental electrical
resistive information (Table I). Parallel law (equation 8, where
Ra equals the parallel electrical effect of the pulmonary air
volume) may be applied to this problem; however, the re-
sistivity value used is critical for adequate quantitative in-
formation. It is obvious that substituting the resistivity factor
for blood in the volume formula does not permit recovery of
total pulmonary air values from electrical information. A sum-
mary of the application of formulas to the problem has been
given (Table 2). SPIROMETER 2000 cc

Application of Formula to Experimental Procedure in Man FIG. 5. Subject repeatedly inspired 2,000 ml of air from the
spirometer during this study. The 11 and 12 electrodes always
Spirometer and impedance records were evaluated in terms remained at the position indicated. With El in a constant position,
of impedance pulse amplitude and electrical resistive informa- E2 was moved from a separation of 5 cm to 30 cm. As greater
tion related to spirometer volumes. Substituting in equation 15 pulmonary area was detected, the segmental resistance increased;
a volume (VO) of 27,000 ml, based on a 3o-cm length, the the amplitude of the pulses increased, and the calculated increase
volume change equivalent to a ~-ohm change at various base in lung volume from electrical resistance changes more closely
resistances was calculated. These were expressed as calculated approximated the volume change recorded from the spirometer
(Table I ).
standard volume curves (Fig. 6). This demonstrates the applica-
tion of a mathematical expression for predicting pulmonary
air volumes based on direct electrical information. These In a composite of ten studies on subjects with different base
values are in no way quantitatively dependent upon the resistances there was good correlation between the calculated
spirome ter . volumes and the spirometer up to values of about 2,500 ml
A study was made on a normal male in order to compare (Fig. 8). Experimentally, the electrical resistance changes are
recorded spirometer volumes to the calculated electrical vol- less accurate in relation to spirometer volumes only at extreme
umes at the base resistance of that individual. The AR changes inspiratory and expiratory positions. During quiet spontaneous
are plotted against the observed spirometer volume (Fig. 7). breathing the relationship of resistance to volume change is
We find close agreement with the predicted standard volume very stable for prolonged periods of time. The system is sensi-
curve related to the base resistance of the individual. tive to drastic changes in body movement and position; how-
ever, these effects were not studied.

L=30.0cm DISCUSSION
R,=ll I)
IMPEDANCE The human thorax represents a volume conductor (2). As
such, the laws governing ionic conductors can be applied. If
we imagine the electrical dimensions of the thorax are con-
tained within a 30-c” cube, any change in thorax volume re-
lates to the total electrical volume. To fully evaluate this effect
it is necessary that the physical and mathematical concept relat-
ing to lung displacement be elaborated on in more detail.
The resistivity (p) of a homogeneous conducting material,
expressed as ohm-centimeter, is related to its resistance (R) by
the following formula,

R = peL/A (I >

where L = length of material sample in cm and A = cross-

sectional area in cm 2. The equation I for resistance of any
cylindrical conductor was revised and modified for derivation
of volume. Thus:

L L
R 02
FIG. 4. Diagram of network and electrode placement on the =pi’i
posterior thorax which recorded electrical resistance changes
best in relation to respiratory volumes recorded on the spirometer. R = p*L2/V (3)
=P ALLISON, HOLMES, AND NYBOEK

rearranging Both Nyboer and Bonjer used 150 ohm-cm as the value for
the resistivity of blood in reference to peripheral segments.
v = p*L2/R They calculated segmental volume changes by using this con-
stant value. The body, particularly the thoracic region, pre-
sents a much more complex conductor. By calculation, the
Electrical resistance variations related to segmental blood
thorax does not behave as though whole blood were the only
volume changes were shown by Nyboer (12) and later by
variable in relation to air movement since parallel law does not
Bonjer (3) to be referable to the total segmental volume.
recover the total air volume, as in saline models (I). Other
portions of the torso and limbs are also involved.
AR L” Due to the complex and heterogeneous nature of the tissues
(5)
AV=-*pE Ro o under study, we cannot at present assign a resistivity factor
which accurately applies to all tissues within the thorax as
in which R, related to initial balance before displacement and obtained by usual direct or indirect methods. Resistivity is
AR the change in resistance related to the displacement (I 3). defined as the resistance of I cm3 of material having a length of
The parallel effect of a column of blood may be compared I cm and a cross-sectional area of I cm2. If resistivity is ex-
to a segmental volume (I 2). The segment has an original re- pressed, relative to a cube of material, one side of the cube may
sistive impedance (R,) and a new resistive impedance of the represent a resistance value proportional to the volume. This
segment (R,) during the segmental distribution of a blood volume resistivity has significant application. Extending the
pulse. The change in resistive impedance is designated R, - H,, length of the sides increases by a constant ratio the volume
or AR as the result of the segmental volume increase and result- association. Thus :
ing increased conductance. This may be expressed as:
I cm =: Io ohm
IO cm =: I ,000 ohm
I
--- I +I-
v ; > This condition exists if we assume the resistance of one side of
R,, - R,, &,
the cube as equivalent to the total volume and all changes are
linear with respect to that volume.
rearranging
If the cubic relationship is based on a length of I cm and a
cross section of I cm2, the resistivity of the total tissue may be
found by rearranging equationr
where & = the calculated parallel resistance equivalent to the R-A
P =--- c.9)
given pulse volume, R, = the recorded resistance in any direc- L
tion from the base line. The value Rh was substituted by
Nyboer in vyuation 4. where

A = L*L (4
L2
V = (8) substituting
pRh
R?Ed4

TABLE I. segmental recouery of air volumes in the thorax p = ---I--- 1

of man using electrical impedance information

TABLE 2. Summary of derivation of air volumes in man
Volume K,, Pulse, A R, Calc., using volume formula
Breathed, * L, cm ohms mm ohms V,t ml
ml
AR Al/’ L2 L”
. -=- A’CI’= R,.L. -- Av = ~(150) . ~
1.8 Ro Vo Ro JL
---_ &I
--- 4,
1,075 5 0. IO 9.0 ‘25 6.9
IO 3.8 0.14 38.0 1,000 36.8 AR AR
I5 5.5 0.17 82.5 3,375 104.0
Volume Calc. Vol. Calc. Vol. Calc. Vol.
20 7.4 0.25 148.0 8,000 270.0 Breathed,* ml L9 Cm (A VI, ml (AT/)? ml WY, ml
25 8.5 0.35 21 I .o 15,625 645-o If075 5 6.9 6.6 110.3
sum I ,062.7 I0 36.8 35.5 140.3
30 10.9 327 -0 27,000 I ,162.o 15 104.0 101.2 184.0
20 270.0 261.4 265.0
2,250 5 2.4 I-5 0.15 12.0 I25 5.2 3: 645 .O
.o 613.0
2r I ,162 436.2
IO 3-8 2.3 0.23 38.0 1,000 52.6 1,119.o 512.1
‘5 4-I 3-2 0.32 61.5 3,375 248.0
20 7-6 6.0 0.60 152 .o 8,000 630.0
8.0 0.80 227.5 2,150 5 5.2 5.5 9’9.0
25 9-I 15,625 1,370.o IO 52.6 57.1 225.0
Sum 2,305.8
12.5 27,000 2,160.o 15 218.0 327 -0 596-o
30 10.0 I .oo 375-o
--. I 20 630.0 570-o 578-o
25 I ,370.o 1,17l.O 825*3
3” 2,160.o 2,000.0 800.0
lernperature = 27 C. k Corrected for body temperature,
&AR Av Derived volume index (V,,) = 27,000 ml. Electrode length
ambient pressure, saturated 4th water. t __...- =------ = 30 cm. * Corrected for body temperature, ambient
(0
R, vu - pressure, saturated with water.
ELECTRICAL IMPEDANCE PLETHYSMOGRAPHY
=7=
by cancellation and rearranging

P = R*L (4 AR/R0 = AVIV0 ( I 4)

Any directional change in AR will result in a change in AV.

Therefore, pT (total resistivity) is equal to the segmental re-
Therefore :
sistance (R,) multiplied by the length between the detecting
electrodes for human adults. If the cubic relationship is based
on a length of 30 cm and a cross-sectional area electrically ( I 5)
expressed as unity with length, PT equals resistance times length
in which resistance (R,) is related to the constant so-cm length.
By substituting the defined pT in the volume equation 4, the If V0 is a constant related to the electrode length, AV may be
total electrical volume of tissue related to a given length may calculated for equivalent ~-ohm changes for any R,. For
be expressed : example :

L ohm 2,700 ml
L” -=-
VO = PTF IO ohms 27,000 ml
0 (4
PT = R,=L This was the method employed for the determination of
standard electrical volume curves for human ventilation.
Where R, = the segmental resistance, V;, = the total derived Lung tissue and enclosed air are poor conductors of electri-
segmental volume. If the side of the “electrical cube” measures cal current (4, 8, 15). In all studies in which detecting elec-
30 cm (a frequent length in the experimental studies) and the trodes were positioned on the posterior thorax of man in-
resistance is equal to 20 ohms, substituting creased pulmonary air volume was associated with increased
electrical resistive impedance. These electrical variations in
impedance are based upon ionic changes in a biological con-
30’30 ductor and geometric enlargement of the thoracic cage.
v* = 2oe30 . -
20 The use of the volume formula based on Ohm’s law is
practical if the detecting length for electrodes is held constant.
600 900 l

v, = - If the electrode length on the posterior thorax is constant, then

20
any change in electrical resistive impedance must reflect
modification of the cross-sectional area. This interpretation is
K =- 54o,ooo in accordance with the experimental observations in man and
20
electrical phenomena.
v, = 27,000 ml

If the derived total volume constant (VO) is substituted in

equation 5,
IR = IOmm
2350 = IOmm
AV = AR 8 V,/R, ( I 3) I Tc;ioC
Ro = ll.5R
L = 30.0cm
20n
19n
I--RESISTANCE
2052 =
VOLUME (ohm equivalent)
1350 cc I8Q
17a
I .o
t
SPIROMETER

16JI
15a AV cc
l4Ja 3000
l3sl
I
1213 AV cc
I In
Ion

ii
c
2.0 O
a
a

--
SPIROMiTER ‘-’ _ 3.0
EXPIRATION
FIG. 6. Calculated standard volume curves which predict the
lung volume change equivalent to a ~.o-ohm change when the FIG. 7. Inspiratory and expiratory volumes of one male subject
base resistance varies from IO to 20 ohms. In all instances the recorded on a spirometer are plotted against the predicted standard
electrical volume is 27,000 ml based on a detecting electrode volume curve of that individual. In this instance the subject’s
length of 30.0 cm. base resistance was I I .5 ohms.
 ALLISON, HOLMES, AND NYBOER

The recording system was adjusted in all studies so that a ~-ohm

change was equivalent to IO mm. This was a convenient
standard and allowed for complete range of respiratory excur-
sions within the limits of the recording paper (4 cm).
The summation of segmental electrical resistive impedance
information on the posterior thorax approximated the recovery
of a constant inspired air volume. This recovery was based on a
predicted electrical volume related to the length of examined
segment. It was evident that the total volume was recovered
only when the length between electrodes included this volume.
This has been previously demonstrated in models and bio-
logical segments (I, I 2).
At high-inspiratory and forced-expiratory volumes, there
was less accurate agreement between impedance changes and
the spirometer volumes. The spirometer values were higher
than the impedance changes and were considered to result
5000 from the cross-sectional area no longer changing in the same
FIG. 8. Inspiratory volumes of ten male subjects as recorded on relationship to a fixed length. The nonlinear pressure-volume
the spirometer are plotted against the standard volume curves. relationship related to extreme high- and low-pulmonary
Base resistances varied between individuals from I I .o to 200. volumes has been known for many years ( I o, 16). This rela-
ohms. tionship may also be reflected in electrical resistive impedance
changes.
If the detecting electrodes are positioned in the anterior- Vital capacity measurements, with few exceptions, were
posterior dimension over the thorax, both length and cross- characterized by reduced peak-inspiratory and forced-expira-
sectional area changes occur with respiration. For this reason, tory impedance changes. From a conductivity standpoint, the
it seemed advisable to position the electrodes on the posterior most probable reason for these reduced excursions related to
thorax so that length was held constant and included the total the redistribution of blood common to vital capacity maneu-
lung field. Studies in which the anterior-posterior position was vers. Increased blood volume increases conduction thereby
used indicated adequate current distribution for the detection reducing peak-inspiratory impedance excursion. Decreased
of pulmonary volumes. However, interpretation of two geo- blood volume decreases conduction during forced expiration.
metric variables was impossible. Simultaneous resistive im- These two effects result in reduced inspiratory and expiratory
pedance measurements over the thorax and lumbar regions impedance excursions.
indicated an inverse electrical resistive change during forced The electrical resistive impedance method does not directly
expiration. For this reason, the detecting electrode length measure the air entering and leaving the lungs in biological
should not extend below the level of the diaphragm. This avoids segments. The resulting changes in conductivity associated
the damping effects accompanying forced expiration. The with pulmonary volume variations are considered to be mani-
increased resistance over the lumbar region during forced festations of a) redistribution of blood volume, and b) varia-
expiration may reflect displacement of abdominal contents. tions in tissue resistivities and the electrical properties of the
The human body possesses electrical resistance and capaci- body acting as a three-dimensional conductor. There is, from
tative properties (9, I 4). The resistance variations associated an electrophysical viewpoint, a sleeving effect by the expanding
with respiration were more pronounced than the capacitance dielectric containing lungs for electrical current pathway.
changes under the experimental conditions in this study. Due Future studies might profitably be oriented toward evalua-
to the limitations of a designed recording system, capacitative tion of electrical characteristics related to the functional re-
studies were not further explored. sidual capacity. Calculated tissue resistivities of the thorax are
Electrical resistance was proportional to the conductive higher than the extremities. Evidently, the segmental resist-
length. If length and cross-sectional area were at unity and if a ance in the chest may reflect functional residual capacity of
homogeneous media was assumed to exist, the recorded seg- the lungs. Experimentally, it was observed that the segmental
mental resistance multiplied by the length of the conductor resistance shifted following forced- and rapid-respiratory
equated the definition of total segment resistivity. maneuvers. This may be due to air volume changes or periph-
When this value was substituted in the volume equation (4) eral storage of blood. This conductivity change may also reflect
an “electrical cube” measuring 27,000 ml was constructed. blood volume distribution. Application of electrical laws re-
This value related to a 30-c” detecting electrode lated to definition of blood volume may give valuable insight
Pa thway.
Inasmuch as the balanced segmental resis tance rela ted to the into the investigation of blood volume in the thorax and may
total volume, any change in the total volume was reflected as become a new practical respiratory function test usable for
a change in segmental resistance. This was confirmed by experi- protracted periods in the 1aboratory and at the bedside.
mental results.
The authors are indebted to Mr. Eidt of Wayne State Uni-
The percentage change in the 27,000 ml volume equivalent
versity College of Medicine for engineering assistance in the con-
to 500 ml (an average tidal volume) was I .8ajo. This per cent
struction of models and flowmeters used in this study; Mr. Ross
variation was referable to the segmental resistance. It was pos- Lavoie of Harper Hospital for confirming mathematical calcu-
sible to calculate predicted resistance change based upon the lations; and Mr. Vern Voss of General Motors Company, Research
percentage change of segmental resistance equivalent to 500 ml. Division, for calibrating the constant-orifice flowmeters.

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(Master’s Thesis). Detroit: Wayne State Univ., 1960. of the heart. Am. J. Med. Sci. I 95 : 759, 1938.
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Thermistor system for measuring thermal gradients

ALICE M. STOLL
Aviation Medical Acceleration Laboratory, U.S. Naval Air Development Center,
Johnsville, Pennsylvania

STOLL, ALICE M. Thermistor system for measuring thermal can mean the difference between a minimal blister and com-
gradients. J. Appl. Physiol. ICJ(I): 173-176. 1g64.-The system plete destruction of the full thickness of the skin (I). Therefore,
utilizes a thermistor bridge for the measurement of tem- the apparatus is designed to give due importance to the initial
perature differences of rt2.5 C to an accuracy of &o-o25 C. surface temperature, the gradient existing at the start of ir-
Calibrations are shown for a range of ambient temperatures radiation and the continued production of simulated metabolic
from 22 to 45 C. Equations are derived for calculation of the heat during irradiation.
temperature difference from the observed meter deflection The basic structure is a cylinder on which is wrapped a
and constants which depend upon the characteristics and woven heater strip that supplies even heat. The arrangement is
matching of the thermistors. A series of such measurements shown schematically in Fig. I. The input to the strip is con-
provide the data for derivation of thermal gradients. trolled by a proportional temperature controller attached to
sensing thermistors in the cylinder wall. Superficial to the
skin temperature response measurement skin simulation heater is wrapped material to simulate dermis and on top of
measurement of small temperature differences that a material simulating epidermis. At depths of 80 and 200 p
apparatus
from the surface are placed the thermistors for determining
direct measurement of temperature difference
the gradient through these layers from measurements of tem-
temperature-measuring instrumentation thermistor bridge
perature differences and of absolute temperatures at these
for temperature-difference measurement
depths.
Figure 2 shows the portion of the system under consideration
here. The detectors are tiny bead thermistors (0.37 mm)
mounted in the circuit indicated in the figure. It can be seen
T HE GRADIENT-MEASURING SYSTEM to be described was devised that the circuit provides for amplification and indication of the
as part of a skin simulation under development for use in output from each of three bridge arrangements which are
thermal irradiation studies. Its simplicity, ease of operation, selected by switching.
and accuracy recommend it for general use in similar measure- For purposes of calibration and initial testing the output is
ments. indicated on a o- to 15-p" meter provided with a polarity-
The apparatus for which this system was designed is in- reversing switch. Thus, in Fig. 2, switch S2A provides for
tended to provide an exact duplication of the temperature re- reading of the absolute temperature at the location of thermistor
sponse of living human skin during thermal irradiation of I, and switch S2B for thermistor 2, while the normal position
relatively low intensity, less than I Cal/cm2 sec. At such levels provides the gradient reading. The gain of the amplification
we have found that a difference in initial temperature of as system is approximately 40. The instrument has been cali-
little as IC at the skin surface with a given irradiation pattern brated through the range of 23-60 C for absolute temperature
using the helipot for resistance adjustment and the meter as a
Received for publication I9 March 1963. null-point indicator of bridge balance. From the slopes of the