Optimization of Concrete Mix Incorporated with Glass Fiber

Reinforced Concrete along with

TiO2 Nano-particle by Taguchi Method

A Project Report submitted in partial fulfilment of

The Requirements for the degree of
B.Tech (Civil Engineering)

TULA`S INSTITUTE
DEHRADUN – 248197, UTTRAKHAND

Submitted By: - Submitted To:-

Manny Ansari Project Head

Abdul Samad Mr. Gaurav Mishra
Rajeev kumar
Ausaf Ahmed Project Guide
Shwetabh Hembrom Mr. Gaurav Thakur
Areeb Asraf
 TULAS INSTITUTE OF ENGINEERING
(DEHRADUN – 248197)

CERTIFICATE

This is to certify that the Project report entitled” Optimization of Concrete Mix Incorporated
with Glass Fiber Reinforced Concrete along with TiO2 Nano-particle byTaguchi Method”
is a bona-fide work carried out at this department by Manny Ansari, Abdul Samad, Rajeev
kumar, Ausaf Amhed, Shwetab Hembrom, Areeb Asraf of VII semester department of civil
engineering under our guidance and supervision, in a partial fulfillment of requirement for the
award of the B.Tech degree in civil engineering of Tulas Institute of Engineering, Dehradun.

Project Head Project Guide

Mr Gaurav Mishra Mr Gaurav Thakur
Assistant Professor Assistant Professor
Dept of Civil Engineering Dept of Civil Engineering
Tulas Institute, Dehradun Tulas Institute, Dehradun

Department of Head
Mr Rohin Sharma
Assistant professor
Dept of civil Engineering
Tulas Institute, Dehradun
 Acknowledgement

The success and final outcome of this project required a lot of guidance and assistance from
many people and I am extremely privileged to have got this all along the completion of my
project. All that I have done is only due to such supervision and assistance and I would not forget
to thank them.

I respect and thank Mr. Gaurav Mishra, for providing me an opportunity to do the project work
and giving us all support and guidance which made me complete the project duly.

I owe my deep gratitude to our project guide Mr Gaurav Thakur, who took keen interest on our
project work and guided us all along, till the completion of our project work by providing all the
necessary information for developing a good system. I am extremely thankful to him for
providing such a nice support and guidance, although he had busy schedule managing the
corporate affairs.

I would not forget to remember Mr. Rohin Sharma our HOD for his encouragement and more
over for their timely support and guidance till the completion of our project work.

I heartily thank our internal project guide, Ms Anjali Kumari, Ms Preeti Kumar for her guidance
and suggestions during this project work.

I am thankful to and fortunate enough to get constant encouragement, support and guidance from
all Teaching staffs of Civil Department which helped us in successfully completing our project
work. Also, I would like to extend our sincere esteems to all staff in laboratory for their timely
support.
 ABSTRACT

Cementations concrete has great practical difficulties in achieving high compressive strength and
durability of high performance structures. But it becomes a challenge to increase the compressive
strength and durability of particular cementations composite and also maintaining basic desirable
properties of concrete. Fibers include steel fibers, glass fibers, synthetic fibers and natural fibers –
each of which lend varying properties to the concrete. In addition, the character of fiber-reinforced
concrete changes with varying concretes, fiber materials, geometries, distribution, orientation, and
densities. Fiber-reinforced concrete (FRC) is concrete containing fibrous material which increases
its structural integrity.The use of different types of fibres & their orientation in the matrix have
shown positive responses among the researchers.Improving concrete properties by addition of
Nano particles have shown significant improvement than conventional concrete. Glass Fiber
Reinforced Concrete or (GFRC) is a composite that has glass fibers instead of steel strands for its
reinforcement. Removing the steel reinforcement not only weakened, but also omitted steel
erosion, corrosion, and their future repair costs, steel reinforcement costs, optimal coverage, and
etc. Optimization of the concrete mixture design is a process of search for a mixture for which the
sum of the costs of the ingredients is lowest, yet satisfying the required performance of concrete,
such as workability strength and durability. The basic ingredients of concrete can be classified into
two groups: cement paste and aggregates. Although the quality of cement paste is governed mainly
by the water/cement ratio, the quantity of cement paste required to achieve a targeted quality of
concrete depends on the characteristics of aggregates.

Attempts have been made in the past to optimize the concrete mixture
design using either the fully experimental methods or fully analytical methods or semi
experimental (half-analytical) methods or statistical methods. Fully experimental methods involve
an extensive series of tests, sometimes conducted on a trial-and-error basis, Taguchi realized that
the best opportunity to eliminate variation of the final product quality is during the design of a
product and its manufacturing process by lower number of runs. So we are using Taguchi method
to optimize the overall results for the maximum efficiency.
 LITERATURE REVIEW

Li et. al. (2004) experimentally investigated the mechanical properties of nano-Fe2O3 and nano-
SiO2 cement mortars and found that the 7 and 28 day strength was much higher than for plain
concrete. The microstructure analysis shows that the nanoparticles filled up the pores and the
reduced amount of Ca(OH)2 due to the pozzolanic reaction.
Sadrmotazi et.al. (2010) The nanosilica was replaced up to 7% which improved the
compressive strength of cement mortar by 6.49%. PP fiber amounts beyond 0.3% reduces the
compressive strength but beyond 0.3% dose of PP fiber increases the flexural strength, showing
the effectiveness of nano SiO2 particles. Also up to 0.5% PP fibers in mortar water absorption
decreases which indicates pore refinement. Ali Nazari et.al. (2010) studied the combined effect
of Nano SiO2 particles and GGBFS on properties of concrete. They used nanosilica with 3%
b.w.c. replacement and 45% b.w.c. GGBFS, which shows improved split tensile strength. An
improvement in the pore structure of SCC with silica particles was observed. Apart from this hey
have studied the effect of ZnO2 nano particles on SCC concrete with constant w/c ratio of 0.4.
The results showed that by increasing the content of super plasticizer flexural strength decreases.
In another experiment the same author studied effect of Al2O3 nano particles on the properties
of concrete. The results showed that cement could be replaced up to 2% for improving
mechanical properties of concrete, but Al2O3 nano particles decreased percentage water
absorption of concrete. XRD analysis of the sample showed that there is more rapid formation of
hydrated product.
M.Nill et.al. (2009) studied the combined effect of micro silica and colloidal nano silica on
properties of concrete and found that concrete will attain maximum compressive strength when it
contains 6% micro silica and 1.5% nano silica. The highest electrical resistivity of concrete was
observed at 7.5% micro and nano silica. The capillary absorption rate is lowest for the
combination of 3% micro silica and 1.5% nano silica. Alirza Naji Givi et.al. (2010) studied the
size effect of nanosilica particles. They replaced cement with nanosilica of size 15nm and 80nm
with 0-5, 1, 1.5 & 2% b.w.c. An increase in the compressive strength was observed with 1.5%
b.w.c showing maximum compressive strength. A comparison between particle size showed that
for 80nm particles the maximum strength was more than for 15nm particles, also a considerable
improvement in flexural and split tensile strength of Nano SiO2 blended concrete was observed.
Ali NazQari et.al. (2011) studied strength and percentage water absorption of SCC containing
different amount of GGBFS and TiO2 nano particles. The findings of the experimentation are
that replacement of Portland cement with up to 45% weight of GGBSF and up to 4% weight of
TiO2 nano particles gives a considerable increase to the compressive, split tensile and flexural
strength of the blended concrete. This increase is due to more the formation of hydrated products
in presence of TiO2; also the water permeability resistance of hardened concrete was improved.
The author also studied effect of CuO nano particles on SCC and observed that increased
percentage of polycarboxylate admixture content results in decreased compression strength. The
CuO nano particles of average particle size 15nm content with up to 4% weight increased the
compressive strength of SCC. CuO nano particles up to 4% could accelerate the first peak in
conduction calorimetric testing which is related to the acceleration of formation of hydrated
cement products.Sekari and Razzaghi (2011) studies the effect of constant content of Nano
ZrO2, Fe2O3, TiO2,and Al2O3 on the properties of concrete. The reults showed that all the nano
particles have noticeable influence on improvement on durability properties of concrete but the
contribution of nano Al2O3 on improvement of mechanical properties of HPC is more than the
other nano particles.
A.M. Said et.al. (2012) studied the effect of colloidal Nano silica on concrete by blending it with
class F fly ash and observed that performance of concrete with or without fly ash was
significantly improved with addition of variable amounts of nano silica. The mixture containing
30% FA and 6% CNS provides considerable increase in strength. Porosity and threshold pore
diameter was significantly lower for mixture containing Nano silica. The RCPT test shows that
passing charges and physical penetration depth significantly improved
A.M. Said et.al. (2012) studied the effect of colloidal Nano silica on concrete by blending it with
class F fly ash and observed that performance of concrete with or without fly ash was
significantly improved with addition of variable amounts of nano silica. The mixture containing
30% FA and 6% CNS provides considerable increase in strength. Porosity and threshold pore
diameter was significantly lower for mixture containing Nano silica. The RCPT test shows that
passing charges and physical penetration depth significantly improved
Alireza Naji Givi et.al. (2012) studied the effect of Nano SiO2 particles on water absorption of
RHA blended concrete. It is concluded that cement could be replaced up to 20% by RHA in
presence of Nano SiO2 particle up to 2% which improves physical and mechanical properties of
concrete.
Heidari and Tavakoli (2012) investigated the combined effect of replacement of cement by
ground ceramic powder from 10% to 40% b.w.c. and nano SiO2 from 0.5 to 1%. A substantial
decrease in water absorption capacity and increase in compressive strength was observed when
20% replacement is done with ground ceramic powder with 0.5 to 1% as the optimum dose of
Nano SiO2 particles.
J.Comiletti et.al. (2012) investigated the effect of micro and nano CaCO3 on the early age
properties of ultra-high performance concrete (UHPC) cured in cold and normal field
conditions.The micro CaCO3 was added from 0 to 15% b.w.c. and nano CaCO3 was added at the
rate of 0, 2.5 and 5% b.w.c. Results show that by incorporating nano and micro CaCO3 the flow
ability of UHPC is higher than the control mix which increases the cement replacement level.
The mixture containing 5% nano CaCO3 and 15% micro CaCO3 gives shortest setting time at 10
°C and at 20°C the highest 24 hrs compressive strength is achieved by replacing cement with
2.5% nano and 5% micro CaCO3 and highest compressive strength at 26 days was achieved at
0% nano and 2.5% micro CaCO3.
The Scientific World Journal 2014(5):561539 Statistical Approach to Optimizing Concrete
Mixture Design. A step-by-step statistical approach is proposed to obtain optimum proportioning of concrete
mixtures using the data obtained through a statistically planned experimental program. The utility of the
proposed approach for optimizing the design of concrete mixture is illustrated considering a typical case in
which trial mixtures were considered according to a full factorial experiment design involving three factors and
their three levels

INTRODUCTION

1.1 Statement of Problem and Project Goals

The purpose of this project was to investigate the use of statistical experiment design approaches
in concrete mixture proportioning. These statistical methods are applied in industry to optimize
products such as gasoline, food products, and detergents. In many cases, the products are, like
concrete, combinations of several components. Typically, these applications optimize a product to
meet a number of performance criteria simultaneously, at minimum cost. For concrete, these
performance criteria could include fresh concrete properties such as viscosity, yield stress, setting
time, and temperature; mechanical properties such as strength, modulus of elasticity, creep, and
shrinkage;
Design mixtures are usually more expensive than conventional concrete mixtures
because they usually contain more cement, several chemical admixtures at higher dosage rates
than for conventional concrete, and one or more supplementary cementitious materials. As the cost
of materials increases, optimizing concrete mixture proportions for cost becomes more desirable.
Furthermore, as the number of constituent materials increases, the problem of identifying optimal
mixtures becomes increasingly complex. Not only are there more materials to consider, but there
also are more potential interactions among materials. Combined with several performance criteria,
the number of trial batches required to find optimal proportions using traditional methods could
become prohibitive. An advantage of the statistical approach is that the expected properties
(responses) can be characterized by an uncertainty (variability). This has important implications
for specifications and for production. When an empirical model equation is used to determine
mixture proportions that yield a desired strength, the model equation gives only the expected mean
strength; that is, if replicate mixtures were made, the model equation would predict the mean value.
This is not an appropriate target value for specifications, because in the long run, the strength
would be below that value half of the time. In contrast, statistical experimental design methods are
rigorous techniques for both achieving desired properties and determining an optimized mixture
for a given set of constraints. They are used widely in industry to optimize products and processes
and have been applied in some research studies on improving high-performance concrete. ). The
proposed approach to optimizing the proportions of concrete mixtures is based on the planned
experimental and statistical analysis of the data generated, which would reduce the number of trial
batches needed.

A disadvantage of the statistical approach is that it requires an initial investment of time and money
for planning and performing trial batches and tests. Additionally, knowledge of good
experimentation procedures and some knowledge of statistical analysis is needed. Statistical
computer programs are available to perform both experiment design and analysis, but knowing
how to interpret and ensure the validity of statistical models is important. For this reason, the
second objective of this project was to guide the users with rudimentary knowledge and lead them
step by step through a mixture proportioning process using statistical methods (Taguchi Method).

1.2 Characteristic Performance of Concrete

The information regard to required workability, strength, and exposure conditions (for durability
requirements) should be first collected. The workability requirements depend on the mode of
transportation, handling, and placing and also on type of construction. The strength is specified
based on the structural requirements for concrete protected from exposure to freezing and thawing
and application of chemicals or aggressive substances. However, for aggressive exposure
conditions, the strength specified by the structural designer should not be less than the minimum
design compressive strength recommended for the given exposure condition. The durability
requirements of concrete mixtures are normally satisfied by ensuring that the cementitious
materials content is not less than a specified minimum value and the water/cementitious materials
ratio is not more than the one specified for a given exposure condition. For example, the
cementitious materials content should not be less than 335 kg/m3 and water/cementitious materials
ratio should not be more than 0.40 (by mass) for satisfying the durability requirements for concrete
subjected to severe exposure conditions. Mixing of admixture and fibers results a huge change in
the properties of the concrete mix.

I) Effect of Fibers In Concrete Composites

Fiber Reinforced Concrete (FRC) is a concrete containing fibrous material which increases its
structural integrity. It contains short discrete fibers that are uniformly distributed and randomly
oriented. Fibers include steel fibers, glass fibers, synthetic fibers and natural fibers – each of
which lend varying properties to the concrete. In addition, the character of fiber reinforced
concrete changes with varying concretes, fiber materials, geometries, distribution, orientation,
and densities. Fibers are used in concrete to control cracking due to plastic shrinkage and to drying
shrinkage. They also reduce the permeability of concrete.

a) Steel Fiber Concrete

Fibers impart energy absorption, toughness and impact resistance properties to fiber reinforced
concrete material and these characteristics in turn improve the fracture and fatigue properties of
fiber reinforced concrete. Steel fibers and the combined effect of fibers and stirrups on the
deflection and cracking, ultimate loads and failure pattern. The experiment indicated that the shear
strength increased clearly with the increasing fiber content. The combination of steel fibers ans
stirrups demonstrated a positive composite effect on the ultimate load, ductility and failure pattern
of concrete beam.
b) Glass Fiber Concrete
Fibers impart energy absorption, toughness and impact resistance properties to fiber reinforced
concrete material and these characteristics in turn improve the fracture and fatigue properties of
fiber reinforced concrete. Research in glass fiber reinforced concrete resulted in the development
of an alkali resistance fiber of high dispersion that improved long term durability. This system was
named as alkali resistance glass fiber reinforced concrete. In the present experimental investigation
the alkali resistance glass fiber has been used to study the effect on compressive, split tensile and
flexural strength on M20, M30, M40 and M50 grades of concrete.
c) Polypropylene Fibers
The influence of polypropylene fibers with different proportioning and fiber length to improve the
performance characteristics of the lightweight cement (LWC) composites. Fibers used in two
different lengths (6 mm and 12 mm) and fiber proportions (0.15% and 0.35%) by cement weight
in the mixture design. Hardened concrete properties such compressive strength, splitting tensile
strength, flexural strength, water absorption, and shrinkage were evaluated. Fiber addition was
seen to enhance the physical and mechanical properties of light weight concrete.
d) Natural fibers
Fibres are thread like materials which can be used for different purposes. Fibres produced by plants
(vegetable, leaves and wood), animals and geological processes are known as natural fibres.
Researchers have used plant fibres as an alternative source of steel and/or artificial fibres to be
used in composites (such as cement paste, mortar and/or concrete) for increasing its strength
properties. These plant fibres, herein referred as natural fibres, include coir, sisal, jute, Hibiscus
cannabinus, eucalyptus grandis pulp, malva, ramie bast, pineapple leaf, k, leaf, abaca leaf, vakka,
date, bamboo, palm, banana, hemp, flax, cotton and sugarcane.
e) Asbestos fiber
These fibers are cheap and provide the cement with mechanical, chemical and thermal resistance,
although the asbestos fiber reinforced concrete appears to have low impact strength.

f) Carbon fibers

These fibers have been recently used due to their very high modulus of elasticity and flexural
strength. Characteristics such as strength and stiffness are better than those of steel fibers, although
they are more susceptible to damage.
 II) Effect of Nano particles In Concrete Composite
The Use of Nanoparticle Admixtures to Improve the Performance of Concrete properties
required for the construction of high-rise, long-span or intelligent civil and infrastructure
systems has proved to be a very effective additive to composites to improve strength, flexibility,
and durability.The particle size and specific surface area scale related to concrete materials reflect
the general trend to use finer materials . For developments in concrete performance were achieved
with the application of super-fine particles such as fly ash, silica fume, and now,nanosilica.

a) Carbon Nanotubes
The Carbon Nanotubes Carbon nanotubes are a form of carbon having a cylindrical shape, the
name coming from their nanometre diameter. They can be several millimetres in length and can
have one “layer” or wall (single walled nanotube) or more than one wall (multi walled nanotube).
Nanotubes are members of the fullerene structural family and exhibit extraordinary strength and
unique electrical properties, being efficient thermal conductors. For example, they have five times
the Young’s modulus and eight times (theoretically 100 times) the strength of steel, whilst being
1/6th the density. Expected benefits of carbon nanotubes are: mechanical durability and crack
prevention in concrete, enhanced mechanical and thermal properties in ceramics and real-time
structural health monitoring capacity.

b) Titanium Dioxide Nanoparticles (TiO2)

The titanium dioxide nanoparticles are added to concrete to improve its properties. This white
pigment is used as an excellent reflective coating. or added to paints, cements and windows for its
sterilizing properties. The titanium dioxid breaks down organic pollutants, volatile organic
compounds and bacterial membranes through powerful photocatalytic reactions, reducing air
pollutants when it’s applied to outdoor surfaces. Being hydrophilic gives self cleaning properties
to surfaces to which it is applied, because the rain water is attracted to the surface and forms sheets
which collect the pollutants and dirt particles previously broken down and washes them off. The
resulting concrete surface has a white colour that retains its whiteness very effectively
c) Silicon Dioxide Nanoparticles (SiO2)
Nano-SiO2 could significantly increase the compressive strength of concretes containing large fly
ash volume at early age, by filling the pores between large fly ash and cement particles. Nano-
silica decreases the setting time of mortar when compared with silica fume (microsilica) and
reduces bleeding water and segregation by the improvement of the cohesiveness.

d) Zinc Oxide Nanoparticles (ZnO)

Zinc oxide is a unique material that exhibits semiconducting and piezoelectric dual properties. It
is added into various materials and products, including plastics, ceramics, glass, cement, rubber,
paints, adhesive, sealants, pigments, fire retardants. Used for concrete manufacturing, ZnO
improves the processing time and the resistance of concrete against water.

III) A Statistical Approach to Optimizing Concrete Mixture Design

Dr. Taguchi of Nippon Telephones and Telegraph Company, Japan has developed a method based
on " ORTHOGONAL ARRAY " experiments which gives much reduced " variance for the
experiment with " optimum settings " of control parameters. Thus the marriage of Design of
Experiments with optimization of control parameters to obtain BEST results is achieved in the
Taguchi Method. "Orthogonal Arrays" (OA) provide a set of well balanced (minimum)
experiments and Dr. Taguchi's Signal-to-Noise ratios (S/N), which are log functions of desired
output, serve as objective functions for optimization, help in data analysis and prediction of
optimum results.

Taguchi Method treats optimization problems in two categories,

[A] STATIC PROBLEMS :

Generally, a process to be optimized has several control factors which directly decide the target or
desired value of the output. The optimization then involves determining the best control factor
levels so that the output is at the the target value. Such a problem is called as a "STATIC
PROBLEM".
This is best explained using a P-Diagram which is shown below ("P" stands for Process or
Product). Noise is shown to be present in the process but should have no effect on the output! This
is the primary aim of the Taguchi experiments - to minimize variations in output even though noise
is present in the process. The process is then said to have become ROBUST.
[B] DYNAMIC PROBLEMS :
If the product to be optimized has a signal input that directly decides the output, the optimization
involves determining the best control factor levels so that the "input signal / output" ratio is closest
to the desired relationship. Such a problem is called as a "DYNAMIC PROBLEM".
This is best explained by a P-Diagram which is shown below. Again, the primary aim of the
Taguchi experiments - to minimize variations in output even though noise is present in the process-
is achieved by getting improved linearity in the input/output relationship.

[A] STATIC PROBLEM

There are 3 Signal-to-Noise ratios of common interest for optimization of Static Problems;
 I) SMALLER-THE-BETTER

n = -10 Log10 [ mean of sum of squares of measured data ]

This is usually the chosen S/N ratio for all undesirable characteristics like " defects " etc. for
which the ideal value is zero. Also, when an ideal value is finite and its maximum or minimum
value is defined (like maximum purity is 100% or maximum Tc is 92K or minimum time for
making a telephone connection is 1 sec) then the difference between measured data and ideal
value is expected to be as small as possible. The generic form of S/N ratio then becomes,

n = -10 Log10 [ mean of sum of squares of {measured - ideal} ]

II) LARGER-THE-BETTER

n = -10 Log10 [mean of sum squares of reciprocal of measured data]

This case has been converted to SMALLER-THE-BETTER by taking the reciprocals of

measured data and then taking the S/N ratio as in the smaller-the-better case.

III) NOMINALTHE BEST

square of mean
n = 10 Log10 -----------------
variance

This case arises when a specified value is MOST desired, meaning that neither a smaller nor a
larger value is desirable.

[B] DYNAMIC PROBLEM

In dynamic problems, we come across many applications where the output is supposed to follow
input signal in a predetermined manner. Generally, a linear relationship between "input" "output"
is desirable.

There are 2 characteristics of common interest in "follow-the-leader" or "Transformations" type

of applications,
(i) Slope of the I/O characteristics

(ii)Linearity of the I/O characteristics (minimum deviation from the best-fit straight line)

(I) SENSITIVITY{SLOPE}:

The slope of I/O characteristics should be at the specified value (usually 1).It is often treated as
Larger-The-Better when the output is a desirable characteristics (as in the case of Sensors, where
the slope indicates the sensitivity).

n = 10 Log10 [square of slope or beta of the I/O characteristics]

On the other hand, when the output is an undesired characteristics, it can be treated as Smaller-
the-Better.

n = -10 Log10 [square of slope or beta of the I/O characteristics]

(II) LINEARITY (LARGER-THE-BETTER)

Most dynamic characteristics are required to have direct proportionality between the input and
output. These applications are therefore called as "TRANSFORMATIONS". The straight line
relationship between I/O must be truly linear i.e. with as little deviations from the straight line as
possible.

Square of slope or
beta
n = 10 Log10 ----------------------------
variance

Variance in this case is the mean of the sum of squares of deviations of measured data points from
the best-fit straight line (linear regression).
 METHODOLOGY

STEPS IN TAGUCHI METHODOLOGY :

Taguchi method is a scientifically disciplined mechanism for evaluating and implementing

improvements in products, processes, materials, equipment, and facilities. These improvements
are aimed at improving the desired characteristics and simultaneously reducing the number of
defects by studying the key variables controlling the process and optimizing the procedures or
design to yield the best results.

The method is applicable over a wide range of engineering fields that include processes that
manufacture raw materials, sub systems, products for professional and consumer markets. In fact,
the method can be applied to any process be it engineering fabrication, computer-aided-design,
banking and service sectors etc. Taguchi method is useful for 'tuning' a given process for 'best'
results.

Taguchi proposed a standard 8-step procedure for applying his method for optimizing any process,

8-STEPS IN TAGUCHI METHODOLOGY:

Step-1: Identify the main function, side effects, and failure mode

Step-2: Identify the noise factors, testing conditions, and quality characteristics

Step-3: Identify the objective function to be optimized

Step-4: Identify the control factors and their levels

Step-5: Select the orthogonal array matrix experiment

Step-6: Conduct the matrix experiment

Step-7: Analyze the data, predict the optimum levels and performance

Step-8: Perform the verification experiment and plan the future action
 Approach to the Experimental Design
In accordance with the steps that are involved in Taguchi’s Method, a series of experiments are
to be conducted. Here, Glass Fiber Reinforced Concrete or (GFRC) along with Nano particle
(TiO2) has been carried out as a case study.
The procedure is given below

1. Identification of Main Function and its side effects

The “Factors” that affect facing operation on a lathe machine are listed in the table
Main function: Glass Fiber Reinforced Concrete or (GFRC) along with Nano particle (TiO2) with
best strength. Side effects : Decrease in Strength

The “Factors” that affect facing operation on a lathe machine are listed in the table

2. Identify The Objective Function

Objective Function: Larger-the-Better

The S/N ratio for the larger-the-better is:

S/N = -10*log (mean square deviation)

𝟏 𝟏
S/N = −𝟏𝟎 𝐥𝐨𝐠 ( ∑ )
𝒏 𝒚𝟐

Where n is the number of measurements in a

trial/row and y is the measure value in a run/row
 2. Identifying the Control Factors and their levels

4.Selection of Orthogonal Array

To select an appropriate orthogonal array for conducting the experiments, the degrees of freedom
are to be computed.

Degrees of Freedom:
1 for Mean Value, and
8= 2*4, two each for the remaining factors
Total Degrees of Freedom: 9

The most suitable orthogonal array for experimentation is L9 array as shown in Table. Therefore,
a total nine experiments are to be carried out.
 Orthogonal Array (OA) L9

Experiment No. Control Factors

1 2 3

1 1 1 1

2 1 2 2

3 1 3 3

4 2 1 3

5 2 2 1

6 2 3 2

7 3 1 2

8 3 2 3

9 3 3 1

5. Conducting The Matrix Experiment

Each of the above 9 experiments were conducted 3 times (27 experiments in all) to
account for the variations
that may occur due to the noise factors.
 The experimental layout with the selected values of the factors is shown in Table

Following are the values of control factors respective to the constituents of the levels. They are
arranged according to the L9 orthogonal array

MATERIAL TESTING

A) CEMENT

The physical tests which are generally performed to determine the acceptability of cements are

1. Fineness Test
2. Consistency Test
3. Setting time Test
4. Soundness Test
5. Strength Test
1. Fineness Test

Fineness is the mean size of cement grain. Fineness test is done to measure the mean size of cement
grain.The finer the cement the surface area for hydration will be large and it increases the strength
of cement. But the fineness varies in different types of cement.

2. Consistency Test

This test is done to estimate the required water quantity to form a normal consistency cement paste.
It is defined as the percentage of water required for the cement paste.

3. Setting Time Test

Cement has two types of setting time, one is initial setting time and another is final setting.Initial
setting time is the state of cement mortar or concrete when it starts to become stiffen and
unworkable.Final setting time is the state when cement mortar or concrete has become fully
unworkable.

4. Soundness Test

Soundness of cement means it doesn’t undergo large volume change after setting. Large changes
in volume produce cracks, disintegration and distortion, ultimately leading to failure. So it is very
important to test the soundness of cement.

To test the soundness below method can be applied.

 Le-chatelier method

5. Strength Test

Cement has two types of strength – compressive strength and tensile strength.To know the
compressive strength and tensile strength of cement following tests are performed Cement mortar
cube test (for compressive strength)

 Briqutte test (for tensile strength)

 Split tensile test (for tensile strength)
 B) TESTS ON COARSE AGGREGATE
Aggregate plays an important role in pavement construction. Aggregates influence, to a great
extent, the load transfer capability of pavements. Hence it is essential that they should be
thoroughly tested before using for construction. Not only that aggregates should be strong and
durable, they should also possess proper shape and size to make the pavement act monolithically.
Aggregates are tested for strength, toughness, hardness, shape, and water absorption.
In order to decide the suitability of the aggregate for use in pavement construction, following tests
are carried out:

1. Crushing test
2. Abrasion test
3. Impact test
4. Soundness test
5. Specific gravity and water absorption test
6. Bitumen adhesion test

1.CRUSHING TEST

Fig-1 Crushing Test Setup

One of the model in which pavement material can fail is by crushing under compressive stress. A
test is standardized by IS: 2386 part-IV and used to determine the crushing strength of aggregates.
The aggregate crushing value provides a relative measure of resistance to crushing under gradually
applied crushing load.
The test consists of subjecting the specimen of aggregate in standard mould to a compression test
under standard load conditions (See Fig-1). Dry aggregates passing through 12.5 mm sieves and
retained 10 mm sieves are filled in a cylindrical measure of 11.5 mm diameter and 18 cm height
in three layers. Each layer is tamped 25 times with at standard tamping rod. The test sample is
weighed and placed in the test cylinder in three layers each layer being tamped again. The
specimen is subjected to a compressive load of 40 tonnes gradually applied at the rate of 4 tonnes
per minute. Then crushed aggregates are then sieved through 2.36 mm sieve and weight of passing
material (W2) is expressed as percentage of the weight of the total sample (W1) which is the
aggregate crushing value.
Aggregate crushing value = (W1/W2)*100
A value less than 10 signifies an exceptionally strong aggregate while above 35 would normally
be regarded as weak aggregates.
2.ABRASION TEST

Fig-2 Los Angeles Abrasion Test Setup

Abrasion test is carried out to test the hardness property of aggregates and to decide whether they
are suitable for different pavement construction works. Los Angeles abrasion test is a preferred
one for carrying out the hardness property and has been standardized in India (IS: 2386 part-IV).
The principle of Los Angeles abrasion test is to find the percentage wear due to relative rubbing
action between the aggregate and steel balls used as abrasive charge.
Los Angeles machine consists of circular drum of internal diameter 700 mm and length 520 mm
mounted on horizontal axis enabling it to be rotated (see Fig-2). An abrasive charge consisting of
cast iron spherical balls of 48 mm diameters and weight 340-445 g is placed in the cylinder along
with the aggregates. The number of the abrasive spheres varies according to the grading of the
sample. The quantity of aggregates to be used depends upon the gradation and usually ranges from
5-10 kg. The cylinder is then locked and rotated at the speed of 30-33 rpm for a total of 500 -1000
revolutions depending upon the gradation of aggregates.
After specified revolutions, the material is sieved through 1.7 mm sieve and passed fraction is
expressed as percentage total weight of the sample. This value is called Los Angeles abrasion
value.
3.IMPACT TEST

Fig-3 Impact Test Setup

The aggregate impact test is carried out to evaluate the resistance to impact of aggregates.
Aggregates passing 12.5 mm sieve and retained on 10 mm sieve is filled in a cylindrical steel cup
of internal dia 10.2 mm and depth 5 cm which is attached to a metal base of impact testing
machine. The material is filled in 3 layers where each layer is tamped for 25 numbers of blows
(see Fig-3). Metal hammer of weight 13.5 to 14 Kg is arranged to drop with a free fall of 38.0 cm
by vertical guides and the test specimen is subjected to 15 numbers of blows. The crushed
aggregate is allowed to pass through 2.36 mm IS sieve. And the impact value is measured as
percentage of aggregates passing sieve (W2) to the total weight of the sample (W1).
Aggregate impact value = (W1/W2)*100

4.SOUNDNESS TEST
Soundness test is intended to study the resistance of aggregates to weathering action, by
conducting accelerated weathering test cycles. The Porous aggregates subjected to freezing and
thawing is likely to disintegrate prematurely. To ascertain the durability of such aggregates, they
are subjected to an accelerated soundness test as specified in IS: 2386 part-V.
Aggregates of specified size are subjected to cycles of alternate wetting in a saturated solution of
either sodium sulphate or magnesium sulphate for 16 – 18 hours and then dried in oven at 105 to
1100C to a constant weight. After five cycles, the loss in weight of aggregates is determined by
sieving out all undersized particles and weighing.
 5. SPECIFIC GRAVITY AND WATER ABSORPTION
The specific gravity and water absorption of aggregates are important properties that are required
for the design of concrete and bituminous mixes. The specific gravity of a solid is the ratio of its
mass to that of an equal volume of distilled water at a specified temperature. Because the
aggregates may contain water-permeable voids, so two measures of specific gravity of
aggregates are used:

1. Apparent specific gravity and

2. Bulk specific gravity.

C. TEST FOR FINE AGGREGATE

1.SILT CONTENT TEST

Silt content test

The permissible silt content in sand (fine aggregate) must not exceed the values as specified in the standards.
However, this method can only be used for natural sand, it should not be used for crushed rock sand.The
apparatus required for this test is only 250 ml glass measuring cylinder.

Silt (%) by volume = [(Thickness of silt layer/ Height of sand + Silt) x 100 %]

3. BULKING OF SAND
When sand is damp, the water coating on the surface of each sand particle causes separation of particles from
one another due to surface tension. This causes sand to bulk. Bulked sand occupies more volume and hence if
volumetric measuring is done while proportioning it, bulking correction is necessary.

Bulking is calculated as: Bulking % = h/H x 100%

Dry sand occupies the same volume as fully saturated sand. The bulking will vary from load to load and day to
day depending on the fineness of sand and its surface moisture content. It is there-fore, very essential to make
bulking corrections by checking the actual bulking of sand proposed to be used by volumetric batching for
mortar or concrete.

Moisture contents %age by wt. Bulking % by volume

2 15

3 20

4 25

5 30

3. SIEVE ANALYSIS

Sieve analysis is done to check the gradation of aggregate.

Grading Limit of Fine Aggregate

This test is done initially for concrete mix design and later conducted periodically for mix proportion
adjustments if it is suspected that the grading of aggregates has changed considerably.

5. FINENESS MODULUS
Fineness modulus is generally used to get an idea of how coarse or fine the aggregate is. More fineness
modulus value indicates that the aggregate is coarser and small value of fineness modulus indicates that the
aggregate is finer.

Only sand between FM 2.6 to 2.9 is considered suitable for nominal mix proportion.
 MATERIAL TEST RESULTS
1. CEMENT
Consistency test of cement ( IS:4031-Part 4-1998 )

Sample % of water Penetration depth from

weight(gm) by wt. base of mould(mm)
400 37 3.5
400 35 4
400 33 5
400 32 6
 INITIAL SETTING TIME (269:1989)

STANDARD W/C INITIASETTING STANDARD

CONSISTENCY RATIO TIME TIME
(IN MINUTES)
32 % 0.85P 31 MIN 30 MIN

VICATS APPARATUS
 FINAL SETTING TIME (IS:4031:1988)

STANDARD W/C FINAL SETTING STANDARD

CONSISTENCY RATIO TIME TIME
(IN MINUTES
32 % 0.85P 600 MIN 600 MIN

SOUNDNESS TEST (Le-Chatelier method as per IS: 4031 (Part 3) – 1988)

S.N W/C RATIO SOUNDNESS (MM) STANDARD

VALUE

1 0.78P 11.5 10
 2. COARSE AGGREGATE

NAME RESULTS ON 20MM STANDARD VALUE

OF TEST AGGREGATE

Specific gravity 2.79 2.6 – 2.8

Water 2.5% Not more than 3 %
absorption
Impact value 28 Not more than 45%
 3. FINE AGGREGATE

NAME RESULTS ON 20MM STANDARD VALUE

OF TEST AGGREGATE

Specific gravity 2.67 2.6 – 2.8

Water 1.7% Not more than 10%
absorption
Fineness 2.55 -
modulus