DEP-501E

ENGINEERING SEISMOLOGY

Earthquake Waves
Assoc.Prof.Dr. Beyza TAŞKIN
www.akademi.itu.edu.tr/btaskin btaskin@itu.edu.tr

I- Bulk Modulus, K:
Also known as incompressibility.
Basic Engineering Knowledge:

P
K
(V / V )

II- Shear Modulus, :

Also known as rigidity.
(F / A)

(L / L)
III- Young’s Modulus, E:
Also known as stretch modulus.
( F / A)
E
(L / L)
IV- Poisson’s Ratio, :
(W / W )

(L / L)

Doç.Dr.Beyza TAŞKIN 1
 Fault movement releases energy as seismic
waves radiating from rupture.
Mainly there are 2 types of seismic waves,
each having 2 different components:
Seismic Waves

I- Body Waves:
I-1) P-Wave (primary, pressure)
I-2) S-Wave (secondary, shear)

II- Surface Waves:

II-1) L-Wave (Love Wave)
II-2) R-Wave (Rayleigh Wave)

For recording an earthquake event,

seismographs are placed in some specific
locations on the bedrock. When the
seismic shaking begins, a seismograph
starts to operate.

Initially the body waves arrive at

the station followed by the
surface waves. Their arrival order
is P-S-L-R.
P- and S-waves are called body
waves because they pass directly
through the Earth, whereas
surface waves travel along the
surface like the ripples in a pond
when a stone is thrown into it.

Doç.Dr.Beyza TAŞKIN 2
 BODY WAVES
Body waves travel through the interior of the Earth. They follow ray paths
refracted by the varying density and stiffness of the Earth layers.

P-waves (aka primary, pressure)

are the fastest to travel, therefore
arrive first. P-waves can travel in
any medium (solid; liquid, gas).
Their speed is 4~11 km/s. Note
that seismic velocity is a material
property. So, seismic velocities
depend on quantities like
chemical composition, pressure,
temperature,etc. Faster velocities
are encountered in:
 Lower temperatures;
 Higher pressures;
 Solid phases

BODY WAVES
P-waves are compressional waves, material movement is in the same direction
as the wave movement. In other words, material expands and contracts in
volume and particles move back and forth in the path of the wave. This
motion along the surface can cause the ground to buckle and fracture.

Doç.Dr.Beyza TAŞKIN 3
 BODY WAVES

S-waves (aka secondary, shear) are always slower than P-waves (3~7 km/s).
They can travel only through solids. S-waves move material perpendicular to
the path of the wave. So they are transverse waves and they have greater
amplitudes than P-waves. When the wave passes, the medium is distorted
first in one direction and then in the other.

BODY WAVES

Doç.Dr.Beyza TAŞKIN 4
 BODY WAVES
The actual velocities at which P- and S-waves travel depend on the densities
and inherent elastic properties of the rocks through which they travel. Wave
speed depends on the measures of only two elastic moduli of the rock:
 Incompressibility, K
 Rigidity, 
As well known, the volumetric strain is measured as the reduction in the
volume of the rock subjected to a uniform pressure on the surface. Henceforth
the ‘modulus of incompressibility, K’ (or in other words the Bulk Modulus) is
defined. This type of deformation will occur when P-waves propagate through
the Earth’s interior. Therefore, , being the density of the rock through which
the wave is travelling, the P- and S-wave velocities can be defined:

4
(   K) 
VP Wave  3 VS Wave   
 

BODY WAVES
In general:
4
(   K) Modulus of incompressibility K  ; then  
 3
 Modulus of rigidity   ; then  


 K   
Material
 Pa Pa km/s km/s
Granite 56.0109 34109 6.2 3.6
Sandstone 24.0109 17109 4.3 2.6
Water 2.2109 0.0 1.5 0.0
Air 0.0001 0.0 0.32 0.0

The lower values of P-wave velocity indicate P-wave traveling in water; while
higher values correspond the P-wave speed near the base of Earth's mantle.
Consequently, the lower values of S-wave velocity indicate S-wave traveling in
loose, unconsolidated sediment. Higher S-wave speed is near the base of
Earth's mantle.

Note that fluids and gasses cannot transmit shear stresses !

Doç.Dr.Beyza TAŞKIN 5
 BODY WAVES
4
(   K)
E (1  )
VP Wave  3   is the Poisson’s ratio.
 (1  )(1  2)

 E
VS Wave    
 2(1  )

2(1  ) VP Wave In most consolidated

VP Wave
  3 rocks for a Poisson ratio
VS Wave (1  2) VS Wave =0.25

However, when there is a liquefaction occurrence (sandy soil), then S waves

can not transmit through this layer. Furthermore, when the water content
of the soil increases,  also increases. VP/VS15 ratio had been observed
during the Mexico City EQ.

DERIVATION OF WAVE EQUATION

z
Longitudinal Wave Equation:
x

x S  f (t , x)

y S  f (at  bx)
f
 af (at  bx) 2 f a2 2 f
2
t a
Time

 2     VL2
2 f t 2
b x 2
b
Derivatives:

 a 2 f (at  bx)
t 2
VL being longitudinal wave velocity;
f
Displacement

the Wave Equation can be written as:

 bf (at  bx)
x
2 f 2  f
2
2 f  VL 0 ….(1)
 b 2 f (at  bx) t 2 x 2
x 2

Doç.Dr.Beyza TAŞKIN 6
 DERIVATION OF WAVE EQUATION
(x) (x+x) According to Newton’s II. Law; where F is the cross-section area
of the particle:

Mass  M  F  x  
u 2
 2u 1
x x+x Fx  F ( x  x)  ( x)   ( x  x)  ( x)
x t 2 t 2 x
 2u 
lim x  0  
t 2 x

Unit deformation (strain)  

1
u ( x  x)  u ( x)
x
u
lim x  0 
x

If  and  are related to each other by employing Hooke’s Law, then:

 
  E  E
x x hmmm…very similar to Eq.(1)

 2u 1  E  E  2u  2u E  2u E E
    2  0 VL2   VL 
t 2
 x  x  x 2
t  x 2  

DERIVATION OF WAVE EQUATION

z y dx
Transverse Wave Equation:
 +d
Vibration

u u+du
x x
x x+dx
mass  M  F  dx  
y Force 1  2u
u  ( Fdx) 2
du  dx Section F t
x
  2u d  2u
d  dx   2 dx   2
x t dx t

Hooke’s Law for shear : c being the propagation velocity of the transverse
du d  2u  2u (shear) wave velocity; the Wave Equation can be
   2  2 written as:
dx dx x t
 2u   2u  2u 2  2u 
 0 c
t 2  x 2 c 0 ….(2)
t 2 x 2 
 is the shear modulus (rigidity)

Doç.Dr.Beyza TAŞKIN 7
 SURFACE WAVES
Surface waves travel just below or along the ground’s surface. They are slower
than body waves; rolling, side-to-side movement and especially damaging to
buildings. Love and Rayleigh are the two main types. Both waves travel along
the surface of the Earth, with rocking motions decreasing to zero with depth

L- and R-waves are always slower

than body waves. They can only travel in
the shallow portions of the earth.
Deformations due to the surface waves
are like rolling and side-to-side
movement. They cause most of the
damage during an earthquake.

SURFACE WAVES

Love waves usually arrive after S-waves and before Rayleigh waves. Similar to
S-waves, L-waves cause shearing motion, however in the horizontal plane.
Their speed is about ~92% of the S-wave velocity, and have the largest
amplitude.

Doç.Dr.Beyza TAŞKIN 8
 SURFACE WAVES

Rayleigh waves are very similar to ocean waves. They cause vertical together
with back-and-forth horizontal motion; like an elliptical path to particles.
R-waves usually arrive last on a seismogram. Their speed is very close to L-
waves and also about 90% of the S-wave velocity. (VR  0.9194VS)

SURFACE WAVES

Wave Type Common Velocity

P-Wave 4.011.0 km/s
S-Wave 3.07.0 km/s
L-Wave 3.54.5 km/s
R-Wave 3.04.0 km/s

Since the outer core of the Earth

is liquid, the S-wave velocity is
negligable.

Doç.Dr.Beyza TAŞKIN 9
 SEISMIC WAVES & PROPAGATION
Useful Definitions
Several types of interaction between waves and the subsurface geology (i.e. the
rocks) are commonly observable on seismograms:

► Refraction
(kırılma)
► Reflection
(yansıma)
► Dispersion
(dağılma)
► Diffraction
(sapma)
► Attenuation
(azalım)

SEISMIC WAVES & PROPAGATION

Ray
NOTE THAT: Wave
amplitude is A and
2A represents double
amplitude !
Ray

Doç.Dr.Beyza TAŞKIN 10
 SEISMIC WAVES & PROPAGATION
A wavefront is a surface connecting ray
all points of equal travel time from the

wavefront
source. Rays are the normals to the
wavefronts, and they point in the
direction of the wave propagation. source
While the mathematical description of
the wavefronts is rather complex, that
of the rays is simple.

Seismic Ray Theory is analogous to optical ray theory and has been applied
for over 100 years to interpret seismic data. It continues to be used
extensively today, due to its simplicity and applicability to a wide range of
problems. These applications include :
 Most earthquake location algorithms,
 Body wave focal mechanism determinations,
 Inversions for velocity structure in the crust and mantle.

SEISMIC WAVES & PROPAGATION

x Consider a plane wave, propagating in a
horizontal material of uniform velocity V, that
interface intersects a horizontal interface:
 s : The ray-proportional distance at
ray times t1 and (t1+t)
wavefront
wavefront @ t1+t x : Horizontal exposure of s
@ t1
: Incidence angle (ray angle from the vertical)

s  x sin   s  V  t  V  t  x sin 

t sin 
   u sin   p
x V

Here, u=1/V and termed as ‘slowness’ and p is called the ray parameter.
Note that p is constant for laterally homogeneous media.

Doç.Dr.Beyza TAŞKIN 11
 SEISMIC WAVES & PROPAGATION

1.8s @90m
50m
Obtaining Wavefront
0.0
0.1
0.2
0.3
0.4
0.5
0.6
0.7
0.8
0.9
1.0

1.5

2.0

2.5
Time 1- We have the incident on the surface of
the first layer with thickness 200m and
H1=200m
wave velocity of 500m/s.
V1=500m/s
2- The wavefront at t=0.1s will proceed a
distance Vt=5000.01=50m. So draw a
H2= semi-circle with radius of 50m
V2=750m/s
3- For t=0.2s wavefront will cover a
distance of 5000.02=100m. Similarly, it will
proceed by nVt all along.
4- When the wavefront hits the interface of
0.5
0.6
0.7
0.8
0.9
1.0
1.1

1.5

2.0
the second layer (after 0.4s), new
75m wavefronts will form both in the first
6- Later draw a tangent line starting from the second layer at time 0.6s (reflected) and second (refracted) layers.
towards the reflected wave at 0.6s in the first layer. This tangent will be Note that for every t=0.1s in the second
the envelop for the head wave of the critically reflected waves that will layer; the wavefront will proceed
reach the surface. 7500.01=75m.
7- Repeat the same for the refracted waves for 0.7s; 0.8s;… All 5- Reflected (green) waves will continue
tangents will be parallel to each other. radiating 50m for every 0.1s while the
refracted (blue) waves radiate 75m.
8- Connect the incident’s wavefronts with the tangents. The point
where it reaches the surface is the critical distance and the time is
the critical time !

SEISMIC WAVES & PROPAGATION

SNELL’s LAW
As a wave travels through Earth, the path it takes depends on the velocity.
Snell's law is the mathematical expression that allows us to determine the
path a wave takes as it is transmitted from one rock layer into another. The
change in direction depends on the ratio of the wave velocities of the two
different rock layers.

Incident Surface Normal

Incident

1
1 Reflection 1 1
Layer-1 Layer-1

Layer-2 2 Refraction Layer-2

(transmission) 2

V2 > V1 V2 < V1

Doç.Dr.Beyza TAŞKIN 12
 SEISMIC WAVES & PROPAGATION
Snell's Law equates the ratio of material velocities V1 and V2 to the ratio of the
sine's of incident 1 and refracted 2 angles:

sin 1 sin  2

V1 V2

Snell's law applies to reflections P-wave Reflected Waves

(incident)
and refractions, even with mode
conversion.
r,S

Layer-1
If a P-wave is the incident, it VP1 i,P
reflects and refracts as r,P
VS1
P-waves, however it also forms
a reflected and a refracted
Layer-2 VP2 t,P
S-wave. Snell’s Law still works,
VS2 t,S
but for the outgoing wave being
an S-wave, note that S-wave Refracted Waves
velocity should be used. (transmitted)

SEISMIC WAVES & PROPAGATION

Applying Snell’s Law, the following relations can be written. Note that i,P=r,P
Here, reflected and transmitted S-waves are actually SV-waves, which are
purely polarized in the vertical plane of propagation. Similar relations are
applicable for an incident being an S-wave.

sin i , P sin  r , P sin  r , S sin t , P sin t , S

   
VP1 VP1 VS 1 VP 2 VS 2

Refracted SV Refracted SV

Refracted P Refracted P

Reflected P Reflected P
Incident P Incident SV
Reflected SV Reflected SV

Doç.Dr.Beyza TAŞKIN 13
 SEISMIC WAVES & PROPAGATION
In the case of an SH-wave hitting the boundary, which is purely polarized in
the horizontal plane, there is only a transmitted and a reflected SH-wave, but
no conversion into P or SV possible. If a single incident wave is split into
multiple scattered waves, energy must be partitioned between these waves.

Coefficients governing the

partitioning between transmitted,
reflected, and converted energy will
generally depend on the incidence
Refracted SH
angle of the incoming wave and the
impedance contrast at the
boundary. Impedance contrast (z)
is the product of wave velocity and
Incident SH density of the medium.
Reflected SH

 2V2
z 
1V1

SEISMIC WAVES & PROPAGATION

O If the lower layer’s velocity increases (V2>V1), the ray refracts AWAY from the
interface normal.
O In the converse, the ray refracts TOWARDS the normal.
O If the deeper layers have a monotonic increase in velocity, the ray will
continue to flatten out with depth.
O Eventually, the ray will reach its turning depth where it goes exactly
horizontal and then will start to go up. This is called a Critically
Refracted Ray and its causy angle is the Critical Angle.

i For the critically refracted

wave → t=90 → sin(90)=1.
t
Then the critical angle i,c

sin(i ,c )
 i ,c  arcsin 1 
V1 V

sin(t ) V2  V2 

Doç.Dr.Beyza TAŞKIN 14
 SEISMIC WAVES & PROPAGATION

If there are multiple

layers, Snell’s Law is
sequentially applicable.
In the figure only the
refracted (transmitted) Vs=500 m/s

waves are shown. Waves are

Vs=1,000 m/s nearly
vertical by
Vs=1,500 m/s
the time
Waves are they reach
nearly the ground
horizontal Vs=2,000 m/s
surface
by the time
they reach
the bottom
Vs=2,500 m/s
layer

SEISMIC WAVES & PROPAGATION

Energy of Seismic Waves
The energy density E contained in a seismic wave may be expressed as the sum of
kinetic (Ekin) and potential (Epot) energy densities:

E = Ekin + Epot
The potential energy results from the distortion of the material working against the
elastic restoring force (stress), while the kinetic energy density is:
Ekin = ½  aV 2
Ground motion particle velocity: a V = A  cos(t – kx)
A: wave amplitude
: angular frequency (2f)
k: wave number

Since the mean value of cos2=½, the mean kinetic energy density will be:
1
Ekin  A2 2
4
For isotropic stress-strain relationship in a non-dispersive system Ekin=Epot, so the
total average energy density will be:
1
E  A2 2
2

Doç.Dr.Beyza TAŞKIN 15
 SEISMIC WAVES & PROPAGATION
The energy-flux density per unit time in the direction of wave propagation with velocity
v will then be:
1
E flux  vA2 2
2

The total energy-flux density Eflux through a small surface area dS of the wavefront
bounded by neighboring rays which form a ray tube:

1
E flux  vA2 2 dS
2
According to the energy conservation law, the energy flux within a considered ray tube
must remain constant although the surface area dS of the wavefront may vary along the
propagation path.

Considering at different times two surface patches of the propagating wavefront

dS1dS2, which are bounded by the same ray tube, and assuming that v and  are the
same at these two locations, then:

A1 dS 2

A2 dS1

SEISMIC WAVES & PROPAGATION

However, wave amplitudes will also change, when density  and velocity v vary at
different locations along the ray path. Therefore:

 Here, v is called as impedance

 2 v2
2
A1 A  v
  z   1   2 2 of the material and their ratio is
A2 1v1  A2  1v1 known as impedance contrast
between the two adjacent media.

Predominant Period of the Layer

Undamped one-layer soil structure:
x Displacement function of the layer subjected to harmonic
vibration can be written as:
; ; =0%
A; B: amplitudes of

H u ( z  0, t )   A  B e it waves travelling
Vs  upwards (-z) and

 iz i z 
 downwards (z)
u ( z  H , t )   Ae Vs  Be Vs e it : angular frequency
  of the layer
z  
Solution can be obtained 1 1
by Frequency Response F ()   If cos term =0, then F()=

Function, F() at z=H. cos H cos   H RESONANCE !
Vs 

Doç.Dr.Beyza TAŞKIN 16
 SEISMIC WAVES & PROPAGATION
  2 1  4H
First mode of vibration:  H  H   T1 
 2 T Vs 2 Vs
 3 4H
Second mode of vibration:  H  T2 
 2 3Vs

 I vI
Reflection Coefficients: z  Refraction Coefficients:
 II vII
t,up
I I 2
 t ,up 
1 z
II 1 z II
 down 
down 1 z

up
1 z 2 z
I  up     down I  t ,down 
1 z 1 z
II II
t,down

EXAMPLE
Example-1: For the two-layer soil formation:
1=2.0t/m3; 1=0.30 a- Calculate the impedance ratio,
L-1 E1=2105t/m2; h1=75m b- Calculate the predominant period of the
upper layer,
2=2.5t/m3; 2=0.25
L-2 c- Compute the transmission (refraction) &
E2=3106t/m2; h2=150m
reflection coefficients from hard soil towards
soft soil.
a- Imdepance Ratio, Z :
Initially, the shear moduli & velocities of the layers should be computed.
Layer-1 Layer-2
E1 2 10 5
3 106
1    76923t / m 2 2   1.2 106 t / m 2
2(1  1 ) 2(1  0.3) 2(1  0.25)
1 2 .0 2 .5
1    0.204ts 2 / m 4 2   0.255ts 2 / m 4
g 9.807 9.807

1 76923 1.2 106

V1    614m / s V2   2169m / s
1 0.204 0.255

Doç.Dr.Beyza TAŞKIN 17
 EXAMPLE
a- Imdepance Ratio, z (cont’) :
1V1 0.204  614
Z    0.226
 2V2 0.255  2169

b- Predominant Period, T1 :
4h1 4  75
T1    0.49 s
VS 1 614

c- Transmission & Reflection Coefficients :

The ‘hard soil’ is Layer-2.
Black ray is the incidence. So the reflected ray’s
(blue) transmission coefficient is calculated by:
t,up
L-1 1   z 1  0.226
 down    0.63
1   z 1  0.226
L-2
down For the transmitted ray (red) :
2 2
 t ,up    1.63
1   z 1  0.226

LOCATING AN EARTHQUAKE

After an earthquake, the difference in

arrival times of the seismic waves
(PSL&R) can be used to calculate the
distance from the seismograph to the
epicenter. This is because average speeds
for all these waves are known.

Doç.Dr.Beyza TAŞKIN 18
 LOCATING AN EARTHQUAKE

Since the location (coordinates)

of any seismograph is known,
by measuring the time-
difference between the arrivals
of P- and S-waves, the focal
distance can be estimated.
As understood from the figure,
the farther the seismograph is
from the epicenter of an
earthquake, the longer the P-S
arrival time interval.

LOCATING AN EARTHQUAKE

After the calculation of the

focal distance from the
station where seismograph is
placed, one will need two
more stations to locate the
epicenter of the quake.
Since all the 3 stations’
distances to the EQ focus are
initially calculated, by simply
drawing circles using these
focal distances and
intersecting them, gives the
geographic epicenter.
Method is most reliable when
the EQ is near the surface.

Doç.Dr.Beyza TAŞKIN 19
 LOCATING AN EARTHQUAKE

FAULT-PLANE SOLUTIONS
Although it was enough to locate an earthquake accurately in the early days,
later it was noticed that the seismic waves contain much detailed information
including the type of faulting.
The seismogram shows the initial motion of the P-wave of an earthquake,
which can be a push away or pull towards from the seismograph.

First motion of P-wave is UP which is a First motion of P-wave is DOWN which

‘pushing you away from the source’: is a ‘pull towards the source’:

COMPRESSION EXTENSION

Doç.Dr.Beyza TAŞKIN 20
 FAULT-PLANE SOLUTIONS
Employing the world-wide network of seismographs, it is possible to determine
the push or pull movement on any seismogram, which yields important
information about the source characteristics of the earthquake: such as ‘the
event took place on a normal fault’ or reverse or strike-slip fault.....

Extension
The first motions of P-waves in each
Compresion station point out the direction of the
movement along the fault.
The BEACH BALL representation of
the fault motion is actually a 2D
illustration of a 3D motion.
In the fault-plane (beach ball)
solutions, the red region indicates the
areas in compression, while the white
shows the areas in extension.
Compresion Extension

FAULT-PLANE SOLUTIONS
Fault plane
Fault Plane

Areas in Areas in
Extension Compression

Auxiliary plane

Areas in
Areas in Extension
Compression

A secondary (auxiliary) plane is included in the

solutions, so that the sphere is divided into 4 quadrants.
Left-Lateral
Many earthquakes are not accompanied by surface
Strike-Slip
faulting, so the fault-plane solutions are the best
evidence of the type of the fault causing the earthquake.

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 FAULT-PLANE SOLUTIONS
Another illustration for nodal planes and extension/compression zones on a
right-lateral strike-slip fault.

FAULT-PLANE SOLUTIONS
Fault-plane solution provides the focal mechanism, which refers to the
direction of slip in an earthquake and the orientation of the fault on which it
occurs. Beach Ball symbol is the projection on a horizontal plane of the lower
half of an imaginary, spherical shell (focal sphere) surrounding the earthquake
source (A).

The intersection between the fault plane and the sphere is a curve. The focal mechanism shows the
view of the hemisphere from directly above. The orientation of a plane (strike and dip) can be shown
by using just one curve, to include information on the slip, two planes should be used and shade
opposite quadrants of the hemisphere. In the figure, the gray quadrants contain the tension axis (T)
which reflects the minimum compressive stress direction; and the white quadrants contain the
pressure axis (P), which reflects the maximum compressive stress direction.

Doç.Dr.Beyza TAŞKIN 22
 FAULT-PLANE SOLUTIONS
 On the Seismic Beach Balls, one of the two nodal planes represents the
orientation of the fault plane that generated the earthquake.
 The other is the auxiliary plane, a plane perpendicular to the line
describing the direction of slip in the earthquake (this line must lie on the
fault plane).
 On a two-dimensional surface, the sphere of a focal mechanism is usually
represented by a circle, the projection of one half of that sphere. The center
of the sphere represents the earthquake's hypocenter; the center of a
circular projection represents its epicenter.

FAULT-PLANE SOLUTIONS
Although the first waves are plotted properly and the two nodal planes are set
accordingly, it is not certain which of the two represents the fault plane.
Consequently, this will show what type of slip occurred in the earthquake.

 The geology of the site and the aftershock sequence might give valuable data
The fault plane solution is generally given as a two-dimensional projection of
the lower hemisphere of a focal mechanism sphere, not just an overhead view
of the outside of that sphere. The lines crossing the circle represent the
intersection of two perpendicular planes with a sphere.

If you can determine which nodal plane on a fault-plane solution corresponds

to the orientation of the geologic fault plane, you know that the other plane
must be the auxiliary plane.

Because this plane is oriented perpendicular to the direction of slip, its

point of intersection with the fault plane provides information about the
relative proportions of dip slip and strike slip involved in the fault rupture. If
the line of the auxiliary plane bisects the fault plane's line, this represents
pure strike slip.

Doç.Dr.Beyza TAŞKIN 23
 FAULT-PLANE SOLUTIONS
Reverse (Thrust) Fault

Normal Fault

FAULT-PLANE SOLUTIONS

In figure part (B), the block diagrams

adjacent to each focal mechanism
illustrate the two possible types of
fault motion that the focal
mechanism could represent.
In the first row, the strike-slip fault
motion is completely horizontal,
while in the second and the third, it
is vertical. The oblique-reverse
mechanism illustrates that slip may
also have components of horizontal
and vertical motion.

Doç.Dr.Beyza TAŞKIN 24
 FAULT-PLANE SOLUTIONS

FAULT-PLANE SOLUTIONS

S.Yolsal & T.Taymaz Ç.Özkaymak et al.

Doç.Dr.Beyza TAŞKIN 25