Baroque

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A Study of Baroque Tempo Practices
and Their Applications to the Violoncello Suite No. 2
by Johann Sebastian Bach
by
Yoonju Cho
A dissertation subm itted in partial fu lfillm e n t

o f the requirements fo r th e degree of
Doctor o f M usical A rts
U niversity o f W ashington
1998
A p pro ved by
Chairperson of supervisory Com m ittee
Program A uthorized .
to O ffe r Degree ± , c _______
Date__
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Doctoral Dissertation
In presenting this dissertation in partial fu lfillm e n t o f the requirements for

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U niversity o f W ashington
A b stra ct
A Study o f Baroque Tem po Practices

And Their A pplications to the Violoncello Suite No. 2
By Johann Sebatian Bach
by Yoonju Cho
Chairperson o f the Supervisory Com m ittee

Professor Neal O'Doan
D epartm ent o f M usic
Tempo underwent significant changes during the Baroque period, and an
acceptable tem po remains elusive to modern m usicians because tem po
m arkings are rarely indicated in Baroque w orks. In order to choose a
proper tem po fo r the Cello Suite No. 2 by J. S. Bach, this study
investigated the musical elements and practices in the Baroque period that
affe cted tem po. First o f all, the violoncello and the bow th a t existed at
the tim e have undergone various structural alterations in response to
changes in sound ideals, w hich greatly influenced tem po practice. The
structural fittin g s of the Baroque instrum ent and bow appear to be well-
suited fo r fast-tem po m ovem ents. In particular, the Baroque bow may
have affected tem po selection, because it could not respond e ffic ie n tly to
slow strokes of great pressure as opposed to the modern bow . Second,
s u ffic ie n t knowledge about Baroque tem po from tactus to Q uantz's
system is im portant in attaining an appropriate tem po, because tem po
practices are very com plex and confusing to the modern perform ers.
Third, tem po and mood are im plied by the general characteristics of
Baroque dance m ovements. In addition, the m ovem ents in the suite are
related to each other in term s o f m ood, rhyth m ic pattern, and tem po.
Thus, I related one m ovem ent to another by selecting the starting tem po
o f d = 7 6 , and by using the tem po as a benchm ark by which the tem pi of
the remaining movements were calculated proportionally. In conclusion,
thro ugh the incorporation of several aspects - texture, key, m etric
stru ctu re , and proportional tem po - I have dem onstrated that close tem po
relationships exist between all m ovem ents of the Suite No. 2.
TABLE OF CONTENTS
Page
List of F ig u re s................................................................................................ iii

List of T a b le s ................................................................................................. iv
Chapter I: In tro d u c tio n .................................................................................. 1
Chapter II: Development o f the Violoncello and the Bow

1. The Evolution of the V io lo n c e llo ........................................................... 7
2. Evolution of the B o w ............................................................................... 17
3. The Influence of the Violoncello and Bow on Tempo P ra c tic e 27
Chapter III : Tempo Practice in Baroque Era

1. Tactus and Mensural Notation in the Early Baroque E r a ................ 34
2. Cut Time and Common Tim e.................................................................. 39

3. Numerical Time Signatures in Proportional R e la tio n sh ip s ............... 41
4. Transition from Mensural System to Modern M etrical System .... 42
5. Tempo Practice in the Eighteenth C e n tu ry ........................................ 47
Chapter IV : General Characteristics o f Baroque Dance M ovem ents

1. P relude........................................................................................................ 69
2. A lle m a n d e ................................................................................................... 71
3. C o u ra n te ..................................................................................................... 73
4. B o u rre e ........................................................................................................ 76
5. G a v o tte ........................................................................................................ 77
6. G ig u e ............................................................................................................ 80
7. M e n u e t......................................................................................................... 83
8. S arabande.................................................................................................... 87
TABLE OF CONTENTS (Continued)
Page
Chapter V : Practical A pplication to J. S. Bach's Cello Suite No. 2
1. Criteria fo r a Proper Tempo S e le c tio n .................................................. 98

2. General Features of Bach's Cello S u ite s .............................................. 101
3. Selection of Authentic Tem pi fo r Suite No. 2 .................................... 104
1) Beginning T e m p o .......................................................................... 105
2) Proportional R e la tio n s h ip s.......................................................... 108
3) Tempo Selections fo r the M o v e m e n ts ................................... 109

4. Tem po Selections by C ontem porary C e llis ts ..................................... 122
Chapter VI : C o nclu sion................................................................................... 133
B ib lio g ra p h y ........................................................................................................ 140
Appendix: The Score of the Violoncello Suite No. 2 by J.S . Bach ....... 147
ii
LIST OF FIGURES
Page
Figure 2-1. Necks o f a Baroque and modern c e llo ................................. 8
Figure 2-2. Fingerboards o f a Baroque and modern cello ..................... 9
Figure 2-3. Bridges o f a Baroque and modern c e llo ................................ 11
Figure 2-4. A Baroque and modern c e llo ................................................... 16
Figure 2-5. Evolution o f the b o w from 1620 to 1790 ............................ 21
Figure 2-6. The Bow s o f Francois T o u rte .................................................... 23
Figure 3-1. Im perfect breve subdivided into tw o s e m ib re v e s ............... 38

Figure 3-2. Perfect breve subdivided into three s e m ib re v e s .................. 38
Figure 3-3. Handel, Sonata fo r German flu te , oboe, or
violin w ith c o n tin u o ..................................................................... 52
Figure 3-4. Handel, Sonata O p .1 , No. 3 in A for violin and
continuo (end o f the firs t m ovem ent) ..................................... 53
Figure 3-5. Handel, Violin Sonata Op. 1, No. 1 4 ..................................... 54
Figure 5-1. Typical dance rhythm s in Bach's w o r k s ................................ 103
Figure 5-2. Prelude o f Bach's Cello Suite No. 2 ........................................ 107
Figure 5-3. Allem ande of Bach's cello Suite No. 2 .................................... 110
Figure 5-4. Courante of Bach's Cello Suite No. 2 ..................................... 112
Figure 5-5. Sarabande of Bach's Cello Suite No. 2 ................................... 114
Figure 5-6. A rh yth m ic feature o f the sa ra b a n d e ..................................... 115
Figure 5-7. M enuet I and II o f Bach's Cello Suite No. 2 .......................... 117
Figure 5-8. Gigue of Bach's Cello Suite N o.2 ............................................. 120
iii
LIST OF TABLES
Page
Table 3-1. The notation of tempus dim inutum .............................. 36

Table 3-2. The usage of tim e signatures by D e a n ...................... 46
Table 3-3. The usage of tim e signatures by D o lm e ts c h ........... 46
Table 3-4. Relationship between m eters and te m p o ............................ 47
Table 3-5. List o f tempo w ords by M a rp u rg ................................. 55
Table 3-6. The character of m ajor and m inor k e y s ...................... 57
Table 3-7. Chart o f a relationship betw een tem po words
and s ig n a tu re s .............................................................................. 60
Table 3-8. Q uantz's categories o f tem p o and
the performance s u g g e s tio n s ................................................... 61
Table 3-9. List of Quantz' tem pi related to pulse b e a t......................... 63
Table 4-1. Tempi of Baroque dances ........................................................... 91
Table 5-1. Tempo organization of Bach's Cello Suite No.2 .................. 121
Table 5-2. A comparison w ith M a rke vitch 's tem po s e le c tio n ............ 123
Table 5-3. Tempi and perform ance by Casals, Gendron,
Rostropovitch, Ma, Starker, and B y ls m a ............................... 1 24
iv
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
I w ishes to thank m y adviser Rajan Krishnasw am i fo r his

guidance and assistance throughout this study. M y special
gratitude goes to him fo r his tim e, advice, and help in preparing
the dissertation. I w ould like to thank m y com m ittee m embers,
Neal O'Doan, W illiam M cColl fo r th e ir careful reading and
invaluable com m ents about the m anuscript.
Above all, I do not know how I thank m y fam ily, especially m y
fa th e r and m other. W ith o u t their persistent love and support, I
could not be w h a t I am. Their understanding, patience, and
encouragem ent has been a strong foundation fo r me to have
com pleted all of the academic studies fo r over th e last tw o
decades.
Finally, I cannot thank my husband too much. His love and
persistent concern is alw ays by my side, providing a prime
support. _
To my loving brother
vi
Chapter I: Introduction
2
The musical tradition of a period can be described by the particular
language used by contem poraries to describe it. The Baroque period (c.
1 6 0 0-1750) was an era not only o f great changes in musical styles, rules,
and conventions, but also of expanded musical idiom s1. M ost im portantly,
tem po underw ent significant changes during this time. In the early
Baroque period, tem po was generally tied to the conventions of
Renaissance notation and tem po practice2. Such a proportional tem p o
system is quite different from the modern concept of tempo.
Am ong Baroque composers, Johann Sebastian Bach is unique in
th a t he composed musical w orks em ploying traditional rules and
conventions, w hile m ost o f his contem poraries w illingly ignored and
abandoned the old traditions to adopt new ideas and principles introduced
in the eighteenth century1. In the Age of the Enlightenment, older
traditions in general as well as Bach's w orks in particular were alm ost
com pletely abandoned. Although his m usic was restored to popularity
during the nineteenth century, the original meaning and intent o f th e
com poser were greatly distorted w hen his scores were provided w ith
Romantic-era tem po indications1. Therefore, it is very im portant fo r a
modern perform er to be aware of the old system and its meaning, and to
comprehend the differences in the concepts of tempo between th e
Baroque and the modern period.
O f all ingredients of musical perform ance, tempo is one o f the m o st
fundam ental and crucial elements in the successful interpretation of
3
m usic. However, an acceptable tem po remains elusive to m odern
m usicians because tem po m arkings are rarely indicated in m usical w o rks
o f the Baroque. M ost Baroque com posers were also perform ers, able not
only to interpret music but also to im provise it3. Thus, it is necessary fo r
modern performers to seek clues to the tem po and expressiveness o f a
Baroque piece while m aintaining the a rtistic style intended by the
com poser. In order to choose the proper tem po for a Baroque w o rk, the
modern performers should be acquainted w ith the principles and the rules
o f tem po selection. A t the same tim e, th e y should also consider other
m usical practices unique to th e Baroque period. If the historical
background and performance practice o f the period are neglected, the
selected tem po w ill remain arbitrary and n o t correspond to the com poser's
intention.
The fundamental aims of this study are to understand the m usical
elements and practices in the Baroque period th a t a ffe ct tem po and to
a tte m p t to revive an authentic tem po fo r the Cello Suite No. 2 by J.S.
Bach. Before considering the tem po practices prevalent in th e Baroque
period, it is appropriate to exam ine the violoncello and the b o w th a t
existed at the tim e because th e y have undergone various changes in their
structure in response to changes in sound ideals. M oreover, these
structural alterations greatly influenced tem po practice in the Baroque
period. Thus, this study firs t addresses th e structural alterations o f the
violoncello and the bow, providing a valuable insight into proper tem po
4
selection fo r Baroque music lacking tem po m arks. Then fo llow s an
in vestigation o f the historical evolution of tem po practices in the Baroque
period. This is o f great im portance, because conce pts o f tem po such as
tem po w ords, note values, tempo marks, and tim e signatures th a t
prevailed in th e Baroque period carried d iffe re n t m eanings from modern
concepts. In addition, the principles and rules governing tem po during the
Baroque period w ere quite unstable and involved a great deal of
inconsistency and com plexity. Therefore, it is necessary to understand
the prevailing tem po practice at specific tim es in th e Baroque era allowing
the selection o f a proper, and more authentic, tem p o.
This exam ination is follow ed by a stu d y of the general
characteristics of Baroque dance m ovem ents and the proper tem pi
im plicated in them . A lthough descriptions of th e dance m ovem ents varied
depending upon their nationalities and periods, some clues for proper
tem p i can be obtained from them . This understanding is especially
valuable in reviving a correct tempo fo r Bach's Cello Suite No. 2. In the
practical application o f proper tem po selection, I considered my ow n
m usical experiences as w ell as the conclusions from the aforementioned
in vestigations. Thereafter, my ow n tem po selection, inform ed by Baroque
conventions, is compared w ith those of contem porary cellists.
5
Notes to Chapter I
1. Rothschild, Fritz. The Lost T radition in M usic. Rhythm and Tem po in
J. S. Bach's Time. London: Adam and Charles Black, 1 9 5 3,1 -4 .
2. Boyden, David D. The H istory o f Violin Playing from its Origins to
1 7 6 1 . New York: Oxford U niversity Press, 1990, Chapter XIII. 292 .
3. Donington, Robert. A Perform er's Guide to Baroque M u sic. London,
1 973, Chapter IV, 30.
Chapter II : D evelopm ent of th e V ioloncello
and the Bow
7
1. The Evolution of the Violoncello
Since the first appearance o f the violoncello about 4 5 0 years ago,
the fundam ental features of its main body have rarely been altered.
However, the one significant m odifica tion to the main body was the
standardization of its size in the late nineteenth century by reducing the
size of the larger violone and by enlarging the smaller solo cello.
Furthermore, there were several other changes to the internal and external
fittin g s , including the bass bar, the w edge underneath the fingerboard, the
neck, the bridge, the fingerboard and the end pin; in this w a y the
instrum ent w as adapted to changing musical styles and ta ste ' 2. The bass
bar in the early cello was shorter and lighter w ith a very w ide range in its
size. The physical function of the bass bar is to assist the top o f the
instrum ent in resisting the pressure from the bridge. The bass bar affects
the tone color of the violoncello greatly. W ith the rise in pitch and greater
pressure on the top, the bass bar in the early instrum ent has been
replaced w ith longer and stronger bars. As a result, modern cellos are
characterized by their rich, warm tone w hile cellists try to produce an
even bigger and more penetrating sound.
The neck of the violoncello w as originally shorter, slightly w ider,
thicker and fla tte r than th a t of the modern instrum ent2. W ith pitch rising
over the centuries, it was necessary to make the neck longer. And, in an
a tte m p t to facilitate the m ovem ent o f the fingers on the neck, a narrower
8
neck was grafted onto the main body. These adjustm ents resulted in
greater tension on the instrum ent. From the sixteenth to th e eighteenth
century, the neck of the violoncello was attached to the body
approxim ately at a right angle, as show n in Figure 2-13.
Baroque modern
Figure 2-1: Necks of a Baroque and modern cello
The fu n ctio n of the fingerboard is to provide a surface upon w hich
the fingers can press the strings. The fingerboard of the violoncello in the
Baroque era w as shorter and w ider than the modern one. The Baroque
fingerboard w as ju s t long enough to enable the perform er to play through
the seventh position. Yet, m usic a fte r 1750 demanded higher positions
on the fingerboard, encouraging its gradual lengthening by instrum ent
9
builders3. The Baroque fingerboard was also fla tte r whereas the modern
fingerboard slopes downward on the C-string side to produce freer
vibrations o f the low er string, as shown in Figure 2 -2 ’ 2,3.
a) Baroque
b) modern
Figure 2-2: Fingerboards of a Baroque and modern cello
By the end of the eighteenth century, the piano to o k its place as a
prom inent m usical instrum ent due to its extended capacity for louder and
w ider dynam ics. Thus, a new kind of m usical partnership needed to be
10
created in the violoncello-piano duo2. In order to m aintain the partnership
w ith the piano, the violoncello had to be m odified to produce a louder
volum e and a more penetrating sound by increasing the tension on its
body. The greater tension was achieved by increasing the thickness of
the wedge inserted between the fingerboard and the neck, in order to
increase the bridge height. However, the th ick wedge made agile
m ovem ent o f the le ft hand d iffic u lt. The problem w as solved by tiltin g the
t
neck backw ards. W ithout the wedge, this backward position o f the neck
w ould have allowed little or no room for the strings to stretch over the
belly of the instrum ent'.
The shape of the bridge has also been changed. There have been a
w ide variety o f bridges differing in size and shape. The Baroque bridge
was generally heavy, and its shape varied from fla t to arched. The flat
bridge facilitated chord-playing by continuo players, w hile the highly
arched bridge, like the modern one, gave greater clearance for solo
passagew ork5. The bridge of the early violoncello was about 1 cm lower
than th a t of the modern instrum ent. This feature, together w ith the use of
gut strings, decreased the tension on the body of the violoncello. The
resulting sound was warm er, gentler, and less penetrating than th a t of the
modern violoncello, in contrast, the higher, lighter, and less bulky bridge
of today produces considerably higher tension and greater c la rity 2-4. Also,
the curvature of the bridge is related to that of the fingerboard, w hich
I[
enables the cellist to play on one string at a tim e. The fo llo w in g figures
dem onstrate the differences between the Baroque and modern bridge’ .
a) Baroque
b) Modern
Figure 2-3: Bridges of a Baroque and modern cello
The end pin w as not a feature of the Baroque vio lon cello2. It was
not until the late nineteenth century that the end pin w as w id e ly used.
Prior to this century, a cellist placed the instrum ent betw een the knees,
supporting it on the calves4. This vertical position had some advantages
in producing the Baroque sound. When holding the cello in this position,
12
the cellist w ould have a more vertical posture and, consequently, the le ft
hand w ould become freer and lighter in its action, which is valuable for
playing in high positions and fo r executing the quick and virtuosic
passagew ork characteristic of eighteenth-century m usic5. M oreover, the
right arm w ould act more freely as w ell, stim ulating the effortless swing
of a clo ck's pendulum 2. Pictorial evidence show s th a t a fo o t stool, or an
elaborately carved short wooden end pin was o fte n used to support the
instrum ent during the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries2. The length
of the wooden end pin was shorter than modern one, and it was fixed on
the instrum ent. Naturally, there were other w a ys of supporting the
instrum ent. For example, in the seventeenth century the cellist com m only
rested the larger violini on the floor. An eighteenth-century cellist even
put the cello on a chair or a stool4. A new adjustable end pin was
invented at the end of the nineteenth century, which affected cello
perform ance in th a t it enabled the instrum ent to lean back much more so
th a t the perform er could attain more freedom in action and adjust the
length o f the end pin to his or her height2. M ore recently, an advanced
end pin was developed by M stislav R ostropovitch for technical reasons.
The R ostropovitch end pin is longer and bent closer to the ground to
create a narrower angle between the instrum ent and the ground. It has a
great advantage in th a t the le ft hand of a perform er has much more
freedom of action w hile managing d iffic u lt techniques in higher positions4.
13
Strings and pitch on the violoncello a ffe ct its sound qua lity. For
general performance in the Baroque period, a cellist used uncovered gut
fo r the upper tw o strings, and silver- or copper-wound g u t fo r the low er
tw o strings2. The uncovered gut on the strings resulted in a ve ry d ifferent
color and texture o f sound in comparison w ith the steel strings that
modern cellists often use today. The Baroque sound was quite audible and
extrem ely enjoyable, as quoted below :
"T he coloring is th a t m uch m ore p u n g en t; th e te x tu re is th a t m u c h m ore
edgy. The to n e is a little q u ie te r, but this is a d v a n ta g e o u s ra th e r th an
o th e rw is e fo r baroque m usic in m o s t o rdinary aco u stic c irc u m s ta n c e s 6.''
In the Baroque period, steel strings have been used only in dance bands
and for outdoor performance. The thickness of the strings w as chosen by
the size and set-up of the instrum ent and also by the purpose of
perform ance2. Today, the choice of strings is of great im portance to a
cellist. However, since generalizations are d ifficu lt, one has to experim ent
w ith various types of strings to find the best ones for his or her
instrum ent. In general, however, a steel string is used for the A -string and
an alum inum -wound gut or steel fo r the D-string. A lte rna tely, some
cellists prefer to use four steel strings. The steel strings, w h ich are tig h te r
than the gut strings, cause the instrum ent to sound more responsive and
clear.
14
A part from the strings' m aterial, pitch also has a significant
influence on the tone quality. A higher pitched instrum ent, fo r instance,
sounds more brilliant, keener, and brighter, whereas a low er pitched
instrum ent sounds relatively w arm er, softer, and gentler. During the
seventeenth and eighteenth centuries, pitch levels in perform ance varied
considerably according to region and style. Ideas of pitch differences
between sacred and secular music are reflected in the fo llo w in g com ments
by tw o Baroque-period theorists:
J o hn Playford w ro te , "Viol p la y e rs to tu n e th e top string as high as
'c o n v e n ie n tly w ill bear' w ith o u t b re a k in g , and th en to tu n e th e o th e rs to it3.''
Q u a n tz w r o te 12, "The pitch re g u la rly used for tuning in an o rc h e s tra has
a lw a y s varied considerably a c c o rd in g to tim e and p la c e 7."
Custom arily, Baroque musicians perform ed at a pitch level of A = 442-443
Hz, a semitone lower than the modern pitch standard. However, there
were at least tw o recognized pitch levels during Bach's tim e in northern
Germany: Chor-Ton or 'choir p itc h ', and Cammer-Ton or 'cham ber pitch'.
Cammer-Ton was lower than Chor-Ton, by a whole step or a m inor third,
depending upon the locality. String instrum ents usually employed
Cammer-Tona. For example, the instrum entalists playing Bach's cantatas
in Muhlhausen, Weimar and Leipzig also used tw o d iffe re n t pitches.
Those pitches were a whole step apart in Muhlhausen and Leipzig, and a
15
m inor th ird apart in Weimar. But at Cothen, Chor-Ton and Cammer-Ton
were com m only identical in pitch. W hatever the variations in pitch, both
Chor-Ton and Cammer-Ton were used from the seventeenth through the
nineteenth century. The com mon pitches of Bach's tim e can be
summarized as fo llow s: 9
Chor- Ton A = 4 4 5 -4 6 0 Hz
High Cammer-Ton a whole step low er
Low Cammer-Ton a minor third low er
Relative to this standard, pitches in France were lo w . French pitch for
cham ber m usic was a w hole step lower than the old Chor-Ton fo r
cham ber music and a m inor third lower for opera. The lower pitch was
prevalent at the Paris Academ ie Royale de Musique (called the Opera),
although the pitch rose slightly during the eighteenth century. The pitch A
in seventeenth-century France w as between 392 and 4 2 0 Hz. In 1810,
the pitch of the Paris Opera remained as low as A = 4 2 3 Hz9. On the
other hand, a standard pitch was firs t established in France in 1859, when
A = 4 3 5 Hz was adopted by m inisterial decree, and the same standard was
also adopted by other countries9. Not until 1939 w as an international
agreem ent reached that A = 440 Hz9, although to d a y 's standard is
A = 4 4 2 -4 4 3 Hz.
To summarize, the features of the violoncello in the Baroque period
include the shorter and lighter bass bar, low er bridge, shorter, th icke r and
16
w id e r neck, and shorter fingerboard, together w ith low er pitch and gut
strings. This resulted in a less penetrating, less tense, warm er, and
m ellow er sound quality. However, changes in these features were
inevitable, since the music at the end o f the eighteenth century demanded
a w ide range of virtuosity and technique in the le ft hand. Also,
perform ances in larger venues required a louder volum e. By the early
nineteenth century, the violoncello was gradually standardized to resemble
the size of the instrum ent we know today. A t present, the standard
violoncello is graded from 1 2 /6 4 " in the middle to 9 /6 4 " at the edges of
the inside of the top, w ith a body length of 1 9 .5 ". The back of the
standard violoncello is also graded from 1 6 /6 4 " in the middle to 9 /6 4 " at
the edges. The follow ing figures illustrate the cosm etic differences
betw een the Baroque and modern cello.
(violoncello w ith five strings, (middle or second half

by Michael Praetorius, 1 620) o f the 17th century)
Figure 2-4: A Baroque and modern Cello
17
Differences between a Baroque and modern cello
Figure 2-4: A Baroque and modern Cello (continued)
2. The Evolution of the Bow
The bow acts as a vibrating elem ent in tone production. A lthough
a variety of bow s in different shapes were in use during the seventeenth
and the eighteenth centuries, the shape o f the bow was im portant for
achieving the transparent and incisive articulation needed fo r Baroque
m u sic'0. It is im portant to be aware of the evolution of the bow , because
18
changes in the bow have directly influenced articulation, w h ich in turn
appears to be related to tem po. Shorter articulation in Baroque m usic m ay
have been related to quicker tem pi in dance m ovements.
The bow stick before 1750 was generally more flexible and lighter
than the modern b o w 10. There were also differences in fundam ental
design between the bow of the violin fam ily and th a t of the viol fa m ily in
this period. It is generally believed th a t the bow of the violin fa m ily was
either shorter or lighter than the viol b o w 310. During the early Baroque
period, the how usually had an outw ard curve, w hich varied by degree10.
Although m ost bows curved slightly outw ard, some bow s had
exaggerated curves and others had no curves at all. The curvature of the
Baroque bow reflected the curvature o f the bridge, giving the b o w w ith a
natural tendency to hug the string. This tendency was fu rther increased
by the hair tension on the bow, w hich was less than on the modern b o w 2.
Moreover, the length of the Baroque bow varied w idely. There existed
18" bow s for quick dances as well as 2 4 " bows for a 'sonata' in 1720.
Even a very long bow measuring about 3 0 " in length was suitable fo r
playing long and slow notes of adagio m ovem ents. M ost of Baroque bow s
were, how ever, tw o or three inches shorter than sonata b o w s '0.
The outw ard curve of the Baroque bow and its natural tendency to
hug the string was advantageous fo r the crispness, lightness, and cla rity
of Baroque articulation. This style of articulation varied according to
d ifferent speeds and lengths of strokes, achieved in turn by the application
19
o f varying w e ig h t and pressure on th e b o w 3. Leopold M ozart (1756)
com m ented on th e stroke and articulation o f the Baroque b o w as follow s:
" th e b o w in g g ives life to th e notes so th a t it p ro du ces n o w a m o d e s t, n o w
an im p e rtin e n t, n o w a serious or p la y fu l to n e ; n o w c o a x in g , or g ra v e and
s u b lim e; n o w a sad or m erry m e lo d y ; and is th e re fo re th e m e d iu m by th e
re a s o n a b le u se o f w h ic h w e are able to rouse in th e h earers th e aforesaid
a f f e c ts ” ."
In co ntrast w ith the Baroque bow, the modern bow is characterized by the
inw ard curve of its stick and greater hair tension, resulting in a natural
tendency fo r the bow to spring aw ay fro m the string. W ith this bow . It is
very easy to make a variety of lighter articulations, such as spiccato,
staccato, and even staccatissimo2. Furthermore, this bow is more
appropriate to the acoustical environm ent of a large hall, w h ich demands
energetic articulation and a relatively slo w te m p o '2. The trem endous
sustaining pow er of the instrum ent is easily obtained from the inward
curve o f the bow , as compared w ith the outw a rd curved bow .
W ith respect to the fittin g s of the Baroque bow , the initial shape of
the frog resembled an immovable horn, holding the bow hair at a fixed
te n sio n 10. This shape persisted until th e early seventeenth century. A
clip-in typ e o f frog possessing a gentle o utw a rd curve became w idely used
in the early eighteenth century10. It is n o t certain w hen this type of frog
20
was replaced by the movable screw mechanism invented in 1725. In
general, the band of bow hair was a little thinner and less tig h t in the
Baroque bow than it is to d a y ".
W hile the shape of the Baroque b o w influenced articulation, other
features in the fittings of the instrum ent affected sonority and tone
q u a lity '0. M oreover, an underhand or palm-up grip employed in the earlier
Baroque era had a natural tendency to produce an incisive and crisp sound
w ith little e ffo rt. Another Baroque grip w as almost identical to the modern
grip. Like the modern grip, the bow w as grasped at the frog so th a t a
perform er could control the full length o f the b o w .1 Although th e frog-
holding grip w as occasionally used, Baroque performers usually held the
bow some inches inwards from the nut to shorten the length of the bow,
a practice w h ich was very effective for crisp articulation in dance m u sic13.
A very d iffe re n t grip for dance music w as used by performers in France
and south Germany. The fingers were placed above the stick, and the
thum b was placed under the hair, rather than under the stick. This grip
allowed the cellist to play chords freely in term s of the pressure of the
thum b th a t regulated the tension o f the h a ir10.
Figure 2-5 shows the evolution o f bow s from the m id-eighteenth
century to the modern era. The tran sition from the outw ard to inward
curvature of the bow occurred gradually. Tartini firs t constructed a bow
w hich was sim ilar to modern one, especially in the shape of the frog . The
Tartini bow contained the follow ing features: a shortened head, a
straightened bow stick made of lighter wood, and grooves on top o f the
b o w 10. However, W ilhelm Cramer (1745-1799) w as the one to design a
bow m ost closely resembling the modern version. Cramer altered the
original convex form of the bow into a concave form fam iliar to us today.
His bow is characterized by a 'battle-axe' head, delicate and distinctive
frog shape, and an unarched bow stick of moderate length410. Figure 2-5
show s the evolution of the bow form from 1 620 to 1 790.
1 ac g
ar h
Figure 2-5: Evolution of the Bow from 1620 to 1790
(a) Mersenne, 1620. (b) Kircher, 1640. (c) C astrovillari, 1660.

(d) Bassani, 1680. (e) Corelli, 1770. (f) Tartini, 1740.
(g) Cramer, 1770. (h)V io tti, 1790.
22
The modern b o w was firs t developed by Francois Tourte (1747 -
1835), who developed its classical features w ith o u t introducing novel
ideas4. The Tourte bow , like the transitional bow s, w as developed in
adaptation to changes in perform ance techniques as well as in styles and
ta ste s10. Tourte developed a concave bow stick and a higher, more
massive head, achieving a proper clearance between the hair and the stick
in the middle o f the bow . The head of the Tourte bow , know n as a
'h a tch e t head', was shorter and heavier than the earlier 'p ik e 's head' of
the transitional bow . The balance was achieved at the frog by the w e igh t
of the metal ferrule, the inlay, the back-plate, and screw b u tto n 14. A
prom inent feature of the Tourte bow was the use of a lighter pernambuco
wood fo r the m aterial o f the stick. Pernambuco wood is the fin e s t fo r the
bow stick due to its strength and elasticity4. However, the heavy and
th ick snakewood (specklewood) and south Am erican brazil-w ood were
used as well. Rosewood, ebony or ivory were used fo r the frog on the
bow , but later metal parts made of gold or silver were applied to the frog
fo r the purpose of adding w e igh t and protecting the w o o d 15. In addition,
Tourte combined the taper and the stick, and created the m echanism of
fastening the hair w ith the ferrule and the slide in the frog. The band of
hair w as broadened to approxim ately 1 cm, com prising 1 50 to 200 horse
hairs. This construction, w ith its greater hair tension, made the bow
naturally spring aw ay from the string. Bow makers a fte r T ou rte adopted
his art o f bow making, excepting for the fact th a t they tended to shorten
the bow length by approxim ately 1 cm 10. Some Tourte bow s are show n in
Figure 2-6.
The m ost im portant physical changes to the b o w since the Baroque
era is that the reversal of the shape and the increase in length has shifted
the w eight balance. W ith this change, it is easier fo r a player
Figure 2-6: The bow s of Francois Tourte
(a) Bow dated 1825-1830

O ctagon, ebony silver m ounted frog
(b) O ctagon, ebony silver m ounted frog
(b'l Front v ie w of frog
(c) Cello bow
Octagon, ebony silver m ounted frog
(c') Front vie w of frog
(d) O ctagon, ebony frog, silver m ountings
to put nearly equal pressure on the strings no m atter w h a t part of the bow
is being touched’0. W ith the Baroque bow , the w e ig h t becomes lighter
24
closer to the tip as the player draws the bow across the strings. This is
because the Baroque bow was designed to adapt to the contem porary
sound ideal w ith its constant variations between strong and w eak notes.
W ith the removal of apparent differences in dynamics between up and
dow n bow ing (the symbols, ^ [dow n bow ] and ^ [up bow ], originated in
the Latin term s 'nobilis' [strong] and ' vilis' [weak], respectively), and the
favoring of longer melodic lines, the nineteenth-century bow underw ent
further changes. Earlier composers, such as Mozart, took advantage of
the difference by constant use of the term s 'dow nstroke (or stron g)' and
'upstroke (or w eak)'. In modern cello performance, equal w e ig h t and
strength is to be applied to both strokes, and shifting between one and the
other is not to be noticeable. The modern bow has a logarithm ic inward
curve w h ich gives a remarkable com bination of strength and resilience,
sustaining a wide range of playing pressures3. The inward-curving bow,
w ith its greater hair tension and elasticity, has a natural tendency to
spring aw ay from the string, thereby generating three qualities required for
perform ance since the Classical era: first, the ability to play spiccato;
second, the ability to sustain long and energetic expanses of m elody; and
third, the strength enabling the bow to execute varying strokes10.
On the other hand, these changes in the bow arises an im portant
question: did the Baroque sound ideal lead to changes in the construction
of the instrum ent and bow, or was this sound ideal influenced or limited
by these changes? Several lines of evidence suggest that the form er may
25
be the case. First of all, the changing performance role o f the cello-
transition from continuo playing or blending w ith in a cham ber-m usic
textu re to soloistic, virtuosic playing-demanded adjustm ents in the
instrum ent and in the b o w 16. Such a functional change demanded a
d iffe re n t sound of the violoncello. In particular, the musical partnership of
the piano and the cello, in the form of cello and piano duo, is know n to
have stim ulated the alteration o f the instrum ent. To keep pace w ith the
pow erful and energetic tone o f the piano, the cello needed to adopt a
harder-edged and more penetrating sound in favor o f the m ellow er and
softer sound o f the Baroque2. The new sound ideal appears to have
m otivated cello and bow makers to alter the structural features o f the
violoncello and the bow.
Further evidence for the im pact of a new sound ideal on the
construction of the cello is provided by changes in acoustic surroundings
for performance. In the Baroque period, the violoncello and the bow were
adapted for performance in a sm all space in which the m ellow , ringing,
resonant quality of the Baroque instrum ent was ideal. The nineteenth
century saw the rise of a new perform ance environm ent in the form of
large concert halls. These halls were characterized by abundant
reverberation, requiring a more pow erful and penetrating tone. Such an
acoustic environment demanded experimentation w ith new sound
concepts and advanced techniques, entailing in turn the structural
alteration of the violoncello and th e bow.
26
M oreover, it appears th a t a new sound ideal w as fostered by the
advent o f a new instrum ent, the violoncello. The violoncello had appeared
later (fifteenth century) than the violin (tw e lfth or th irte e n th century). In
the M iddle Ages, the sound ideal in W estern Europe w as characterized by
a high-pitched and nasal quality. The prim ary role o f string instrum ents at
the tim e was th a t of accompanying voices, and indeed the instrum ents
were designed to produce a sim ilar sound. However, in the m id-fifteen th
century, composers of the Flemish school extended vocal range
dow nw ard to low C, and the sound ideal shifted to a more open-throated
sound. The demands of this extended sound ideal fostered the emergence
o f the violoncello. Taken together, changing musical concepts and sound
ideals appear to have stim ulated the reconstruction o f the instrum ent and
the bow . However, one cannot exclude the possibility th a t the sound ideal
o f the Baroque period was lim ited by the technical inefficiencies in the
instrum ent's makeup. Also, a new sound ideal could ensue as a result of
the violoncello's structural m odifications1.
Considering the development and subsequent m odifications of the
violoncello and the bow, the follow ing conclusion can be draw n from the
perspective of the performer. These changes have effe cted a penetrating
sonority, m etallic sound, increased volum e, and a brilliant virtu o sity w ith
an expanded technique. Thus, a considerable range of perform ance
styles is available to the modern perform er. In contrast, the Baroque cello
and bow were designed to serve Baroque sound attributes such as
27
transparency in sonority and incisiveness in articulation. Therefore, if a
perform er w ishes to reproduce an authentic Baroque sound, it w ould be
m ost ideal to use th e Baroque cello and bow fo r th a t were created fo r th a t
sound ideal. O therw ise, the perform er needs to adjust his or her modern
instrum ent as skillfu lly as possible to reproduce the sound ideal of the
tim e. In addition, modern perform ers should be aware of im portant
differences in Baroque musical parameters such as tem po.
3. The Influence of the Violoncello and Bow on Tem po Practice
The developm ent of the Baroque instrum ent and the b o w is related
not only to the sound ideal but also to aspects of Baroque tempo
practices. A modern performer, therefore, has to pay close atte n tio n to
how various structural features of the Baroque instrum ent and bow
conform to these aspects.
First o f all, the absence of the end pin, or the spike, in the
seventeenth and the eighteenth centuries, seems relevant to tem po
practice in Baroque dance m ovem ents. As discussed earlier, cellists
generally placed the instrum ent between their knees, supporting it on the
calves, resulting in a more vertical orientation than the modern instrum ent.
Together w ith the right arm, the le ft hand was able to move m uch more
easily and freely, especially in higher positions, e ffe ctive ly producing the
28
delightful brilliance of faster and lighter music. Therefore, the vertical
posture o f the instrum ent appears to be appropriate fo r the Baroque solo
w orks th a t demanded light and quick bow strokes. This type of
perform ances was enhanced by the lessened tension on the strings2.
The compositional style o f Baroque music involved not only simple
rhythm s and more incisive articulation, but also a sweeter, smaller, and
less m etallic tone. This tone production was possible because the lighter
construction of the Baroque violoncello, w hich is highly responsive to
delicate changes in the nuance of the bow ing. In addition, the m ellow
sound of the Baroque instrum ent projected in a smaller acoustic
environm ent, encouraging the perform er to interpret dance m usic more
rapidly and lightly w ith quicker bow strokes. Thus, the Baroque player
had to be very sensitive and able to respond w ith rapid and agile fingers2.
Since the Baroque bow w as well-adapted to a short, w ell-
articulated stroke, it was more apt fo r older dances featuring brisk and
spirited rhythm s. The baroque bow varied considerably in length, w e igh t,
size, shape, and arch2. Am ong these factors, the length of the bow was
m ost relevant to the tempo characteristics o f old dance music. The 18"
long bow was used for quick dances around 1720 when Johann Sebastian
Bach composed the six cello suites. In contrast, a longer bow was utilized
for slow er pieces. The Baroque b o w had much less tension than the
modern one, since the bow hair w as loose enough to produce a free
vibrant sound from the instrum ent17. This feature enabled the perform ers
29
to play fa st notes in Baroque dance m ovem ents w ith greater ease and
clarity.
The grip o f the bow was also relevant to the Baroque tem po. The
underhand grip w as w idely used for dance music, especially in France and
south Germany. W ith this grip, the bow was held more loosely, allowing
the perform er greater freedom w ith respect to thum b pressure and the
consequent tension of the bow hair'0. A nother type o f grip involved
holding the bow som ew hat inward from the nut and a fe w inches up the
s tic k '. These grips were effe ctive for quick dances or fa s t m ovem ents
demanding short and strong strokes.
Finally, the Baroque bridge was heavy, thick, quite fla t, and a bit
low er in height, w hich was very helpful fo r continuo playing and the easy
production of sm ooth chords. This bridge, together w ith the curvature of
the Baroque bow , augmented the bow 's natural tendency to hug the
string2. This tendency was appropriate for playing fast-tem p o dance
music w ith short articulations.
In sum m ary, the structural fittings of the Baroque instrum ent and
bow appear to be well-suited fo r fast-tem po m ovem ents. In particular, it
is to be noted th a t the Baroque bow may have affected tem po selection,
because it could not respond e fficien tly to slow strokes of great pressure
as opposed to the modern b o w 18. This is consistent w ith the general
opinion th a t Baroque dance m ovements were perform ed m uch faster in
the Baroque period than a modern musician m ight suppose. For example.
30
Bach com posed some of his w orks in such a w a y th a t they suggest a
surprisingly fa s t tempo. For example, Quantz, a Baroque theorist, set the
gigue at 6 /8 , (J-) = 160; the menuet at 3/4, ( J ) = 160; and the bourree
in 2 or (£• , ( J ) = 1 6 0 '2. These fa s t tem pi w ere jettisoned in the
Rom antic interpretation of the nineteenth and the early tw e n tie th
centuries. Thus, in order to revive an original Baroque tem po, m odern
perform ers need to perform early eighteenth-century m usic in a more
sprightly fashion.
31
Notes to Chapter II
1. Pyron, Nona. The Cello. New York: Schirmer Books, W illiam Pleath
(ed.), 1982, Chapter 1, 208.
2. Pyron, Nona. "Everything You A lw ays Wanted to Know About the
Baroque Cello but were Afraid to A s k ," The Strad. June 1978,
8 9 :1 0 5 8 , 113-123.
3. Donington, Robert. "Review of David Boyden's The History of Violin
Playing form its Origin to 1 7 6 1 ," The Galoin S ociety Journal. March
1950, III, 27-45.
4. Cowling, Elizabeth. The Cello. Great Britain: Charles Scribner's Son,
2nd ed. 1 9 8 3 ,3 0 -5 0 .
5. Ibid., p. .121.
6. Donington, Robert. String Playing in Baroque M u sic. London: Farber
Music Ltd in association w ith Faber and Faber Ltd, 1 977, 20.
7. Quantz, Johann Joachim . On Playing the Flute. English translation by
E. R. Reilly. London: Faber, 1966, 267.
8. Mendel, A rthur. "On the Pitches in Use in Bach's T im e," The Musical
Q uaterlv. July 1955, XLI:3, 332-354.
9. Cyr, Mary. Performing Barooue M usic. Hong Kong: Amadeus Press,
1992, 63-4.
10.Liivoja, Jaak. "18 th -ce n tu ry bow s", The Strad. 1981, vol. 91, 633-4.
1 1 .Henry, Saint-George. "M anufacture and Use", The S trad. London,
1909, 28.
1 2 .Ibid., 403 .
1 3 .Donington, Robert. The Interpretation of Early M usic. N ew revised ed.
London: W . W . Norton & Company, 1992, 534.
1 4 .Sadie, Stanley ed. The New Grove Dictionary of M usical Instrum ents.
London: M acM illan Press, 198 4,1 53-213.
1 5 .Pratt, George. "Bach's Cello Suites-Some Unanswered Q uestions", The
Strad. M arch 1981, 91:1091, 813-14.
1 6 .Sadie, Stanley ed. The New Grove Dictionary of M usical Instrum ents.
London: M acM illan Press, 1984, "articulation".
1 7 .Davis, Nathan J. The Baroque Violoncello and the Unaccom panied
Cello suites o f J.S. Bach. B.W .V. 1 00 7-1012. unpublished dissertation
for the Ph. D. degree of New York University Press, 1 9 8 6 ,1 0 0 .
1 8 .C ow ling, Elizabeth. The Cello. Great Britain: Charles S cribner's Son,
2nd ed. 1 9 8 3 ,6 1 .
C h a p te r III : Tem po Practices in th e Baroque
34
The tempo of a musical w o rk can be defined as its measure, beat,
or pulse th a t implies a steadiness o f beat. Tempo is usually measured in
beats per minute throughout the performance. Tempo practice in the
Baroque era is very com plex and confusing to the m odern perform ers,
o fte n because a specific tem po w as .rarely marked fo r a piece or a
m ovem ent. Instead, tem pi o f sections w ith in a piece w ere often decided
by proportional relationships between m eters'. In contrast, tem po practice
in th e modern era has become more accurate and system atic since the
in vention o f th e metronome by Johann Nepomuk Malzel in 1816.
Tempo is regarded as the m ost fundam ental and crucial fa c to r in
perform ance, because it shapes the fram ew ork of the piece's expressive
co n te n t, thereby allowing the fa ith fu l revival of com posers' intentions.
Thus, it should be a top p rio rity fo r a performer to choose a right tem po
fo r a piece. In order to perform Bach's cello suites w h ich lack tem po
m arkings, it is essential to understand the conventions o f the prevalent
tem po practice in the Baroque era.
1. Tactus and Mensural N otation in the Early Baroque Era
Tempo should be determ ined prior to the perform ance as a regular
and steady unit. In the early seventeenth century, th e Renaissance
practice of measuring tem po in term s of the human pulse continued to be
35
practiced. Zacconi (1592) discussed relationship between the hum an
pulse and tem po in the follow ing term s:
“T h e m easu re is th e m ost im p o rta n t basis of m usic for w h ic h v a ry in g
in te rv a ls are essential, and this in te rv a l can be liken ed to th e pulse o f h u m an
h e a rt2."
In this regard, tactus was initially defined as a hum an's natural heartbeat
or as a human pulse w hich remained constant throughout a musical piece.
The average tactus (heartbeat) is considered to have been about seventy-
tw o beats per minute when measured by a modern metronome, whereas it
w as even low er in the Renaissance period. Tactus was used as a
fundam ental rhythm ic concept of m usic w hich was rooted in Renaissance
convention3,1. A t the same tim e, tactus w as also used to denote the
m otion o f the hand upwards Uevatio) and dow nw ards (positio), or the
tapping o f the foot:
" ...to co nsid er h ow w e com e to g iv e e v e ry p a rtic u la r note its d ue m e a s u re ,
w ith o u t m aking it either longer or s h o rte r th a n it o u g h t to be. To e ffe c t th is ,
we use a co n stan t m o tion of th e h and . O r, if th e hand be o th e rw is e
e m p lo y e d , w e use the fo o t5.''
"This m o tio n o f th e hand is d o w n , and u p, su cc e s s iv e ly and eq ually d iv id e d .
Every d o w n and up, being called a T im e , o r M e a s u re s."
36
Together w ith tactus, the term integer valor emerged in the
sixteenth century and was w id e ly used in the seventeenth century as a
basic aspect of Baroque tem po. A t this tim e, tactus, the standard beat,
regulated tempo together w ith mensural notation; the standard duration
was called integer valor, meaning 'unchangeable note va lu e '6. The tem po
of the note value was thus closely related to tactus in such a w a y th a t in
normal tempus, when a note has its full value (integer valor), ta ctu s falls
on the semibreve. However, in tempus diminutum, the tactus falls on the
breve. The simplest w ay of notating tempus diminutum was by draw ing a
line through the mensuration signs, as shown in table 3 -1 4.
Table 3-1. The Notation o f tempus diminutum
Integer valor Tempus dim inutum
(Tactus falls on the (Tactus falls on the

Semibreve)___________________breve)
c cj:
It is notew orthy that these signs had ambiguous m eanings, because
com posers were not consistent w ith their notation and because a sign,
37
for exam ple, cp m eant dim inution by a half or by one third when used
against © , depending upon the c o n te x t4.
On th e other hand, mensural notation w as related to the
subdivision a large note value, the breve ( {^ ). Thus, tempo could be
shifted gradually by diminishing a breve, into the sm aller note values, the
semibreve ( O ) and in turn into the minim ( ). Vincentino (1555)
explains th a t the semibreve (£> ) refers to 'mediocre,' the minim ( <^> ) to
‘piu mediocre,' the semiminim ( ^ ) to 'presto,' the fusa to 've/oce,' and
the semifusa to 'veiocissimo'6. A s m entioned, tactus referred to a
semibreve (<?>• )when the notes retained their fu ll length (integer valor) in
the early sixte e n th century. H ow ever, the standard value denoting the
tactus w as reduced to a minim (<£>•) in the early seventeenth century and
to a semiminim ( X ) by the end of the seventeenth century6. Both breve
and semibreve could be subdivided into tw o (binary) or three (ternary)
units. If a breve was divided into tw o semibreves, it was called
'im p e rfe ct', and if into three, 'p e rfe c t'. An im p e rfe ct breve subdivided
into tw o semibreves was denoted by the plain half circle {C ), equivalent
to the m odern 2 /4 m eter6. This relationship is show n in Figure 3-1.
On the other hand, a p e rfect breve is subdivided into three
semibreves by a circle w ith a dot in its middle ( 0 ), w hich may be
regarded as the m odern 9/8 m eter (Figure 3-2)6.
38
* d
c o o =j r r
? ? ? f . LJ LT
Figure 3-1: Im perfect breve subdivided into tw o semibreves
* ^ = ®r r r
t?tm lulu in
Figure 3-2: Perfect breve subdivided into three semibreves
The perfect semibreve w hich may correspond to the modern dotted
quarter note corresponds to a beat of about MM = ca. 70. This explains
w h y the minim, an ultim ate reduction of the breve, is equal to a m odern
eighth note. The same principle w as also applied to the semibreve. W hen
it w as divided into tw o minims, it was called im perfect or m inor; if three
parts, perfect or major. All other smaller note values including minims
were called 'im pe rfect', because they could only be divided in a binary
39
fashion. It is to be noted, however, th a t the value o f these sm aller notes
could be reduced to half by having their speed increased by a facto r of
tw o . The term alia breve originated from this type o f d im in u tio n 6.
Thus, there appear to be a variety of possible changes in the
metrical meanings o f a single note in the mensural system brought about
by dim inution or by the shifting from perfect to im perfect subdivisions.
Even though the usage of tactus and mensural notation w as criticized as
an unm ethodical, inconsistent, and complex device fo r measuring tempo,
these concepts w ere prevalent throughout the early Baroque era7.
2. Cut time and Common time
The term s Cut time and Common time were prevalent in the early
seventeenth century; their usage is confusing because the relationship
between these tw o term s were unclear and inconsistent. Cut time, called
alia breve by the Italians, was marked as ^ , or , and it usually
denoted a reduction o f note values by half, or a perform ance faster than
Common time'. The pulse or beat of Cut time w as show n as tw o half
notes in 4 /4 rather than four quarter notes. Common time, m arked as the
sign, C, com prises fo u r beats per measure. Later, in Bach's time,
Common time w as divided into tw o types, slow and fa st: 'g re a t' 4/4
meter and 'little ' 4 /4 meter. 'Great' 4 /4 m eter w as used fo r heavy and
40
m ajestic pieces, such as church music and fugues. It was marked 4 /4 and
w as given a grave indication instead of C. In contrast, 'little ' 4 /4 m eter
was used fo r livelier and fa ste r pieces. It is to be noted that, except for
the use of the same tem po marking, they had little in com m on315 ' 7.
A lthough Cut time ( (£ ) was considered to be tw ic e as fa s t as than
Common time, it is not clear whether this referred to the intrinsic lengths
of notes or the actual tem po. For example, if eighth notes are used in Cut
time, they have the same intrinsic length as sixteenth notes in Common
time. This is sim ply a m atter of definition rather than tem po3. Carissimi
adopted a sim ilar practice, using C fo r slo w m ovem ents and
indicating £ fo r double speed14. On the other hand, Sebastian de
Brossard stated th a t Cut time called for playing s lo w ly in tw o , or very
quickly in four, in the absence o f any indications; how ever, alia breve ( (p)
called for a fa s t perform ance in tw o . James Grassineau regarded alia
breve, or 2/2, as a tem po th a t was approxim ately tw ice as fa s t as
Common time. According to Grassineau, C m eant slow , (p m eant
brisk, and 4) m eant very quick8.
As discussed, the definitions of Cut time and Common time were
so ambiguous th a t they could be used for fast m ovem ents as w ell as slow
m ovements. However, it is safe to say that Cut time generally called for
increase the tem po from the preceding section (Common time), but not
quite tw ice as fast. It could be slightly faster, tw ic e as fast, or even one-
third faster. The resolution o f this m atter w as dependent on the m usic
41
itse lf and musicianship o f the perform er9. It appears th a t the usage o f Cut
time and Common Time im p licitly facilitated tempo change in a section
o f music even in the absence of any tempo markings. M ensural signs
such as C and (p are still being used today.
3. Numerical Time Signatures in Proportional Relationships
Had the mensural system survived, tactus would have continued to
indicate a standard tem po. Yet changes in temporal principles w ere
inevitable. One of the m ost im portant methods used for tem po changes in
the sixteenth century was related to the theory of 'p ro p o rtio n s', in w h ich
the tempi of different sections were determined by proportional
relationships between m eters. The proportions of num erical tim e
signature were form ed as a system of equations in the m id -fifte e n th
century, and the usage of numerical proportions coalesced by the end of
the sixteenth century. It was not, however, a reliable m ethod fo r
determining an absolute tem po.
In spite o f the am biguity and intricacy of numerical proportions, the
follow ing five proportional notations were d istin ctive 9-10’ 1. The firs t
notation was the dupia (2,) indicating that tw o notes of equal value w ere
to be equivalent to one note in the preceding section, hence doubling the
tem po. The second notation, the tripta (3 or 3, ), indicated th a t three
42
notes of equal value in a measure (semibreves, minims or semiminims)
were to be equivalent to one note in the preceding section, thus tripling
the tem po. Consequently, the tripia as an apt m eter for m usic in a rapid
tempo. The third proportional notation was the quadrupia (4,) w hich
quadrupled the tem po in a similar fashion to the tripia. The sesquiaitera (2Z
) indicated three units in the time of the previous tw o , resulting in a tempo
half as fast. The sesquiaitera was used when a binary m eter w as shifted
to a ternary m eter by replacing tw o previous notes o f equal value by three
in a measure. Finally, the sesquitertia ( 43 ) indicated the shifting o f a
ternary m eter into a som ew hat faster binary meter.
Taken together, the duration of note values in a new section is
closely connected to th a t of the notes in the previous section in the
proportional system of meters. Thus, the tempo could be changed freely
throughout the various sections of a musical w o rk by a precisely indicated
proportion. In addition, any of these proportions could be restored to the
initial tim e signature by reversing the proportion. Mensural system and
numerical proportions were not useful for determ ining a proper tem po, but
they were sig nifica nt in th a t the both methods were used to change
tempo w ith in a piece o f music.
4. Transition from Mensural System to Modern M etrical System
43
A t the close of the sixteenth century, the mensural system began
to disintegrate and the modern m etric system began to emerge. The
transition gradually took place through a very complex process, as new
principles were mixed w ith the older tradition. Finally, by the dawn o f the
seventeenth century, the new m e tric system w ith certain denom inations
had been established6.
The avant-garde Italian composers firs t rejected proportional
notation and developed words expressive of the mood of a tem po. In
other words, while the proportional system still remained in usage in the
rest of Europe, nonmathematical changes of speed and tem pi possessing
certain meanings started drawing th e attention of Italian composers. For
example, Girolamo Frescobaldi (1624) w rote th a t sections in ternary (in
tripia or sesquiaitera) should be performed adagio when w ritte n in
semibreves ( O O O ); som ew hat faster in minims ( ); faste r in
semiminims ( ± U ); and allegro in 63 . These types of subdivisions w ere
foreign to the older system o f proportions. Tempo was no longer
indicated by the mensural notation but by vague and nonm athem atical
designations6. To some extent, these tempo words indicated a mood
rather than tempo itself at the beginning of a piece; for instance, grave fo r
'seriously', allegro for 'ch e e rfu l', and adagio for 'w ith leisure', e tc ” .
Tempo words came into wide use at the end of the Baroque period7.
In the seventeenth century, Carissimi, in his Ars cantandi (in a
1 689 German translation) described signs such as 34 and 38 th a t have a
44
clear metrical meaning. He objected to using the old signs and figures
including dupla, tripia, and quadrup/a. Instead, he adopted binary
meters, C and $ only, fo r a slow tem po and fo r a tem po tw ic e as fa st,
respectively. He also rejected ternary mensural sym bols such as O and
(p . Instead, he adopted the follow ing, types of tripia relating m eter to
tem po for ternary m eter5. First o f all, the whole triple, 3, , w ith three
w hole notes constituting three semibreves per measure, w as used fo r
slo w pieces. Another typ e was the half triple, 32 , w ith three half notes
per measure-, used for slightly quicker and livelier pieces. A n oth er was the
quarter triple, 34 , w ith three quarter notes per measure, used fo r jo yfu l
pieces w ith a faster tem po than 32 . The fourth type w as the eighth
triple, 3g , w ith three eighth notes per measure, used fo r a m uch faster
tem po. Finally, he used the six-eight triple, 6a , w ith tw o even beats
containing ternary subdivisions6.
Georg M u ffa t (1695) stated th a t 2, $ signifying a tem po tw ic e as
quick as C, implied tw o beats in a measure. The signature 2 was
employed for the French style and called for a som ew hat slo w tem po in
overtures, preludes, and sym phonies, but a faster tem po in ballets,
although remaining slow er than ( <£ ) '5. He also regarded the signature 3
in ternary m eter as tw ic e as fast, im plying a gay and light m ood. On the
other hand, Michel de Saint-Lam bert used the time signatures 3/1 and 3 /2
for very slow m ovem ents7. M oreover, Saint-Lambert used d iffe re n t tem po
indications in the early eighteenth c e n tu ry ” . Both C and (£ w ere used in
45
slow m ovem ents at w alking speed, th e ir ratio being 2:1, and the signature
2 indicated a tempo tw ic e as fa s t as if , resulting in a gay and light
mood deviating from M u ffa t's syste m 1-*. Lambert and La Voye M ignot
(1656) shared a similar opinion about ternary signatures, in th a t they
could be used both fo r fa st and fo r slow, m ovem ents. W ith respect to the
more com plex tempi, 6/8 was to be used for very fa s t m ovem ents. The
m eter 6 /4 indicated 'fo rt gay' if binary (having a form ula of 2 x %), w hile
'g a y' if ternary (having a form ula of 3 x 2/4)6-11. The signature 4/8 , in
binary m eter, was used fo r fast m ovem ents, having a tem po tw ic e as fa st
as th a t implied by the signature 2. In particular, M ignot regarded the signs
O , 0 , O 32 , and <j 32 as out-of-date and thus discarded, then preferring
to explain m eter based upon its modern m eaning6. He insisted th a t there
were only tw o kinds of m eters, binary and ternary. For the binary, he
designated C fo r a slow tem po and (£ for a fast tem po, whereas the
signature 2 could be used in place of either C or (£. . W ith respect to the
ternary, he assigned C3 to a slow tem po a n d ^ (meaning 32 ) to a fast
tem po, whereas the signature 3 or 34 could be used fo r both slow and fa st
tem pi6.
Henry Purcell argued th a t each tactus corresponded to a
semibreve, and that the three proportional signatures C, <£ , and (|> , were
nothing more than d ifferent tem pi, indicating very slow , faster, and brisk
tem pi, respective ly11-12.
46
Dean (1707) suggested the usage of time signatures as in the

follow ing table13.
Table 3-2. The usage o f tim e signatures by Dean
Time Signatures__________________Tem po______________________

C very solid or slow m ovem ent
<£• quicker
J) as quick again as the firs t,
and are called Retorted Time
£ very slow
3 3
2 4 much quicker
In comparison, Arnold Dolm etsch introduced a different usage o f tim e
signature suggested by an anonym ous w rite r (1700) (Table 3 -3 )13.
Table 3-3. The usage of tim e signatures by Dolmetsch
Time Signatures_________________ Tempo___________

c very slow m otion
som ewhat faster
D brisk and light Ayres

3
2 grave m ovement
3 slow
6
4 fast, for Jiggs,
Paspies (means Passepieds)
On the other hand, Johann Philipp Kirnberger took a d iffe re n t
approach, explaining the relationship of meter and tem po as in the
fo llo w in g table17.
47
Table 3-4. A relationship between m eters and tempo
Meters__________________________ Tempo___________
Larger meters heavier and slow er
(alia breve, 3/2, 6/4)
Small meters fast
(2/4, 3/4, and 6/8)
Smaller meters faster
(3/8 and 6/16)
As w e have seen, many discrepancies can be found in the usage of
m eter-tem po relationships. Since these discrepancies are d iffic u lt to
understand, a perform er should analyze a musical piece composed in this
period very carefully before deciding its tem po. In order to give an
authentic performance of aBaroque piece, the perform er has to
investigate the com poser's intention by not only considering the orthodox
meanings of meters, but also accepting a free, nonm athem atical selection
o f tem po to make best musical and practical sense.
5. Tem po Practice in the Eighteenth Century
New styles and principles w hich emerged in the seventeenth
century gradually coalesced into a standard usage o f m eter signatures
corresponding to the modern usage. The m eter-beat system was firm ly
established in association w ith tem po words by the late eighteenth
48
ce n tu ry7. Latin and Italian tem po w ords w e re firs t found in the Primitiae
musica/es by M atthias Kelz (1658), including animose, lente, agiliter, fuso,
tardo, largo, presto, and nervoseu . Frederick Neumann explains m eter-
tem po relationship by quoting Friedrich W ilhelm M arpurg's assertion
{Anleitung zum Cla vierspielen,1 7 5 5 ):
"It happens every so often that whole notes are played as fast as quarter
notes, and quarter notes as fast as whole notes18."
In addition, Marpurg later classified tem p o by means of three steps
of slo w and fa s t tem pi, respectively. This classificatio n w ill be discussed
fu rth e r at the end of this chapter. Like those o f tim e signatures, the
defin ition s o f th e tempo w ords were, how ever, extraordinarily equivocal
and obscure in th is period. Tempo w ords com m o nly implied the mood and
character o f a piece, rather than an actual tem po; examples include
maestoso, grave, scherzando, and vivo. H ow ever, they sometimes even
indicated a speed itself, presto fo r 'q u ic k ' and lento fo r 's lo w ', fo r
instance. Therefore, in order to com prehend the implied tem po, it is of the
u tm o st im portance to acknowledge the varying characters of tem po
designations described by Baroque theorists.
Prestissimo :
"e xtre m e ly quick, hastily, w ith fu ry " (G rassineau)19
"th e fa s te s t tem po w ith a light and so m e w h a t shorter bow
49
stroke"(M ozart)20
"very q u ick" (Brossard)2'
Presto:
"h a p p ily", "fury, frenzy, liveliness, or sw iftness w ith fast
te m p o " (Brossard)21
"fa s t or quick, gaily, but not w ith ra p id ity" (Grassineau)19
playful rather than serious in a separate bow stroke" (Quantz)22
"fa s t" (M ozart)20
Vivace:
"lively, and spritoso says th a t w e should play w ith intelligence and
s p irit" (Mozart) 20
Allegro:
"liv e ly ", "very often quick and lig h t"
"really animated and cheerful, but som etim es necessarily
moderate tem po" (Brossard)21
"spirited tem po" (Rousseau)23
"lig h te r and lively", "all kinds of fa st m ovem ent and its main
feature is sprightliness and liveliness" (Quantz)22
"brisk, lively, gay and pleasant" (Grassineau)19
"gay. ye t not hurried tem po" (M ozart)20
If the designation allegro is follow ed by such w ords as non presto, non
tanto, non troppo, and moderato, the m ovem ent should be played in a
more seriously manner, using a broader and w eightier bow stroke, yet
50
retaining a degree of vigor. Nevertheless, fa st m ovem ents alw ays demand
a relatively lig h t bow stroke (Mozart)20.
Moderato:
"m oderately, tem perately; not too quick and not too slo w . This
again the piece itself must show us, we m ust become sensible of
the m oderation during the course of it" (M ozart)20
Andante:
"flu e n tly , gracefully meaning w alking speed th a t comes
from. Italian, 'andare' th a t means to go" (Rousseau)23
"to stroll w ith even steps" (Brossard)21
"going w ith natural g a it" (Mozart)20
Adagio:
"a slo w tim e, slow est o f any except grave" (Grassineau)19
"gen tly, sm oothly, com fortably dragginig the speed a
little w ith o u t rushing, almost invariably s lo w ly" (Brossard)21
"steady performance w ith a leisure" (Rousseau)23
"tenderly and its mood is sadness in a tranquil manner,
providing more mood o f both exciting and subduing
passions than the A llegro" (Quantz)22
"very s lo w " (Purcell)24
Grave:
"sadly and seriously resulting very slow tem po w ith heavy
and solemn bowing to keep the various notes" (M ozart)20
"played w ith a long and w eighty bow stroke, especially
played in a lift and lively manner on dotted notes
51
occasionally s h o w n " (Quantz)22

"play and sing gravely, sedately, w ith m ajesty,
and show s slo w speed w ith a certain g ra v ity " (Rousseau)23
Largo:
"very slow as if enlarging the manner and m aking the main beasts
often unequal" (Brossard)21
"tranquil and broad, grand in a singing manner, extre m ely
slow , slow er than Adagio, and the very ultim ate in
slow ness" (Rousseau)23
"a slo w m ovem ent; one degree quicker than grave, and tw o
than'a dagio" (Grassineau)19
"still slow er than adagio pesante (which, in tu rn , is
som ew hat slo w er than Adagio and played w ith long
strokes and m uch tra n q u ility" (Mozart)20
"fa ste r than adagio" (Purcell)2*
Lento:
"slo w ly, heavily, not at all lively or anim ated" (Brossard)21
"a slow m ovem ent, much the same as largo" (Grassineau)19
As we have seen, the descriptions of tem po w o rds in the
eighteenth century varied greatly. In particular, the tem po w ord adagio,
whose principal mood was tender and sad, was used in various w ays in
the eighteenth century. It was used primarily in relation to th e preceding
te m p o 1. In seventeenth-century practice, fo r exam ple, an adagio
designation preceded by an allegro designation w ould denote 'e a sily' or
'n o t fa s t'. In the eighteen century, however, adagio had m ore distinctive
52
meanings. There w ere at least three types o f usage of this term . One
case involved the assignment o f adagio to the brief m iddle m ovem ent
joining tw o flanking fast m ovem ents in such genres as the early
eighteenth-century concerto. In this case, the adagio m ovem ent was to
end w ith an im perfect cadence (see, fo r example, Handel's solos for
German flu te , oboe, or violin [continuo] Op. 1 [1 724]) (Figure 3-3).
*■ i = * z
Figure 3-3: Handel, Sonata for a German flute, oboe, or violin

w ith continuo, Op. 1
53
In other cases, adagio could be used fo r the concluding cadence of a fast
m ovem ent. In this usage, it meant ritardando w ithin a prevalent tem po, in
other w ords, slower than the dom inant tempo. This type of adagio can
be seen at the end of the firs t movement of Handel's Sonata No. 3 in A
for violin and continuo. In this case, adagio represented neither a section
nor a m ovem ent, but a concluding cadence w ithin a m ovem ent, as show n
in Figure 3-4.
ft~ r I i
► i j
-cr r,r
Figure 3-4: Handel, Sonata Op.1, No.3 in A for

violin and continuo (end of the first m ovem ent)
54
Yet another connotation o f adagio can be found in the co n te xt o f a
com plete m ovem ent. The character o f a m ovem ent could be affected by
the meter, key, dissonance level, and harmonic rhythm , as show n in the
firs t m ovem ent of Handel's Violin Sonata, Op. 1, No. 14 (Figure 3-5):
ucr6- ’
Figure 3-5: Handel, Violin Sonata Op. 1, No. 14
Friedrich W ilhelm Marpurg (1755) described tem po words as in Table 3-
5 25-26.
55
Table 3-5. List of tem po words by Marpurg
Slow tempo:
Very slow Slow Less slow
Adagio assai Adagio Andante/Poco adagio
Adagio di mo/to Largo Andantino/Poco largo
Largo assai or di mo/to, etc. Lento Larghetto/Poco lento
Lento assai or di mofto, etc. etc. etc.
Fast tempo:
Very fa st Fast Less fast
Presto or prestissimo Allegro Allegretto
Allegro assai Veloce Poco Allegro
Allegro di molto Vivace Poco vivace
Velocissimo Poco presto Poco veloce
Vivacissimo etc. Allegro ma non troppo
etc. (non tan to, non presto) etc.
A nother im portant feature of eighteenth-century tem po practice is
related to the doctrine of musical 'a ffe c t', w hich represents the character
of a w o rk 's principal key. According to M onteverdi,
"...p rin c ip a l p assions or a ffe c tio n s of our m in d ...n a m e ly , anger [ira |,
m o d eration [te m p e re n z io ], and h u m an ity or s u p p lic a tio n [s u p p lic a tio n e ]27."
56
M onteverdi posited three kinds of a ffe ct: agitation, softness, and
m oderateness. Deeper feelings and em otions could be specified to cla rify
the tem peram ent o f a key. M arpurg (1749) claimed th a t "all musical
expression has an 'a ffe c t' or em otion for its fo unda tion". The Baroque
concept o f 'a ffe c t' can be compared to the soul th a t not only rules the
body, but also saturates it w ith pow erfu lly expressed feelings. Thus,
'a ffe c t' illustrated the spirit of a piece or m ovem ent. This idea can be
explained in such a w ay th a t every passion and every sentim ent has its
faster or slow er, and thus more violent or more passive tempo, w hich
m ust be correctly captured by a perform er as well as a composer.
A ccording to many Baroque theorists, the key of a piece greatly influenced
its a ffe ct. Therefore, it is im portant for a perform er to savor the d iffe re n t
characters of the various keys and incorporate them w ithin the
fram ew ork of a proper tem po. Table 3-6 gives various descriptions o f the
characters of the m ajor and m inor keys'.
In addition to the character and the key of a piece, various other
aspects shaping the music could a ffe c t tem po. From this point of vie w ,
the fo llo w in g remarks by several Baroque theorists should be considered.
C.P.E. Bach (1753):
"T e m p o is to be judged by th e c o n te n ts o f th e p ie c e , as in d icated by
Italian te m p o w o rd s and esp ecially as s u g g ested by th e fa s te s t n otes and
57
Table 3-6. The character of major and minor keys
Key Charpentier Mattheson Rameau LaBorde

( 1682 ) ( 1 713 ) ( 1722 ) ( 1780 )
C major gay and warlike rude and impudent songs of mirth serious, grave
character; suited and rejoicing majestic, suited to
to rejoicing war, sometimes
for religious
subjects
C minor obscure and sad extremely lovely, tenderness and

but sad plaints
D major joyous and very somewhat shrill and songs of mirth ardent, proud,
warlike stubborn; suited to and rejoicing impetuous, vehe
noisy, joyful, warlike, ment, terrible;
and rousing things sometimes also
more quite
D minor serious and pious somewhat devoit, sweetness and

calm, also somewhat tenderness
grand, pleasant, and
contentment
E“ major cruel and hard pathetic; concerned grave and very

with serious and somber
plaintive things;
bitterly hostile to ail
lasciviousness
E major quarrelsome and expresses a desperate or tender and gay animated.

boisterous wholly fatal sadness songs; grandeur rousing,
incomparably well; and magnificence sometimes
most suited for the pathetic
extremes of helpless and proper
and hopeless love for soft
ness
E minor effeminate, hardly joyful sweetness and

amorous, because it is normally tenderness
plaintive very pensive, profound,
grieved, and sad, [butl
still hope for consolation
58
Table 3-6. The character of major and minor keys (continued)
key Charpentier Mattheson Rameau LaBorde

(1682) (1713) (1722) (1780)
F major furious and capable of expressing the tempests, furies, noisy,

quick-tempered most beautiful sentiments and the like but
subjects in the world in a natural some
way and w ith incomparable times
facility, politeness, and melan
cleverness choly
and
pathetic
F minor obscure and mild and calm, deep and tenderness and
plaintive heavy with despair, plaints
exceedingly moving;
sometimes causes the
listener to shudder with
horror
G major quietly joyful possesses much that is tender and gay a ffe c t
insinuating and persuasive; songs ionate,
quite brilliant, suited to but, gay
serious and to cheerful often
things soft and
majestic
G minor serious and almost the most beautiful sweetness and

magnificent key; combines a serious tenderness
quality with spirited
loveliness, also brings an
uncommon grace and
kindness
A major joyful and very gripping, songs of mirth brilliant

pastoral although at the same time and rejoicing; and
brilliant, more suited to grandeur and some-
lamenting and sad passions magnificence times
than to divertissements; calm
especially good for violin and
music peace
ful
A minor tender and somewhat plaintive, melancholy,

plaintive honorable, and calm
B major harsh and occurs only sometimes, seems

plaintive to have an offensive, hard,
unpleasant, and also somewhat
desperate character
59
Table 3-6. The character of major and minor keys (continued)
key Charpentier Mattheson Rameau LaBorde

________ (1682)_______ (1713) (1780) (1722)
B minor solitary, it can touch the heart
melancholic
B“ major magnificent very diverting and sumptuous, tempests, imposing,

and joyful also somewhat modest, can furies, and although
pass as both magnificent and like subjects sad
dainty
BB minor obscure and mournful

terrible songs
fig u ra tio n s . S uch o rien tatio n w ill p e rm it us n e ith e r to rush th e allegro nor
to g e t to o s le e p y in th e a d a g io 9."
Daniel G ottlo b Turk (1789):
"A fa irly e x p e rie n c e d p e rfo rm e r can ju d g e th e right te m p o from th e
p re v a le n t d e n o m in a tio n s , fig u ra tio n s , and p a s s a g e s 16."
Joachim Quantz (1752):
"It is n e c e s s a ry to ta k e te m p o m ore fro m c o n te n ts o f th e p iece th a n from
th e tim e w o r d 17."
Leopold M ozart (1756):
"B u t, sin ce both slo w and fa s t h ave th e ir g ra d u a tio n s , a c tu a l tem po s
m u s t be in fe rre d from th e m u sic its e lf, and this is w h a t s h o w s th e tru e
60
w o rth o f a m u sician w ith o u t fa il 'E v e ry m elod iou s p ie c e has a t least
o ne p hrase from w h ic h o n e can reco g nize quite s u rely w h a t s o rt o f speed
th e piece d e m a n d s .' {c h a p .1 , s e c .2 , p a ra . 7) This im plies th a t all pieces
h a v e in h e re n t te m p o in it, w h ic h w a s called te m p o c o m m o d o and tem po
g iu sto by M o z a rt. T h o s e w e re n e ith e r quick nor s lo w , b u t in m o d e rate
and n atu ral te m p o 3.''
On the other hand, Johann Philip Kirnberger declared th a t tempo
w o rds were overtly influential on the speed of the tim e signature and that
th e y gave music 'its life and pow er'. The follow ing table illustrates a
d iffe re n t approach by Frederick Neumann in the connection of tempo
w o rds to tim e signatures:3
Table 3-7. Chart o f a relationship between tem po w ords and

signatures
Adagissimo: T/2, but slower

Largo: T/2, w ith increased number o f accents
Adagio: T/2
Andante: about T-1/2 + to each 8th, w ith the 8ths
even and separate; also used to
contradict inequality of 8th notes
Allegro w ith C: T+
Allegro w ith (£: T -1/2 +
Vivace: the same as Allegro, but a b it more lively
Presto: Tx2, or thereabouts
Pretissimo: Tx2 +
(T : tactu s or beat, + : a lightly faster tactus)
61
It is clear th a t a tem po word or signature could not provide a
perform er w ith an exact tem po. To solve this problem, Johann Joachim
Quantz, an eighteenth-century German theorist, developed a system of
tem po indications fo r Baroque m usic. His system w as based upon
indication o f the pulse beats w ith additional directions, but not on devices
such as chronom eters and m etronomes that were available at the tim e '4.
He classified all tem pi in term s of speed into four basic categories by
setting the human pulse rate arbitrarily at eighty beats per m inute
{ J = 8 0 ), although Grassineau and W illiam Tansur in England set ‘Common
time (C)' at sixty beats per m inute fo r a quarter note ( ^ = 6 0 ) 8 ' 4. Table
3-8 shows Q uantz's four categories of tempi and his descriptions of how
th e y are to be played'.
Table 3-8. Q uantz's categories of tempo and the perform ance

suggestions
A lleg ro 'a lively, v e ry light, nicely d e ta c h e d , and very
A lle g ro assai short b o w s tro k e , esp ecially in th e a c c o m p a
A lle g ro di m o lto n im e n t, w h e re you m u st play m o re s p o rtiv e ly
P resto th a n seriously in pieces of th is kind; and y e t
V iv a c e a certain m o d eratio n o f to n e m u s t also be
(h a lf n ote = M M 8 0 ) o b s e rv e d .'
62
Table 3-8. Q uantz's categories of tem po and the perform ance

suggestions (continued)
A lle g re tto 'p e rfo rm e d a little m ore seriously, w ith a ra th e r
A lleg ro m a n o n ta n to h e a v y y e t lively and su itab ly vig o ro u s b o w
A lleg ro non tro p p o s tro k e . In th e A lle g re tto th e s ix te e n th n o te s
A lleg ro non p resto in p a rtic u la r, like th e e ig h t n otes in th e A lle g ro ,
A lleg ro m o d e ra to require a v e ry short b o w s tro k e , m a d e w ith
(q u a rte r n o te = M M 8 0 ) th e w ris t ra th e r than th e w h o le arm , and a rti
c u la te d ra th e r than s lu rre d ....'
A rioso 'e x e c u te d q u ie tly , and w ith a lig ht b o w s tro k e .
C a n ta b ile Even if interspersed w ith quick n o te s o f
A rioso variou s kin d s, the A rioso still requires a lig h t
S oave and q u ie t s tro k e .'
Dolce
Poco A n d a n te
M a e s to s o 'p la y e d seriously, w ith a ra th e r h e a v y and
Pom poso sharp s tro k e .'
A ffe ttu o s o
A d ag io sp iritu o so
(eigh th n o te = M M 8 0 )
A d ag io assai 's lo w and m e la n c h o ly ...re q u ire s th e g re a te s t
Pesante m o d e ra tio n o f tone, and the lo n g e s t, m o s t
Lento tra n q u il, and heaviest [ = m ost su s ta in e d ]
Largo assai b o w s tro k e .'
M e s to
G rave
(s ix te e n th n o te = M M 8 0 )
63
Q uantz also divided tem pi into tw o different principal pulses, fast and
m oderate, w ith the ratio of 2:1. The approxim ate tem po could be
calculated using the pulse of heartbeat. Table 3-9 illustrates this
relatio nship:13
Table 3-9. List o f Quantz' tem pi related to pulse beat
In Common Time:
Allegro assai ( d ) = 160, 1 pulse = half bar
A llegretto (J ) = 80, 1 pulse = crotch et
Adagio cantabile {S)=80, I pulse = quaver
Adagio assai (J ) = 40, 2 pulses = quaver
In Alla breve\ tw ic e as fast as in Common time

Allegro (O) = 160, 1 pulse = each bar
A llegretto (d )= 8 0 , 1 pulse = each half bar
Adagio catabile {J ) = 80, 1 pulse = crotch et
Adagio assai ( J ) = 40, 2 pulses = crochet
It should be noted th a t there are lim itations to his system . One of them is
a criterion fo r the basic tempo. Setting the fundam ental speed at 80
beats per m inute made his figures either 80 or m ultiples thereof, resulting
in mere approxim ations. Another problem is th a t his tem pi for dance
m usic appeared to be too fast in Bach's tim e. This is w h y Romantically-
64
oriented performers in the nineteenth and tw entie th centuries slow ed
dow n the tempi. However, modern perform ers tend to play eighteenth-
century m usic faster and more vivaciously, coming closer to the original
tem po.
In this chapter, the evolution o f tem po practice in baroque era has
been discussed. Sufficient know ledge about Baroque tem po from tactus
to Q uantz's system is im portant in attaining an appropriate tem po fo r the
music composed in this period. Generally, fast tempo m ay suggest a
remarkable .brilliance, and slow tem po an inspired expressiveness.
How ever, fa st movements of Baroque m usic were played slo w er and slow
m ovem ents were played faster than w e th in k9. Thus, it is desirable th a t
modern performers, in order to achieve a proper tempo in perform ance of
Baroque music, should play more s lo w ly w ith in a rapidly designated tem po
avoiding hurrying and, on the other hand, play more q uickly w ith in a
slo w ly designated tempo avoiding dragging28.
65
Notes to Chapter III
1. Cyr, Mary. Performing Baroque M u sic. Hong Kong: Amadeus Press,
1 992 , Chapter 2, section 1, 28-44.
2. Lodovco, Zacconi. Prattica di M usica. etc., Apresso Girolamo Polo:
Venetia, 1592, Libro Primo, cap. XX XII, folio 20 >
3. Newman, Anthony. Bach and the Baroque. New York: Pendragon
Press,2nd ed., 1995, 23-39.
4. Brown, Howard Mayer and Stanley Sadie (ed.). Performance Practice.
M usic before 1600. London: Macmillan Press, 1989, Chapter 7, 126-
144.
5. Simpson, Christopher. The Principles of Practical Musick. London:
Printed by W ill, 1665, 21-3.
6. Neumann, Frederick. Performance Practice of the 17th and 18th
centuries. New York: Schirmer Books, 1993, 17-30.
7. Ibid., 53-13 4.
8. Boyden, David D. The History of Violin Playing from its Origins to
1 7 6 1 . New York: Oxford U niversity Press, 1990, Chapter 21, 4 6 7 -
473.
9. Donington, Robert. A Performer's Guide to Baroque M usic. New York:
Charles Scribner's Sons, 1973, 245.
10.M orley. Thomas. A Plaine and Easie Introduction to Practicall M usicke.
London, 1 597, 33.
66
1 1 .Sachs, Curt. Rhythm and Tempo. New York: W .W . N orton Com pany,
INC., 1953, 2 7 0 -3 1 1 .
12. Purcell, Henry. A Choice C ollection of Lessons fo r the H arpsichord or
Spinnet. London: Facsimile, 169 6.
13.D olm etch, Arnold. The Interpretation of the M usic o f th e S eventeenth
and Eighteenth C entury. London, 1915. Reprint, London, 19 4 4 , Sec.
II, 34.
1 4 .Harding, Rosamond E.M. Origins o f Musical Times and Expression.
London: O xford U niversity Press, 1 938, Chapter 2, 2 7 -5 2 .
1_5Jbid., 3.
16. Rothschild. Fritz. The Lost Tradition in Music: Rhythm and Tem po
in J. S. Bach tim e . London: Adam and Black, 1953, C hapter 2.
1 7 .Neumann, Frederick. "Changing times: Meter, D enom ination, and
Tempo in Music o f the Seventeenth and Eighteenth C enturies",
Historical Performance. Vol. VI/1 (spring, 1993).
1 8 .Quantz, Johann Joachim . On Playing the Flute. English tra n sla tio n by
E. R. Reilly. London: Faber, 1966.
19.Grassineau, James. M usical D ictio n a ry. London, 1740.
2 0 .M ozart, Leopard. V iolinschule Augsburg. 1756, I, iii, 27.
21.Brossard, Sebastien de. D ictionaire de musioue. Paris, 1 7 0 3 .
2 2 .Quantz, Johann Joachim . On the Playing the Flute. N ew Y ork, 1985,
231.
2 3 .Rousseau, Jean-Jacques. D ictionnaire de m usioue. Paris, 17 6 8 .
67
2 4 .Purcell, Henry. Sonata's of III P arts. London, 1683, preface.
25.M arp urg, Friedrich W ilhelm. Anleitung zum Clavierspielen (Introduction
to keyboard playing). 1755.
26.V eilhan, Jean-Claude. The Rules of Musical Interpretation in the
Baroque Era. English Translation by John Lambert, Paris: Alphonse
Leduc & Cie, 1979, 60.
2 7 .M onteverdi, Claudio. Madriqali querrieri ed amorosi. Venice, 163 8.
2 8 .M ozart Leopard. Violinschule. Augsburg. 1756, I, iii, 7.
Chapter IV : General C haracteristics of
Baroque Dance M o v e m e n ts
69
In order to determine a proper tempo for a Baroque dance
m ovem ent, it is indispensable to understand the general ch a ra cte ristics of
the m ovem ent w ith respect to implied mood and tem p o.24 H ow ever,
depending on nationality and period, various Baroque th e orists provided
d iffe re n t descriptions of the same dance movement, descrip tions w hich
varied in general term s but also in term s of beats and fu n c tio n s . In
addition, many dances were firs t introduced as fa st and d e lig htful
m ovem ents, and became slo w and serious dances later, or vice versa.
Thus, a performer should be equipped w ith knowledge about Baroque
dance movements according to the country and period of origin before
determ ining their tempi. In this chapter, the characteristics o f some o f the
Baroque dances are discussed, the same movements w hich appear in J.
S. Bach's Suites.
1. Prelude
The prelude originated from the short m usical segm ents
im provised by Renaissance m usicians to check the tuning, to u ch and tone
of their instrum ents1. Generally, it is know n that there existed three basic
types of preludes: independent, unattached, and atta ch e d 2. The
independent and the unattached preludes did not introduce a fo llo w in g
m ovem ent, although the latter could precede any piece in the same mode.
70
The attached prelude introduced another m ovem ent. The unattached
prelude w as predom inant during the early years, but a short,
im provisatory, unattached prelude w as still used in the seventeenth
century. H owever, the attached prelude fo llow e d by a fugue and a suite
of dances prevailed during the seventeenth and the early eighteenth
centuries2. Bach's Cello Suites use the attached prelude.
Yet, from a different perspective, Jacques H otteterre (1719)
described tw o kinds of preludes: com posed and im prom ptu3. The
com posed prelude w as a genuine, form al piece and represented the firs t
m ovem ent o f an instrum ental suite or sonata, whereas the im prom ptu
prelude (called prelude de caprice) reflected the heritage of im provisation
w hich w a s prevalent in the late seventeenth ce n tu ry2-3. According to Jean
Pierre Freillon-Poncein's definition of the im prom ptu prelude as an
unmeasured prelude, the key and mode o f this prelude was decided at the
spur of th e m om ent by the perform er3. Likewise, the tempo, the length,
rhythm ic pattern, and even the to n a lity w ere decided w ith o u t any preset
structure, preferred solely depending upon the perform er's aesthetic
approach. Bach preferred to compose w ith th is freer style3. Bach's
preludes in the six Cello Suites feature not only free im provisational
elements but also the instrum ental perform ance characteristics. They
reflect Italian string practice, such as free bow ing patterns. His preludes
in the Cello Suites thus allowed the perform ance of sequential m usical
71
styles w ith free bow ing and slurring, allowing delicate changes in
articulation4.
The prelude unfolds prim e harmonic and m otivic stru ctu re of the
w hole suite as well as its general mood. In other w ords, one o f the
functions of the prelude w as to awake the listener's interest in the pitch,
mode, or tonality of a fo llo w in g movements5. Concerning the
characteristics of the prelude, Johann Mattheson (1739) notes th a t:
"T he sen tim en t w h ic h it e v o k e s is th e desire, th e need to h a v e m o re ; this
piece is an in tro d u c tio n , a p ro m isin g guide to w h a t will fo llo w 5."
2. Allemande
The allemande is a German court dance initially developed in France
w ith a tw o or three beat structure. The allemande was originally a simple
dance when it was introduced, but it came to be used as the firs t or
second m ovement in instrum ental suites by the end of the seventeenth
century. In general, its tem po was moderate, but it gradually became
faster, sometimes extrem ely fa st by the mid-eighteenth ce n tu ry3. At
tim es composers depicted the allemande as grave or serious; other tim es,
as graceful. In particular, the French allemande was often grave lam ent or
elegy w ith a slow tem po. The allemande may include im provisatory
72
elements similar to the im prom ptu prelude, particularly in the seventeenth
century6.
Jean Jacques Rousseau suggested th a t there were tw o sorts of
allemande. One was the instrum ental allemande played seriously in
quadruple meter, and the other proceeded in a spirited and gay duple
meter, particularly in Switzerland and in Germany. However, Sebastien de
Brossard treated only the instrum ental allemande, and described it grave
and solemn. Its specific character lies in its harmonic and textu ral
subtleties. For this reason, the tem po was indeed variable6.
The different descriptions of the allemande according to period and
region were as follow s:
France
Sebastien de Brosssard (1703 ):
"Grave symphonies, usually tw o beats per measure,
often four...serious [grave]4-7"
Jean Jacque Rousseau (1 768):
"four beats per m easure...slow , but old
fashioned...those w ho still play it give it
a faster tem po7.''
Germany
Johann M attheson (1739):
"broken harmony o f a serious tone,
and it depicts a satisfied spirit enjoying
73
good order and calm ness...the image of a co n tent

of satisfied s p irit7"
Daniel G ottlo b Turk (1789):
"There are tw o types, the one is

in 4 /4 m eter and begins w ith an upbeat. It is played
seriously, not too fast. The other type in 2 /4 has a
vivid character w ith light perform ance8."
Johann G o ttfried W alther (1732):
"serious and dignified movement like th e in trodu ction and
should be so perform ed4"
England
Thomas M ace (1676):
"ve ry airy and lively, and generally of
tw o o f strains, of the Common Time or Plain Tim e9"
James T albot (1690):
"se t in Common the same tim e as th e Pavan, but its
m ovem ent is som ew hat faster and more a iry 10"
Thomas M orley (1597):
"m ore heavier dance than the G ailliard"
"T w o chief types, an earlier and more fa s t, and a later more
steady (as in J.S. Bach)9 '0"
3. Courante
The courante existed earlier than other French Baroque dances. It
already thrived as a co u rt dance in the early and m id-seventeenth century,
74
and also enjoyed great popularity in the English court. Furtherm ore, this
dance w as regarded as one of the three m ost significant French social
dances prevailing in Germany by the early eighteenth century, at a tim e
when other dances became more popular in France. The courante
displayed all of the fundam ental principles of French dance technique and
served as the opening dance for court balls11.
Courante means 'to run', im plying a very fast tem po9. It was
hence perform ed very quickly in the seventeenth century and came to be
slow er in the late eighteenth century. Nevertheless, the courante w as the
slow est of all of the three-beat style dances; nevertheless, in early
eighteenth-century France the courante was performed more q uickly than
other dances11. Thus, a perform er should remember th a t true meaning of
the courante is 'to move the notes q u ic k ly ', although it is often referred to
as 'fa s t'.
There were tw o different types of courantes in Baroque
instrum ental music: French and Italian (Corrente). The French courante
was very slow in 3/2, whereas the Italian corrente was fa st in 3 /4 or 3/8
tim e and began w ith an upbeat10. The French courante was the grander in
style, more graceful in character, and slow er in tempo. The character of
the French courante was generally portrayed as serious, solemn, m ajestic
and noble11. On the other hand, the Italian corrente was fast, literally
meaning 'running', featuring a straightfo rw ard rh yth m 10. Yet some French
courantes and Italian correntes were faste r than other dance m ovem ents.
France
Freillon-Poncein (1700):
"slo w [fo rtle n t]7"
Rameau-D'Alem bert (1751-65):
"The courante is noble and a very slow sarabande3"
Jean Jacques Rousseau (1767):
"serious [grave], not used any more7"
Bacquoy-Guedon (1778):
"Those w ho did the Courante put tw o steps

in each bar, the second occupying the third beat only3
Charles Masson (1699):
"steady in grave m ovem ent"
"...take n gravely’ 0 ’ 2"
Germany
"played on a keyboard or stringed instrum ent,
it is freer than to be danced"
"It justifies its name by its racing m ovem ent,
but it's mood should be remained pleasant
and full of tenderness and hopeful7"
Daniel G ottlob Turk (1789):
"earnest, but more detached than legato"

"It begins w ith upbeat of a short note in 3 /2 or 3 /4 "
"The tem po is not th a t fast8."
Johann Joachim Quantz (1752):
"played w ith m ajesty and pom posity,
and the bow is detached at each quarter note
w hether there is a dot or not"
76
"One beat of the pulse fo r each quarter note3 7"

Johann G ottfried W alther (1732):
"the French courante is the m ost solemn of
all w ith slo w tem po, w hile the Italian coranto is
instructive w ith quick, te m p o 10"
England
Thomas Mace (1676):
"shorter cut, and quicker triple tim e "
"fu ll of sprightfulness, lively, brisk and cheerful9,12"

Thomas M orley (1597):
"crossing and running came from its nam e10"
4. Bourree
The bourree is rhythm ically the m ost sim ple of all the French
Baroque dances. It is virtually the same dance as the rigaudon, and similar
to the gigue in tem po. According to Georg M u ffa t, although the bourree
has the same tem po and m etric structure as the gavotte, it is usually
faste r13. M ost o f the bourees contain either 2 or <f as a ti™ 6 signature,
w ith tw o half note beats in a measure. However, in the early eighteenth
century there also existed a slow court Bourree w h ich was a noble dance.
Its nature in the eighteenth century was described as gay (gaie) or joyful
dustig), and it w as perform ed lightly (fortlegerement) or lig h th e a rte d ly13.
77
France
Jean Jacques Rousseau (1768 ):

"frequent syn co p ations...lively [g a i]"
"starts w ith a cro ch e t before the dow n beat
and is required to play briskly in duple tim e 10 ' 4"
"fa ste r than g a v o tte ’0"
Germany
"contentm ent, unconcern, com fortable, slow, calm,
pleasant, relaxed, agreeable,
and yet pleasing w ith easy going manner"
"very solidly on placed on its base but not w ith o u t
softness, charm, or even tenderness."
" More gliding and linked than jumped or rushed7."
"played gaily and m errily w ith a short
and light bow stroke, and one beat of the pulse falls
on each bar10 ' 5"
England
James Talbot (1 690):
"very quick and rapid m ovem ent10"
5. G avotte
The gavotte appeared to have been danced no later than th e late
sixteenth century and by the late eighteenth century it was associated
78
w ith several kinds of steps and musical styles. The ga vo tte enjoyed great
popularity as a court dance fo r over tw o centuries. O riginally this dance
w as characterized by a regularity of style, rhythm , and balance, but these
aspects seem to have been distorted in the Baroque era. The gavotte was
m ost popular during the 'pastoral' frenzy of the 1720s and 1730s, during
w hich Bach composed m ost of his gavottes. Thus, his gavottes
frequently contain pastoral references while retaining the ideals of calm
balance and a predictable rh y th m 15.
The dance begins w ith an upbeat, and the m etric structure is
identical to th a t o f the bourree in that the beat is the half note and tim e
signature is 2 or . Quantz believed the g avo tte to have a more
moderate tempo than the rigaudon, whereas Dupont considered the
g avo tte's tempo to be a little slow er than th a t of the march. According to
Johann Mattheson, there were tw o forms of gavottes fo r instrum ental
music in the early eighteenth century, French and Italian. The Italian
gavotte was composed in a virtuoso performance style whose tem po was
fast. Michel Pignolet de M onteclair also classified the gavotte into tw o
styles, labeled 'leger' and 'presto', respectively16. The 'Leger' gavotte,
performed in French style (slow tempo), had a tim e signature 2, whereas
the 'presto' gavotte had a faster 2/4 meter. However, neither type was
performed o fte n 16.
Of the tw o types of gavottes, J.S. Bach favored the expressive
French type. He used the half note beat, and em ployed four- and eight-
79
beat phrase segments containing a 'sta te m e n t and counterstatem ent'
form at. This was a sufficient form at to m aintain balance throughout the
w o rk. In Bach's Cello Suites, the gavotte consists of gavotte I of French
origin, and gavotte II. Each gavotte elaborated the 'pastoral' idea
rem iniscent o f gentle, simple pleasures. Bach used tw o meter signs,
^pnd 2, fo r the tw o gavottes, implying a contrasting te m p o 16.
As discussed above, the tempi of gavottes varied greatly, from fa st
to slow . For this reason, composers presented the tem po words in the
beginning of the piece in their own ways. Therefore, the tempo selection
fo r the g a vo tte is not a simple matter.
France
Jean Pierre Freillon-Poncein (1700):
"the m eter is 2 and count it slow ly.
Its tempo is very slow [fort le ntem ent]...like the bourees
and rigaudons but more serious [fo rt lentement] and
graver...w ith more touching expression7"
Rameau-D'Alem bert (1751):
"The m eter of Gavotte is duple tim e and the tempo is
sometimes fast, sometimes slow , but not m uch."
"It is composed of tw o repeated sections and each section
contains four, eight, or tw elve measures3."
Sebastien de Brossard (1703):
"som etim es quick [gai], som etim es slow [grave]7"
"its phrases and cadential sections are articulated by tw o
80
measures and it is gracious [gracieux], often quick [gai],

som etim es tender and slo w 3,7"
"G avottes are taken lightly le gerem ent10"
Germany
"true jubilation, w ith a skipping nature, not running7"
"pleasant and rather lively in m oderately fa st tem po in alia

breve"
" it begins w ith upbeat8."
"alm ost same w ith Rigaudon, but a more m oderate and
steadier tem po, and one beat of the pulse for tw o quarter
notes, either in the alia breve or in the 3 /4 x '°"
"...som etim es brisk and other tim es rendered s lo w ly 4"
England
James Talbot (1690):
"sim ilar to bourree, fairly quick and fa st m ovem ent, fo u r in
a bar’0"
6. Gigue
The gigue was developed in England in the sixteenth century. This
dance was quite diverse in style, m etric structure, texture, type o f upbeat,
81
affe ct, and tim e signature. This is especially true fo r Bach's gigues. It
was title d in various w ays including gigue, giguer (French), geige
(German), giga (Italy), jig (England), jigg, and gique. Furthermore, various
tim e signatures were used including g , g , , & , f6 , C, and cf> .
Generally, the gigue was a fast, som etim es extrem ely fa st dance,
although a s lo w duple tim e was also used in some perform ances15. One
beat generally consists of three eighth notes.
Bach's used three types of gigues, the French gigue, giga I, and
giga II, distinguished by their m etric structures. Giga I has a slow
harmonic rhyth m in triple meter, and giga II has a sim ilar m etric structure
to the French gigue. However, the French gigue features numerous dotted
rhythm s, w h ile giga II has predominantly even eighth notes. In addition,
the French gigue is simple in texture and slightly fa ste r in tem po than giga
II’ 5.
France
"requires the meter of 4 and 6 (6/4)
and in slow duple time [grave]7"
Ram eau-D'Alem bert (1752):
"no more than a very brisk Loure w hose tem po is
far more rapid3"
"The Italian gigue is generally beaten in 6 /8 or 1 2/8
fo r the violins and C or 4 /4 fo r the bass; it is played
82
as if it were dotted4."
David Francois (1737):
"... in 3/8, 6/8, 9/8 or 12/8,

rarely in 4 /4 ,4 /2 ,2 /4 , 3 /4 and 3/2 and very b u o yantly3"
Germany
"Giga is a piece for instrum ental performance
which is a fast English dance and consists of
tw o repeats in 3/8, 6/8, or 1 2/8,
and it has a dot after the first of each four notes4."
Johann Mattheson (1739):
"dash, impetuous viva city, anger w hich is
quickly appeased in case of general Gigue
or English Gigue whereas great rapidity
in case of French Gigue7"
"cheerful com monly in 6 /8 ,1 2 /8 , even 3/8 m ete r"
"played in a short and light manner, and the tem po is
fast8"
"executed w ith a short and light bow stroke
and each bar has one pulse beat for an each bar in 6/8
tim e9"
England
Georg M u ffa t (1695-98):
"extrem ely quick in any kind of m eter3"
83
7. M enuet
According to Sebastien de Brossard, the menuet seemed to have
originated from the Branle de Poitou w hich was a very gay fo lk dance,
but by the seventeenth century in France it had been transform ed into a
slow and elegant dance, popular among aristocrats6. O f all th e French
dances, the menuet was the m o st w ell-know n dance, and it remained a
charm ing and elegant dance in the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries
in France. The menuet was th e French court dance in the seventeenth
century and it was in extraordinary vogue as a very jo yfu l social dance
throughout Europe by the early eighteenth c e n tu ry ".
The s w ift and gay m enuet took the tim e signature of 3 /8 or 6/8,
but more frequently employed 3 , th a t is 3 /4 counted like a 3 /8 4. It is the
only baroque dance music to be incorporated into classical sonatas and
symphonies of the late eighteenth century. The menuet is sim ilar to the
gavotte in th a t it expresses m oderate gaiety, and isd ifferent from the
sarabande in that it does not feature the extremes of passion. In the
period of Bach, the character o f m enuet reflected the elegance and noble
sim plicity of the French style by expressing a m oderate gaiety,
cheerfulness, and serenity rather than being s w ift. M ost o f Bach's
m enuets comprise tw o parts played sequentially, follow ed by a repetition
o f the firs t part. It is to be noted th a t the tw o menuets are in sharp
84
contrast in term s of style, textu re, and key. His m eneuts display calm
nobility, serenity, melodic sim plicity, and rhythm ic s u b tle ty ".
Eighteenth-century theorists disagreed as to the character o f the
m enuet, and their descriptions of it range from noble to gay. In addition,
the issue of the tempo selection in the m enuet is still debated among
present-day researchers. In the late seventeenth and early eighteenth
centuries, the menuet was considered a fa s t m ovem ent. Y et its tem po
appeared to slo w during the course of the eighteenth ce n tu ry6. In fa c t, in
Bach's tim e ’ the menuet was very fa st compared w ith the other triple
m eter dances, such as the courante and the sarabande. A m usic th eorist,
Borin (1722), described five three-beat m ovem ents in the order of
quickness as fo llo w s :"
1. Fort Grave
2. Grave (Sarabande, Passacaille, Courante)
3. Leger (Chaconne)
4. V ite (Menuet)
5. Tres-vite (Passepied)
Thus, a modern performer should determine the tem po o f the m enuet w ith
respect to other triple-m eter d a n c e s ".
France
Jean-Jacques Rousseau (1768):
85
"form erly very gay and fa st dance, but but n o w w ith an

grave and noble sim plicity, the tem po is more m oderate
rather than quick"
"It is the least gay o f all the other d a n ces'2."
Benigne de Bacilly (1668):
"rapid, skipping s ty le " "
Choquel Henri-Louis (1759):
"the m eter of simple triple tim e is so hurried fo r the true
tem po o f the m inuet th a t the hand is in su fficie n t tim e to
mark each beat when m oving through the triangle form ed by
this kind of meter, so th a t in taking the m inuet in 6 /4 tim e,
all these inconveniences could be avoided, and a genuine
m inuet tem po could be found by using a pendulum 3."
"a very merry dance, and play very fa s t"
"very gay and very fa st w ith a sign of 3/8 or 6 /8 , in an
im itation of Italian form , yet simple 3, or triple quarter notes
w as occupied10 ' 2"
"very live ly"
Loulie Etienne (1696):
"The dow n beat in this m eter of 6 /4 is called th e strong
beat and the upbeat is called the weak beat; and th is it the
only reason w h y 6 /4 is used instead o f tw ic e %, because in
% this strong beat is not distinguishable from the weak
beat, and it si for this same reason th a t dancers take the
m inuet in 6 /4 tim e, even though it is only ever m arked in
3 /4 3."
Jean Lecointe:
"elegant, noble, e x p re s s iv e ""
Michel de Saint-Lam bert (1702):
86
"...played in a very spirit manner3"

Rameau-D'Alem bert (1752):
"played in a moderate tempo and the m eter is triple tim e "
"noble and elegant sim plicity w ith moderate tem po, rather
than fa st3,9"
Jean-Jacques Rousseau (1750):
"It should be played in moderate tem po rather than fast,
since its main character is grace and noble sim p licity and
thus the m enuet seems to be the least gay of all the dances
used in Ball room s."
"Three light beats, marked by 3, 3/4, or 3/8 are suitable
m eter for the m enuet6,12."
Germany
Johann Kuhnau (1689):

"quick, rapid like gigue, and its pulse beat is = 1 60
according to Quantz6"
Johann Mattheson (1739):
"No other e ffe ct than a measured joy. The geom etric
content as w ell as the m etric content are indispensable to
the expressive melodies; it gives them their exact measure
and their stature"
"m oderate gaiety7"
"m oderately fast and agreeable in 3 /4 meter, more seldom
3/8, but played w ith o u t em bellishm ents8"
"played sparingly to lift the dancer up and the quarter notes
are marked w ith a rather heavy bow ing, but still short bow
stroke; one pulse beat for tw o quarter notes9"
87
Johann Gotfried W alther (1732):

"in Triple Time, namely 3 /4 ,w hich is beaten like a 3 /8 4."
England
Georg M uffat (1695-1698): "ve ry brisk3"

Charles Masson (1699): "q u ic k 12"
James Talbot (1690): "very quick and rapid10"
8. Sarabande
The sarabande appeared to have been developed in Spain in the
sixteenth century, and was introduced as a passionate and exotic dance
into Italy and France in the early seventeenth century1718. The social
dance of the sarabande introduced to the French court in 1618 had little in
common w ith the theatrical sarabande of the eighteenth c e n tu ry .1819. The
m etric signatures of the sarabande are usually 3, or 34 (consisting o f three
quarter note beats per measure) and sometimes 3/2 (consisting o f three
half note beats per measure. Traditionally, the dance starts w ith an
incomplete segment and an accent on the second note. Each phrase
contains four or eight beats, and can be even eight measures lo ng18.
The sarabande was the fa ste st dance in England, w hile the French
'sarabande grave' featured a slow 3 /4 meter. Its character was pathetic,
noble, charming, tranquil, m ajestic and serious. On the other hand, the
88
sarabande in Italy was m oderate in tem po, thus gradually becoming
slow er. For this reason, Gaspard Le Roux, a French harpsichordist,
asserted th a t the sarabande had at least tw o tem pi3-6. T w o kinds of
tem po w o rds fo r the sarabande w ere also suggested by M onteclair in his
Principes de Musique. They w ere 'sarabande grave', im plying a slow
tem po in 3 /4 and 'sarabande legere', denoting 'gay' and im plying a faster
tem po in 3 /4 s. The slow and grave sarabande of the eighteenth century
had passionate harmony and intense feeling, w hile the fa s t English
sarabande o f the m id-eighteenth century had a taut rhythm and vigorous
and energetic em otion10. M eanw hile, a Baroque theorist classified the
sarabande into the Italian-Spanish-English sarabande and the French-
German sarabande which was slow er w ith agogic accentuation on the
second beat in 3 /4 20.
In the eighteenth century, the m etric structure of the sarabande
consisted o f three quarter note beats per measure in 3/4, or som etim es,
three half note beats per measure in \ . Thus, the possible m eters of the
sarabande w ere 3/2, 3/4, 3/8, 6/8 , or 6 /4 20.
France
Jam es Talbot (1690):

"a s o ft and passionate m ovem ent w ith a slow T rip le 12"
Ram eau-D'Alem bert (1751):
"...is really a slow M inuet3"
Thomas Mace (1676):
89
"the shortest Triple-Time, but are more toyish and light than
Courante; com m only of tw o strains9."
"slo w [le n t]"
"...is taken in 3 slow beats"
"m ajestic"
"grave3-7"
"serious [grave]; form erly danced w ith castanets...

not used any more7"
Michel L'A ffilard (1694-1717):
"slo w ly in three equal beats3"
Germany
"serious joined w ith expression and dignity, and played

therefore a rather slow tem po w ith a heavy fashion'
"w ritte n in 3/2 or 3 /4 measure8"
"expresses no other passion, but pride."
"It is distinguished by a certain Spanish haughtiness,

much more pompous than any other dance. It shows
grandeur and solem nity."
"serious, expresses am bition7"
"m ajestic"
"The sarabande has exactly the same tempo w ith the
courante, but it is perform ed w ith a rather more
pleasing execution7-21"
90
"...sta te ly tune is much more favored and generally

in a short manner which is used in slow 3 /4 fo r dance and
3/2 fo r instrum ental music w ith its tw o repeats'1"
England
"gravely’ 2"
Thomas Mace (1676):
"...ra the r more Toyish and lighter than courantoes,

but are of the shortest Triple Time composed of tw o
strains’ 8"
Johann Philip Kirnberger argued in his Kunst des Reinen Satzes in
der Musik (1774) th a t every dance had its specific beat m ovem ent,
decided by the m eter and by the note values. As for m eter signatures, the
larger the denom inator of the signature, the faster the tem po9. As for the
note value, the slow est note value corresponded to a faster beat
m ovem ent. The follow ing table shows the meters and beats of Baroque
dance m ovem ents discussed in this chapter and their m etronom ic figures
as calculated by several Baroque theorists59 ' 3 ' 6'22.
91
Table 4-1. Tempi of Baroque dances
Dance T y p e M e te r & Beats Usual N o te valu es M .M . per b e a t
Allemande C or 4 / 4 beat i J JJ ( i ) = 184

m o d e ra te ly s lo w
in eq u ality usually
on th e sixteen th
pulse
njinn (J >= 120
by D om B e d o s *
by La C hap elle
notes
Bourree 2 or w ith beat j j (d ) = 1 6 0

tw o h a lf n ote beats pulse j by Q u a n tz
jj j
to each bar (6 ) = 120
rarely w ith bv L 'A f fila r d *
q u a rte r n ote b e a t ( J 1 = 1 2 0
in eq u ality on eig h th by La C h a p e lle *

w ith tw o half notes (J 1= 112/120
by d 'O n s -e n -B ra y +
Courante 3 /4 beat JJ J ( J) = 8 0 in 3 / 4
begins w ith u p b e a t
3 /2
pulse
jm n by Q u a n tz
( J ) = 9 0 in 3 /2
by L 'A f fila r d *
J
( ) = 8 2 in 3
w ith th ree half notes by d 'O n z e m b ra y *
Gavotte 2 or 3 /4 beat J j (J
1 = 1 2 0 in 3 /4
begins w ith u p b e a t pulse bv Q u a n tz
JJ J J ( J 1 = 1 5 2 in 2
by La C h a p e lle
(d ) = 1 2 0 in 2
by L 'A ffila rd
[A 1 = 1 3 2 in 2
b,y C hoquel
( d 1 = 9 7 in 2 +
by d 'O n z e m b ra y
92
Table 4-1. Tempi of Baroque dances (continued)
D ance T yp e M e te r & Beats U s u a l N o te values M . M . o er b e a t
Gigue 6 /8 or 6 /4 beat J. J. ( J . ) = 1 0 0 i n 6 / 8
pulse b y L 'A f f ila r d *

m m ( J^) = 1 1 6 in 3 /8
b y L 'A ffila rd
( J.) = 1 6 0 in 6 /8
b y Q u a n tz
(J ) = 1 2 0 in 6 / 4
by La C h a p e lle *
( J •) = 1 0 4 in 6 /8
b y C h o q u e l*
( J ) = 1 1 2 in 6 / 4
b y d 'O n s -e n -B ra y *
( J.) = 1 8 0 in 6 /8
by Buchoz
Menuet 3 / 4 or 6 /8 beat J. ( J ) = 1 60
pulse by Quantz
J J (•i 1= 126/
(J ) = 4 2 in 3+
by la Chapelle
( J ) = 76
by Engramelle
(J ) = 71 *
by d'Ons-en-Bray
( J >= 76
by L'Affilard
( J ) = 75
by Quantz/
by L'Affilard
( «i) = 1 04
by Choquel
( j ) = 6 0 in 3
by Marquet
( #l) = 6 0 in 3
by Buchoz
93
Table 4-1. Tempi of Baroque dances (continued)
Dance Type Meter & Beats Usual Note values M.M. per beat
Sarabande 3/4 beat J i i (J ) = 80 in 3/4

3/2
pulse
nn n bv Quantz
( J ) = 72 in 3/2
by L'Affilard*
( J 1= 71 in 3/4
bv d'Ons-en-Bray
4/6 (J 1= 133 in 6/4
by L'Affilard
(J ) =63 in 3/4
by La Chapelle*
(NB: Figures with * are tempi for specific pieces.)
94
Notes to Chapter IV
1. Pratt, George. "B ach's Cello Suites-Some Unanswered Q uestions", The
Strad. Vol. 91, 1981, 813-4.
2. Sadie, Stanley ed. The New Grove Dictionary of music and m usician.
20 vols. London: M acmillan Publishers, 1980, "prelude".
3. Veilhan, Jean-Claude. The Rules of Musical Interpretation in the
Baroque Era (17th -1 8 th centuries). Paris: Alphonse Leduc & Cie Music
Publishers, 1979.
4. Davis, Nathan J. The Baroque Violoncello and the Unaccompanied
Cello suites of J.S. Bach. B.W.V. 1007-1012. unpublished dissertation
for the Ph. D. degree of New York University Press, 1986, 163.
5. M arkevitch, D im itry. Six Suites for Solo Cello bv J. S. Bach.
Pennsylvania: Theodore Presser Company, 1964, 7.
6. Newman, A nthony. Bach and the Baroque. New York: Pendragon
Press, 2nd ed., 1995, 139-140.
7. Cyr, Mary. Performing Baroque M usic. Hong Kong: Amadeus Press,
1992, 42-5.
8. Turk, Daniel G ottlob. Claiverschule, oder Anweisunq zum
Claviersoielen f ur Lehrer und Lernende. m it kritischen Anm erkunqen.
Leipzig and Halle, 1789. English translation by Raymond H. Haggh as
School of Clavier Playing. Lincoln: University of Nebraska Press, 1983.
95
9. Dolm etch, Arnold. The Interpretation of the M usic o f the Seventeenth
and Eighteenth Centuries. London, 1915. Reprint, London, 1944, Sec.
II, 44-52 .
10.D onington, Robert. The Interpretation of Early M usic. N ew revised ed.
New York: W .W . Norton & Company, 1992.
1 1 .Little, M eredith and Natalie Jenne. Dance and the M usic o f J.S. Bach.
Bloom ington and Indianapolis: Indiana University Press, 1 99 1, Chapter
5, 62-83.
1 2 .Ibid., Chapter 4, p .248
1 3 .Ibid., Chapter 3, 35-47.
centuries. New York: Schirmer Books, 1993.
1 5 .Little, M eredith and Natalie Jenne. Dance and the M usic o f J.S. Bach.
Bloom ington and Indianapolis: Indiana University Press, 1991, Chapter
10, 143 -1 85.
1 6 .Ibid., Chapter 4, 47-62.
1 7 .Ibid., Chapter 7, 92-1 14.
18.Boal, Ellen TeSelle. "Saraband: Speed, Steps, and S tress". Journal of
the Viola Da Gamba Society of Am erica. Vol. xvii (Decem ber 1980),
38-41.
1 9 .Curt, Sachs. W orld History of the Dance. New York.: N orton, 1937,
367-78.
96
2 0 .Planer, John H. "Sentim entality in the Performance o f Absolute M usic:
Pablo Casals' Performance of Saraband from Johann Sebastian Bach's
Suite No. 2 in D minor for Unaccompanied Cello, s. 1 0 0 8 ", The
musical Q uarterly. Vol. LXXIII/2, 1989, 235.
2 1 .Harding, Rosamond E.M. Origins of Musical Times and Expression.
London: O xford University Press, 1938, Chapter 1, 28.
22.H arris-W arrick, Rebecca. "Interpreting Pendulum M arkings fo r French
Baroque Dances". Historical Performance. Vol. VI/1 (Spring, 1993),
10.
Chapter V : Practical Applications to
Bach's Cello Suite No. 2
98
1. Criteria for a Proper Tempo Selection
The characters and conventions of tempo have varied from one
period to another. W ith the developm ent of science in the Baroque era,
numerous attem pts were made to co n stru ct a device to measure tempo
accurately: a pendulum by Pere Merenne (1636), a chronometre by
Etienne Louli( (1696), an echometre w ith a m etric scale by Josiph Sauveur
(1701), and a metrometre by Louis-Leon Pajot (1 7 3 2 )'. The necessity for
a standard for tempo measurement eventually led to the invention of the
m etronome by Johann Nepomuk M alzel in 1 81 6'. Today, the tempo of a
piece is usually determined by a m etronom e. Although the m etronome
has been helpful to modern perform ers, the challenge of selecting a proper
tempo has not been com pletely resolved. This is because the tempo
determined by the metronome is scie ntifically accurate and is too inflexible
to allow the expression of the proper musical affect of the piece. Thus, in
order to make a tempo choice, a perform er should consider the tempo as
one of many musical parameters.
First of all, the m ost basic judgm ent should be based upon the
tempo word w hich is marked at the beginning of a m ovem ent or as the
title for a piece of dance music. Having determined a basic tempo,
however, the performers should play in a controlled and m oderate fashion.
Joachim Quantz w rote, 'W hatever speed an Allegro demands, it ought
never to depart from a controlled and reasonable m ovem ent'
99
Second, the tempo should be flexible, sometimes faster, sometimes
slow er, as suggested by Thomas Mace. Throughout a m ovem ent, tempo
should not remain constant. V ariations in tempo should range from alm ost
unnoticeable to very conspicuous. In addition, Mace advised th a t if a
perform er initially plays some sections very lively and vividly, it w ould be
desirable to vary the tem po n ext tim e to change the mood as to be more
gentle, loving, tender, and sm o o th ' 3. Therefore, the perform er should
have the ability to vary the tem po e ffe ctively between sections.
Third, it is necessary to determ ine the fastest notes or passages
running throughout a piece as w ell as their direct relationship to the mood.
C.P.E. Bach noted in his Essay (1753) that 'the tempo of a piece ... is
derived from its general m ood together w ith the faste st notes and
passages w hich it includes'. Proper attention to these considerations will
prevent Allegro from being hurried and Adagio from being dragged2.
Fourth, a perform er's interpretation of a piece a ffe cts the tempo.
Tem po was judged by perform er's musicianship in the early Baroque era.
For example, a faster tem po w o uld be used when the perform er w anted to
emphasize brilliance more than expressiveness. In this case, the maxim
'Taste is a true m etronom e' w o uld be appropriate2.
Fifth, tempo used to change in juxtaposed sections in the Baroque
period. The length of note values in the preceding section w ould be
com pared w ith those in the fo llo w in g section so that relative tem pi can be
derived from them . The tem po w ould be shifted at a m athem atical ratio
100
so that the m eter changed from binary to ternary, ternary to common
tim e, or vice versa. W hen a tempo shift occurs, it is sometimes helpful to
determine the tem po by reducing the note values by half or a quarter. It
m ust be executed, how ever, only when it is appropriate2.
Sixth, the tem po o f a piece vary slightly according to the acoustical
characteristics o f the hall. A slower tempo w ould be preferred for a highly
resonant space, w h ile a quicker tempo would be preferred for a hall w ith a
dry acoustic. Good tem po, of course, is a relative perception. Given the
same music, a large-scale performance w ith chorus and orchestra would
call for a slower tem po than a performance w ith smaller forces1.
Finally, it should be remembered that the Baroque aesthetic called
for flexibility w ith respect to tempo. As discussed above, tempo in
Baroque period was not fixed, but flexible, according to the perform er's
taste, musicianship, and experience; no single defining principle can be
identified. This is confirm ed by Quantz's assertion in his Essay (1752)
that 'The perform ance should be easy and flexible ... w ith o u t stiffness and
constraint' 5.
Consideration of all these factors w ill help performers to determine
a proper tempo intended by the composer. This explains w hy experience,
combined w ith a perform er's inner musicianship, is an im portant key.
Since tempo is e xplicitly connected w ith the character or spirit of the
music, proper tem po has to be derived from the content of the music, not
from the tempo w ord itself. Fredrich Wilhelm Marpurg w rote in Anleitung
101
zum Clavierpie/en that 'It happens so often that whole notes are played as
fast as quarter notes, and quarter notes as fast as whole notes' 2.
2. General features of Bach's Cello Suites
The six suites for unaccompanied cello were composed by Johann
Sebastian Bach between 1717 and 1723 °. They were forgotten fo r over
half a century after he died, and not until the early nineteenth century was
the first print published, m eant to be used as an etude. A fte r the turn of
the tw e n tie th century, Pablo Casals was the first musician who began to
study and perform the suites, and he has made them a popular repertoire
for cellists. The suites are now being played w ith a wide variety of
interpretations, partly due to the many changes in the bow, bow ing
technique, and general perform ance style in the nearly tw o hundred years
during w hich the suites were neglected. Furthermore, although there are
four early m anuscripts of the suites-A nna Magdalena, Johann Peter
Kellner, Johann Jacob Heinrich W estphal, and an anonymous copy, m ost
of them lack tempo indications and markings for dynamics, phrasing,
slurring, pitch, and articulation0. This situation allows for a great diversity
of interpretations.
The Bach's Cello Suites are considered to be one of the greatest
masterpieces of the literature, in w hich perfect counterpoint is com bined
102
w ith beautiful m elody by virtue of contrasting them atic m aterial and
elaborately knitted rhythm ic patterns. Especially, each m ovem ent of the
suites is woven by a horizontal scheme throughout the w ork. This texture
is achieved by the alternation of explicit and im plicit fragm ents of
arpeggios and scales0.
The suites are w ritte n in different keys, but they feature the same
dance suite form at: prelude, allemande, courante, sarabande, couplets and
gigue. The couplets are replaced by the menuet I and II in suite No. 1 and
No.2, by bourree I and II in No. 3 and No. 4, by gavotte I and II in No. 5
and No. 6. Contrasting the spirit of one suite w ith th a t of another, Bach
depicted distinct feelings, from lyric to dramatic, in such a w ay that
optimism is implied in Suite No. 1, tragedy in Suite No. 2, heroism in Suite
No. 3, grandiosity in Suite No. 4, passion in Suite No. 5, and pastoralism
in Suite No. 6 7. In addition to using diverse keys, Bach favored a great
variety of tim e, meter, measure and rhythm. For instance, in Solo Violin
BWV 1006, he expanded measures gradually through four couplets: the
first couplet is 4 -f-4 measures, the second, 8 - r 8 - r 8 , the third, 16 —16,
and the fourth, 4 -i-2 -i-1 4 measures3. Furthermore, Bach established
various kinds of rhythm s and typical dance rhythms in his w orks are as
fo llo w s :3 3
103
T ypical R hythm ic Patterns
Bourree n j j j j n J S 1 J33J JJJJj

j j j j j j• j J j J. J J-
jj J JJ J JJ J jJ j J JJ J- py J
G avotte
j j j ; i d xu n jjj jj a
J J i JJ J JJ J n j j j j JJJJ
J J J JJJ J J 5 j jj j jj
M inuet
cM JDJTl J -0 J>Uy
Sarabande
J ’ J. J> J- J’J
>
J’ J.
>
J J’J.
7
J> J’J. J1 J' J’J
>
Courante
J- J’J J J.J» J- J>J J J- J5 J J
J> J J J.J J- JU J J- J-
Gigue
JJ J- 3J J- 3J j- jj j^n jrn
Jj J;__ ,J“ JJ J:__ . m PTJ J. i
Figure 5-1: Typical dance rhyth m s in Bach's w orks
The Suite No. 2 is one o f the m o st frequently played pieces by
m any cellists, perhaps because it possesses a great expressiveness o f soul
and heart throughout the entire piece. The prelude serves to establish th e
character and the to n a lity of the suite, although the prelude itse lf has no
defined character. In other w o rd s, th e prelude gives a som ber and lyrical
im pression at the beginning o f th e m ovem ent, providing the blueprint fo r
the w h ole piece. The prelude un fo ld s its elaborate harmonic progressions
i 04
by utilizing consecutive arpeggios or scales, a feature w hich leads to
'melodized counterpoint.' Furthermore, the linear direction o f the arpeggio
or scale is attained by the sequence of conjunct and disjunct intervals7.
As noted in the previous chapter, the sarabande has tw o strains w hich are
som ew hat longer than those of the ether suites, and it ends w ith a
feminine cadence. The mood of the courante is one o f energy and
happiness, achieved by consecutive brisk sixteenth notes. The menuet
has tw o strains, i.e., menuet I and II, and the first m enuet is repeated after
their sequential playing. The tw o menuets contrast in key, phrase
structure, and rhythm ic texture. The gigue is characterized by m otivic
upbeats, w hich intensifies the rhythmic vitality and heightens the buoyant
forw ard m otion, as w ell8.
It is necessary to discover the character (or mood) of each
m ovem ent before choosing a reasonable tempo. Because the character
and tempo are closely connected to each other, my choice of tem pifor
this suite would be selected by keeping in mind all of the elements
discussed.
3. Selection of Authentic Tempi for Suite No. 2
Bach did not give his suites any kind of tempo indications, such as
tem po markings or tempo words. For each m ovem ent, then, the
105
perform er must select an appropriate tempo. In this study I have
discussed how a variety of musical elements in Baroque m usic contribute
to an appropriate selection of tempo. These elements are essential in
rendering the performance o f Baroque music more authentic. Bach's
Suites are related to one other by contrasting affects, as m entioned
earlier, and the movements in each suite are also related to each other in
terms of mood, rhythm ic pattern, and tempo. Thus, it is necessary to
examine the keys, rhythm ic patterns, them atic materials, and the tem po
practice of dance movements, especially in the period of 1 7 1 7 -1 7 2 3 when
Bach's Suites were composed.
1) Beginning Tempo
In deciding a proper tem po for Suite No. 2, it is im portant to select
the beginning tempo carefully. The prelude may be regarded as a blueprint
for the entire piece w ith respect to its harmonic and m otivic structure. It
m ust also be considered that the tempi of the movements in the suite are
related to one other. Thus, the selection of tempo for the prelude should
be the key to the tempo relationships of the remaining m ovem ents.
First of all, singing and reading may be a good way to guess at the
tempo, which can then be confirm ed by the metronome. Singing before
playing, while feeling harmonic and rhythm ic texture, melodic pattern, and
voice leading may help the perform er fo llo w the natural flo w of the music,
allowing the performer to sense a proper tempo for the prelude9.
106
Secondly, the distinct character of each m ovem ent m ust be
examined carefully. The tempo is closely connected w ith the character of
a dance m ovem ent. In particular, the prelude has the function of an
introduction, foreshadowing what w ill follow , as Johann M attheson
suggested. The prelude of the Suite No. 2 m anifests a cairn, somber,
m ellow, and poetic mood w ith a horizontal scheme using arpeggios of
chords and scales. These characteristic features suggest a som ew hat
slow tempo, not only in order to express the m otivic and harmonic
structure, but also to depict successfully its serious and dark m ellow
mood.
Third, it is of great im portance to observe the key and the meter.
In the tim e Bach composed the six ceilo suites, the key of the music
greatly influenced its affect or spirit, and tempo follow ed suit. The major
key generally expresses happiness and cheerfulness, and thus the tempo
tends to be naturally fast. On the contrary, the m inor key expresses
sorrow and magnificence, and thus the tempo tends to be slower. The
key of the prelude is D minor. According to Table 3-6, the key of D minor
expresses a 'serious and pious' mood. M attheson described D m inor as
'som ew hat calm, also som ewhat grand', and Jean-Philippe Rameau
described its character as 'sw eetness and tenderness'. In particular, Bach
usually associated D minor w ith sadness and a dark mood. In
consequence, a slow tempo appears to be the proper choice for the
prelude in D m inor.
107
The meter is also related to the tempo as discussed earlier, since
every dance piece has a unique beat structure which was influenced by its
meter. Generally, a tempo w ith a larger denominator in the tim e signature
was faster. For example, a m ovem ent in 3 /4 in which the beat consists of
three quarter notes was played faster than one in 3/2 in w h ich the beat
consists of three half notes. Since the meter of this prelude is 3/4, a
perform er has to maintain a slightly fast tem po10. The prelude of the Suite
No. 2 is shown in the follow ing figure:
Figure 5-2: Prelude of Bach's Cello Suite No. 2
108
More recently, in the nineteenth and early tw entie th century the
tempi of Baroque dance movements has gradually become slower. This
being the case. Baroque tempo in general, as well as the beginning tempo
for the Suite No. 2 in particular, should be considered to be faster than is
commonly practiced to d a y ” .
Combining these factors w ith my own experience, I would choose
d = 76 as a beginning tempo for this suite. Choosing a slower tempo
would not correspond w ith Baroque tem po practice in which dance music
was generally perform ed: sprightly and lively. W ith this moderate tempo,
the inherent rhythm ic and harmonic features of the prelude can be
expressed e fficien tly. Furthermore, one may also find that this tempo is
effective in depicting the somber, dark, and mellow emotions in the
prelude, while emphasizing expressiveness over brilliance. One may well
recall Anton Bemetzrieder's aphorism. T a s te is a true m etronom e'.
2) Proportional Relationships
As m entioned in Chapter IV, proportional relationships between
meters were occasionally used for sectional tempo changes in Baroque
music. Furthermore, it seems that Bach created a structural unity in the
Suite No. 2. In order to select a unified tempo and to revive the Baroque
practice for changing tempi, it is thus essential to find a w ay to relate one
movement to another. In the follow ing discussion, the starting tempo of
109
d = 76 w ill be used as a benchm ark by which the tempi of the rem aining
movements can be calculated proportionally.
Proportional tem po can be expressed by relating a beat in
movem ent A w ith that in m ovem ent B. The follow ing exam ples explain
the relationships of proportional tempo... For example, w hen the pulse of
movem ent A is d = 90 and th a t of movement B is also d = 9 0 , this
relationship w ould be expressed as 1:1, the pulses having the same
length. If the pulse of m ovem ent A is d = 90 and that of m ovem ent B is
d = 45, th is 'w o u id be expressed as a 1:2 relationship. In th is case, the
pulse of m ovem ent A is half the length of the pulse of m ovem ent B, the
tempo being tw ic e as fast. Thus, the equation giving the tem po marking
of m ovement B is 1/2 x 9 0 = 4 5 . Knowing this relationship, it is also
im portant to examine the meters of each movement. In the Suite No. 2,
the meters of each m ovem ent are organized in the follow ing fashion:
Prelude: 3/4
Allemande: C
Courante: 3/4
Sarabande: 3/4
Menuet: 3/4
Gigue: 3/8
3) Tempo Selection for the M ovem ents
I 10
Before discussing the temporal relationships in the Suite No. 2, it
should be noted that the selected tempo range is not a fixed tem po, but
rather an approxim ate tempo range encompassing overall tem po
indications such as Allegro, Adagio, Andante, etc. The use of a tem po
range helps to m aintain the fle xib ility of .the tempi and prevents them from
being excessively m echanical. A mechanical tempo w ould never be
appropriate for a Baroque tem po convention which was flexible depending
upon the perform er's m usicianship.
The tem po d = 76 has been chosen for the prelude. By relating this
starting tempo to the next m ovem ent, the allemande, a tem po relationship
is formed. As discussed earlier, there were tw o kinds of allemandes. One
was to be played in a serious manner beginning w ith a upbeat in 4 /4
meter, whereas the other type was to be played vividly and airily in 2/4
meter. The allemande o f Suite No. 2 starts w ith an upbeat, and its m eter
is 4/4, consisting of four quarter notes per measure, as is shown in Figure
5-3.
Figure 5-3: Allem ande of Bach's Cello Suite No. 2
Ill
As seen the above figure, it is clear that this particular allemande
corresponds to the form er m ovement. Accordingly, the allemande should
not be performed too fa st, but somewhat slowly in a serious and dignified
manner. Furthermore, the key of the allemande is D m inor w hich is
identical to the prelude, and the spirit of this key is reflected by a slow
tempo.
All these aspects being considered, it is reasonable to set a 1:1
relationship between the prelude and the allemande. However, in order to
avoid too mechanical a tempo, a tempo range should be used. It seems
proper to apply a tempo range that begins w ith a slow er tem po than the
prelude, since a slightly slower tempo w ill create a contrast w ith th a t of
the prelude. A t the same time, it also contrasts w ith the courante, whose
tempo is very quick. More than anything else, the slow er tem po is
effe ctive in expressing the serious [grave] character of this m ovem ent in
4 /4 tim e. A setting of the metronome at d = 66-76 is suggested for the
allemande.
As discussed earlier, the courante also had tw o types, French and
Italian. The French courante was slow, in 3/2 meter, im plying a solemn
and majestic character w ith nervous and dotted rhythm s; the Italian
courante (corrente), however, was fast, in 3/4 meter, and began w ith an
upbeat12. The courante of Suite No. 2 is an Italian courante in th a t it
starts w ith short upbeat in 3/4, and in that it features a straightforw ard
112
rhythm ic pattern. Mace's description of the courante as 'vigorous',
'live ly', 'brisk', and 'cheerful' may be applied to this fast courante.
The courante has three quarter notes per measure, J J J and
The rhythm ic patterns of the courante are
enhanced by the rapid and continuous-series of sixteenth notes running
throughout the movement. This rhythm ic feature suggests that a fast
tempo in an Italian spirit is appropriate for the courante. Along w ith this
feature, the usage of separate bow strokes also supports the previous
statement, as shown in the follow ing figure. Therefore, it w ould be logical
to posit the tempo of the courante as much faster than the allemande,
evoking an animated and racing mood.
Figure 5-4: Courante of Bach Cello Suite No. 2
113
A t this point, a problem atic issue arises. H ow m uch faster should
the courante be than the allemande? Upon analyzing th e score, one can
find im portant m elodic clues in the allemande and in th e courante. The
courante has a m o tivic gesture of three and the allem ande has that of
four, which means th a t the beat of the allemande is three-fourths the
length of that of the courante. Therefore, the allem ande tempo range
(d = 66-76) is m ultiplied by 4/3, producing the proper courante tempo
range (d = 88-101). The form ula would be:
4/3 x tem po o f the allemande (66-76)

= tempo of the courante (88-101)
The tempo d = 101 m ay be a better choice than d = 88, in order to enliven
the energetic and vivacious spirit of the courante generated by the racing
sixteenth note groups, and to contrast w ith the serious and dignified
allemande. M oreover, Bach may have intended the courante to be a faster
m ovem ent".
For the sarabande, a wide variety of tempi existed, ranging from an
extremely fast to a very slow, depending upon the co u n try and the period.
However, there w ere tw o varieties of sarabande. One w as the French
sarabande, the 'sarabande grave' which was characterized by its
passionate harm ony together w ith a m editative m ood resulting from a
slow tempo in 3/4. This slow and grave sarabande exhibited a truly
intense passion w ith a flattering expression, as Quantz m entioned. The
114
other type is the English sarabande of the seventeenth century, w hich had
a ta u t rhythm entailing a quick and fast tem po in 3/4. Bach was
influenced by the 'sarabande grave', prevalent in France. Its character in
Bach's tim e may be described w ith such diverse term s as 'noble', 'grace',
'serious', 'm ajestic', 'tranquil', and 'p a th e tic' ,3.
The sarabande of the Suite No. 2 is unique in th a t it is longer than
th a t of the other suites. The beat structure consists of three quarter
notes per measure in 3/4. This sarabande reflects Bach's traditional
approach to- com position, in th a t it is composed of long melodic lines w ith
a stressed second beat, elaborated by em bellishm ents, as show n in the
follow ing figure:
Figure 5-5: Sarabande of Bach's Cello Suite No. 2
The rhythm of the sarabande features the accentuation of the
second beat in a simple triple meter, creating a tension between the firs t
115
and the second beat. Generally, the down beat has the strongest accent.
However, as the second pulse is stronger in the sarabande, the firs t pulse
becomes an upbeat and the second beat becomes an aural dow n beat, as
shown below :''1
vs.
J J j
Figure 5-6: A rhythm ic feature of the sarabande
This rhythmic feature together w ith the feminine cadences provides this
movement w ith an intensity demanding a slow tem po15. It is now obvious
that the sarabande of Suite No. 2 is a ‘ sarabande grave'. M oreover, the
key of the D minor in the sarabande suggests 'serious' and 'pious'
character, as shown in the key list in the previous chapter. Therefore,
the tempo of the sarabande should be slow, so that the perform er can
convey the serious and m ajestic emotion successfully w ith a m editative
inwardness.
The pulse beat of the sarabande is the eighth note, whereas th a t of
the courante is the sixteenth note. The change of the pulse beats results
in an elegant shift from a fa st tempo to a very slow tem po. Thus, it
w ould be reasonable to choose a 1:2 proportional relationship in w h ich the
116
sixteenth note beat of the courante is half the length o f that of the
sarabande. The formula would be:
1 /2 x tempo of courante (88-101)

= tempo of the sarabande (44-51)
The tem po of the menuet was assumed to be brisk and rapid by
many Baroque theorists during the late seventeenth and early eighteenth
centuries. Yet the tempo slowed dow n enough to be described as
moderate or even slow in the la tter half of the eighteenth ce n tu ry16.
Bach's menuets were influenced by the French style, characterized by
nobility and refinem ent. The French menuet also retained a spirit of
gaiety, joyfulness and cheerfulness17.
In choosing the proper tem po, the first thing to consider may be
the tempo relationship between the menuet and the other three-beat
dance m ovem ents, as Tomlinson and Saurin have suggested. As show n
earlier, Borin's tempo list (France, 1722) described the menuet as faster
than the sarabande or the courante, although this depended on country
and period. This implies that the m enuet was played rather quickly in the
early eighteenth century, especially in Bach's time.
W ith this sense of the tem poral aspects, a perform er should
examine the structure of the menuet o f the Suite No. 2. M ost of Bach's
menuets comprise tw o menuets, m enuet I and II. They are played
sequentially, then the first menuet is repeated. It is to be noted th a t the
117
tw o m enuets are sharply contrasting in styles, textures, rhythm ic
patterns, and keys, as shown in the follow ing figures:
a) Menuet I
b) Menuet II
Figure 5-7: Menuet I and II o f Bach's Cello Suite No. 2
113
Upon examining the constructions of the tw o menuets, one can
find th a t each has distinctive melodic and rhythm ic features. In menuet I,
the phrase structure is based upon regular groupings of fo u r measures.
This feature together w ith a simple melody w ith a narrow interval range,
creates a sense of balance. The frequent use o f half-note chords adds
spatial distance in the beginning of each phrase, resulting in a som ewhat
dragging tem po. In menuet II, however, regularity cannot be found in its
textu re. Instead, a series of eighth note groups are running throughout the
music, giving a sense of forw ard m otion. Contrasting w ith menuet I, the
m elodic line of menuet II occasionally has a wide range of intervals. The
disjunct melodic construction enhances this m enuet's gaiety and vigor.
The rhythm ic patterns of the tw o menuets are also different. The first one
has J J J , whereas the second one has j n i j In
addition, the tw o menuets have contrasting keys. The key o f D minor is
used for menuet I, whereas D major is used for menuet II. The change of
key along w ith the contrasting linear contour of their melodies (conjunct
vs. disjunct) contributes to the idiosyncratic atmosphere of each
m ovem ent: menuet I is portrayed w ith a feminine scent, w h ile menuet II
displays a virile image.
Given the fast tempo for the menuet as described above, as well as
the contrasting characters of the tw o parts, it is proper to use a different
tem po fo r each part. However, their tempi should be selected w ith an eye
to m aintaining the overall unity of the suite.
119
The beat structure of the sarabande is formed w ith three quarter
notes, w hile th a t of the menuet is form ed w ith a dotted half note. The
pulse beat of the sarabande is J J J while th a t of the m enuet is
g). .Thus, the beat relationship between the sarabande and the m enuet is
1:3, w hich can be expressed by the follow ing form ula:
3 x tem po of the sarabande (44-51)

= tem po of the menuet (132-153)
The tem po of the menuets in Bach's period was faster than th a t of the
courante. So, this rapid tem po appears to suit the m enuet w ell. This
tem po is close to Quantz' suggestion for the menuet, J = 1 6 0 (16).
M eanw hile, the tw o strains of the m enuet harbor several contrasting
properties, as discussed. To reveal the contrasting moods of the tw o
strains, it w ould be reasonable to set a tem po at d = 132 fo r the first
m enuet (noble and graceful), and a tempo of d = 153 for the second
m enuet (gay and joyful).
The tem po of the gigue was generally thought to be quick,
som etim es extrem ely quick. The gigue was performed w ith short and
light bow strokes in a flow ing manner, and its nature was described as
'im petuous viva city' and 'extrem e joyfulness'. The lively gigue was
ty p ic a lly composed using 3/8 and 6/8 m eters, the beat falling on the
dotted quarter note. The rhythm ic pattern is characterized by racing
sixteenth note groups at a very fast tempo, featuring w ide interval leaps,
120
and it is fu rth e r intensified by frequent upbeats. These short upbeat
m otions, along w ith short phrase structures, enliven the rhyth m ic v ita lity
and heightens th e sense of forw ard m otion, as show n in Figure 5-8.
Figure 5-8: Gigue of Bach's Cello Suite No. 2
Using the principles discussed so far, w e can derive an appropriate
tem po for the gigue from th a t o f the menuets. The beat of the m enuet
falls on the dotted half note, w hile th a t of the gigue falls on the dotted
quarter note. Thus, the pulse beat of the m enuet is three quarter
notes J J j , while th a t of gigue w ith three eighth notes
. More specifically, the quarter note pulse of the m enuets m atches the
121
eighth note pulse of the gigue; thus, the pulses remain the same in spite
of the d iffe re n t measurements o f th e ir beats. Therefore, the resulting
beat relationship between the tw o m ovem ents is 1:1. The form ula is
expressed as follow s:
tem po o f the menuet (132-1 52)

= tem po of the gigue (132-152 )
W ith this tem po range, I select th e fa s te s t tem po, d = 1 52, fo r the gigue,
considering its d istinct nature and Baroque tem po tendencies. In addition,
the gigue is preceded by m enuet I, w hose tem po has been determ ined to
be d = 1 32. Increasing the tem po o f the gigue w ith short and lig h t bow
strokes w ill not only create contrast betw een gigue and menuet I, but also
lend an im petuously vivacious and jo y fu l end to the Suite No. 2.
In sum mary, the tempo organization in the perform ance of Bach's
Suite No. 2 can be tabulated as fo llo w s :
Table 5-1. Tempo Organization o f Bach's Cello Suite #2
M ovem ent m e te r P roD ortional R atio Form ula

P relu d e 3 /4 J =76
A lle m a n d e C 1 :1 Prelude to A lle m a n d e J = 6 6 -7 6
C o u ra n te 3 /4 4 :3 A lle m a n d e to C o u ra n te 4 /3 x ( 6 6 - 7 6 ) = 8 8 - 1 0 1
S a ra b a n d e 3 /4 1 :2 C o u ra n te to S a ra b a n d e 1 /2 x ( 8 8 - 1 0 1 ) = 4 4 - 5 1
M enuet I 3 /4 2:1 A lle m a n d e to M e n u e ts 2 /1 x ( 6 6 - 7 6 ) = 1 3 2
M e n u e t II 3 /4 2:1 A lle m a n d e to M e n u e ts J =152

M enuet I 3 /4 2:1 A lle m a n d e to M e n u e ts J=132
G ig ue 3 /8 1:1 M e n u e ts to G ig u e 1/1 x(1 3 2 - 1 5 2 ) = 1 5 2
122
Through the incorporation of several aspects - the mood o f each
m ovem ent, texture, key, m etric structure, and proportional tempo - I have
dem onstrated th a t close tempo relationships exist between all m ovem ents
o f the Suite No. 2. I believe th a t similar relationships can be found in the
other suites, and perhaps even between the suites them selves. Through
this investigation of tem poral relationships, one can arrive at another level
of unity in the interpretation of the Suite No. 2 by relating the tem po o f
one m ovem ent to th a t of the other movements.
4. Tempo Selection by Contemporary Cellists
Tempo selection greatly affects the interpretation of a piece,
because it creates a fundam ental frame into w hich various m usical
elements are incorporated. It is inform ative to compare my tem po
selection fo r Bach's Suite No. 2 w ith those of contem porary cellists.
Indeed, playing tim e differs considerably w ith each perform er, as
measured by the metronome.
Before presenting the tem po selections of contem porary cellists, it
w ould also be w o rth w h ile to note Dim itry M arkevitch's suggestions fo r
the tempo fo r each m ovem ent18. He edited Bach's six suites in 1 9 6 4 and
arrived at his tem po selections through the consideration of M attheso n's
and Q uantz's theories. It w ill also be w o rthw h ile to compare M arkevitch's
tem po selections w ith my own.
Table 5-2. A comparison w ith M arkevitch's tempo selection
D im it r y M a r k e v itc h M v te m D O
Prelude
(J ) = 7 2 ( J ) = 76
Allemande j
( *1) = 63 (J ) = 66-76
Courante
(J
00
_
00
_1i
) = 112
II
o
Sarabande «
( J ) = 52 ( j ) = 44-51
Menuet 1
( J ) = 1 26 ( J ) = 132
Menuet II
(J )= 1 3 2 ( J ) = 152
( J.)1 = 51
Gigue
( J.) = 6 0
The tem po selections for Bach's Suite No. 2 by six contem porary
cellists are illustrated in Table 5-3.
124
Table 5-3. Tempi and Performance by Casals, Gendron,

Rostropovitch, Ma, Starker, and Bylsma
Pablo Casals (1 9 8 8 )19____________ Performance

Prelude (J ) = 4 2 ± 1 3' 46"
Allemande ( j )= 58 ± 1 3' 58"
Courante ( J )= 104 ± 1 2 ' 14"
Sarabande (J ) = 4 2 ± 1 4 ' 10"
M enuet 1 {J )= 104 ± 1 3' 21"
M enuet II (J )= 132 ± 1
Gigue ( j,) = 66 ± 1 2' 33"
Maurice Gendron (1994)20— Performance

Prelude ( j ) = 56 ± 1 3' 33"
Allemande ( J) = 6 0 ± 1 3' 36"
Courante (J >= 104 ± 1 1' 5 8 "

Sarabande (j ) = 4 4 ± 1 4' 37"
Menuet I ( J)= 1 20 ± 1 2' 5 9 "
Menuet II (J) = 132 ± 1
Gigue ( j.) = 50 ± 1 2' 4 7 "
M stislav Rostropovich (1995 )21 Performance

Prelude (J ) = 4 8 ± 1 4' 08"
Allemande ( J) = 7 6 ± 1 2' 4 9 "
Courante ( J) = 96 ± 1 2' 0 9 "
Sarabande ( j) = 4 0 ± 1 6' 0 7 "
M enuet I ( j ) = 100 ± 1 2' 78"

M enuet II ( j ) = 11 2 ± 1
CD
O
l+
Gigue 2' 4 4 "

II
125
Table 5-3. Tempi and Performance by Casals, Gendron,

R ostropovitch, Ma, Starker, and Byisma (continued)
Yo-Yo Ma (1 9 8 3 )22_______________ Performance

Prelude ( )=48 ± 1 3 ' 58"
Allemande ( ) = 69 ± 1 3' 06"
Courante ( ) = 1 16 ± 1 1 '4 3 "
Sarabande ( ) =42 ± 1 4 ' 37"
M enuet I ( ) = 1 28 ± 1 2' 59"
o>
CO
M enuet II II
It-
(
Gigue (J .) = 76 ± 1 2 ' 10"
Janos Starker (1 9 9 7 )24 Performance

Prelude ( i ) = 67 3 ' 50"
Allem ande (J ) = 56 4 ' 08"
Courante (< j ) = 106 2 ' 14"
Sarabande (j =46
Ul
o
O
(J
CM
in
00
M enuet I ) = 1 26
M enuet II (J ) = 136
Gigue (J,) = 63 2 ' 39"
Anner Bvlsma (1 9 9 2 )23 Performance

Prelude 3 ' 30
II
CD
Allemande 4 ' 42
O
II
Courante ( J ) = 108 1' 57

Sarabande ( J ) = 48 3 ' 34
M enuet I ( J ) = 108 3 ' 21
M enuet II ( «i) = n o
CO
CD
Gigue 2 ' 25
II
126
Some sim ilarities can be found in the approaches to tem po by
Casals and Gendron. In particular, Casals' tem pi o f the courante and
menuet II are identical to Gendron's. In the prelude, w hile Casals sustains
a dark, expressive intensity by lengthening the half notes, he allow s the
sixteenth note groups to move forw ard. As a result, the tem po of the
prelude is not rigid, but flo w s very freely. Gendron puts a long tenuto on
the strong beats in the prelude so that he can permeate the w o rk w ith
lyrical em otion. He, like Casals, is flexible w ith the tem po. M eanwhile, it
should be noted th a t Casals does not perform a m ovem ent or a section
w ith the same tempo tw ic e , but alters the tem po after the repeat. On the
other hand, the tempo o f the prelude performed by Rostropovich is the
same as th a t by Ma. Both o f them employ a slow tem po, successfully
bringing out the sadness and dark mood of the key of D m inor. These
slower tem pi allow an alm ost improvisational fle xib ility in tem po.
It is interesting to examine the tempo and performance by Bylsma
and by Starker. Bylsma is w ell-know n fo r an authentic interpretation of
Bach's w orks w ith respect to articulation, tone production, and bow ing.
His performance is characterized by a crisp, incisive, and light articulation,
employing a variety of bow strokes by applying varying w e ig h t and
pressure. On the contrary, Starker's performance is characterized by
w eighty bow strokes consistent throughout each m ovem ent. For
example, Bylsma plays the courante in a light and transparent manner
displaying a fa st rhythm ic figure, whereas Starker plays w ith w e ig h ty and
127
th ick bow strokes resulting in a strong and decisive tone production.
Byslm a's tem po selections fo r the prelude, the allemande, the courante,
and the sarabande are sim ilar to M arkevitch's and my o w n . H ow ever,
Bylsm a's tem po of menuet I is alm ost the same as th a t o f m enuet II.
Starker's tempo selections are sim ilar to Bylsma's, except fo r the m enuet.
Starker has chosen contrasting tem pi fo r menuet I and II, like M a rke vitch 's
and m y own.
Tempo selections by Casals, Gendron, Rostropovich, and Ma are
generally slow er than my ow n. In particular, the beginning tem po fo r the
D m inor prelude is quite slo w , probably to express e ffe ctive ly the som ber
and dark mood of this piece. It seems th a t the slow tem po is partially
explained by structural changes in the fittin g s of the instrum ent and in the
bow , both of w hich produce the modern sound ideal of the violoncello,
i.e., loud, penetrating, brilliant and rich in tone. Since this expanded
sound is projected well in a large hall, modern performers can convey their
em otions efficien tly w ith a p o w e rfu l and penetrating tone. Thus, fo r an
e ffe ctive performance of a s lo w m ovem ent containing lyric and som ber
melodies, the performers need to play slow ly, taking advantage o f the
w e ig h ty and full sound of the cello. In addition, the tem po of the
sarabande played by modern cellists is more or less slower than m y ow n
tem po and th a t of M arkevitch. They tend to perform this m ovem ent very
s o ftly and gently at a slow tem po, but also w ith a very intense em otion,
emphasizing the distinctive harm onic and melodic features of this
128
m ovem ent. Presumably, th e y assume the sarabande to be very sorrow ful.
S pecifica lly, Casals displays his keen musicianship w o n d e rfu lly w ith o u t
excessive bow ing m otion, w hile m aintaining the liveliness of long notes
perform ed at a slow tem po25. He also expresses intense personal feelings
by an im m oderately slo w tem po; however, such an a ttitu d e m ight not
e ffe c tiv e ly express the baroque characteristics o f Bach's m usic25.
Generally speaking, it appears that the modern cello, w ith its
greater and more colorful range o f tone, is more proper fo r enlivening the
dram atic expressiveness o f a slo w movem ent26. H ow ever, if a perform er
plays the same m ovem ent w ith a Baroque instrum ent in to o slow a tem po,
the listener m ight perceive the m ovem ent to be dragging due to the
m e llo w , w arm , soft, clear, and resonant tone of the older instrum ent.
The Baroque violoncello had the advantage of greater cla rity and ringing
resonance, as opposed to the modern cello's passionate energy and
sustaining pow er. This speculation is supported by the relatively faster
tem p o selections by M arkevitch and by myself, both of w hich were
derived from the consideration o f Baroque practice. M oreover, Bach
com posed the cello suites in consideration of dance choreography,
w hereas modern perform ers in terpret this music in the language of
instrum ental style27. Thus, it appears that too slow a tem po m ight pose
d iffic u ltie s fo r dancers in the Baroque period, whereas this is not a
problem fo r modern cellists.
129
On the other hand, m y tem po selection shares a characteristic w ith
th e modern cellists, in th a t there exists a similar contrast between the first
m enuet in the key o f the D m inor and the second m enuet in the key of the
D major. Each m ovem ent is depicted in d iffe re n t fashion: the first
m enuet, elegant and graceful, and the second m enuet, light and jo yfu l. As
a result, the firs t m enuet is slow er in tempo than the second one. There
exists a subtle difference between contem porary tem po selections and
th a t o f myself. M y tem pi for the tw o strains o f the m enuet are faster
than modern tempi, thereby emphasizing rhythm ic v ita lity . In making this
determ ination, I considered the fa ct that the tem po o f the m enuet in
Bach's period was faste r than th a t of the courante w hose m elodic gesture
w as very quick. It is to be noted th a t my tem po of the m enuet is similar
to Q uantz' tempo, ( J ) = 160 29.
130
Notes to Chapter V
1. Harding, Rosamond E.M. Origins of M usical Times and Expression.
London: O xford University Press, 1938, Chapter 1, 28.
2. Donington, Robert. A Perform er's Guide to Baroque M usic. New York:
Charles Scribner's Sons, 1973, Chapter 18, 243-53.
3. Donington, Robert. The Interpretation of the Music of Early M usic.
New revised ed. New York: W . W . Norton & Company, 1992, Chapter
XL, 425-_433.
4. Cyr, M ary. Performing Baroque M usic. Hong Kong: Amadeus Press,
1992, Chapter 2, 29-45.
5. D onington, Robert. String Playing in Baroque M usic. London: Farber
M usic Ltd in association w ith Faber and Faber Ltd, 1 977, Chapter xii,
76-81.
6. Alexanian, Diran. Six Suites pour Violoncelle seul. Paris: Editions
Salabert, preface.
7. M arkevitch, Dim itry. Six Suites for Solo Cello by J. S. Bach.
Pennsylvania: Theodore Presser Company, 1964, preface.
8. Davis, Nathan J. The Baroque Violoncello and the Unaccompanied
Cello suites of J.S. Bach. B.W .V. 1 0 0 7 -1 0 1 2 . unpublished dissertation
fo r the Ph. D. degree of New York U niversity Press, 1986, 174.
9. Tortelier, Paul. J.S. Bach Six Suites fo r Solo Cello. Newly ed. Great
Britain: Stainer & Bell, preface.
131
1 0 .Newman, Anthony. Bach and the Baroque. New York: Pendragon
Press, 2nd ed., 1995, 24.
11.Boyden, David D. The H istory of Violin Playing from its O rigins to
1 76 1. New York: O xford U niversity Press, 1 990, 469.
12.VeiIhan, Jean-Claude, The Rules o f Musical Interpretation in the
Baroque Era (17th -1 8 th Centuries). Paris: Alphonse Leduc & Cie M usic
Publishers, 1977 and 1979, 76.
1 3 .Little, Meredith and Natalie Jenne. Dance and the M usic of J.S. Bach.
Bloom ington and Indianapolis: Indiana University Press, 1991, Chapter
7, 9 2 -11 4.
1 4 .Planer, John H. "S entim entality in the Performance of Absolute M usic:
Pablo Casals' Performance o f Saraband from Johann Sebastian Bach's
Suite No. 2 in D m inor for Unaccompanied Cello, s. 1 0 0 8 ", The m usical
Q uarterly. Vol. LXXIII/2, 1989.
1 5 .Ibid, p .236
1 6 .Ibid., Chapter 5, 62-83.
1 7 .Ibid.,76.
18 .Markevitch, Dimitry. Six Suites fo r Solo Cello by J. S. Bach.
Pennsylvania: Theodore Presser Company, 1964, preface.
1 9 .Casals, Pablo. EMI Records Ltd, 1988.
2 0 .Gendron, Maurice. A Division o f Polygram Records Inc. N ew York,
1994.
21 .Rostropovich, Mstislav. EMI Records Ltd, 1995.
2 2 .Yo-Yo Ma. CBS Records Inc., New York, 1983.
2 3 .A n n e r Bylsma. Am erican Academ y o f A rts and Letters. New York,
1992.
24. Janos Starker. BMG Entertainm ent. New York, 1 997 .
2 5 .S p itta , Philip. Johann Sebatian Bach. New York: Dover
26.D olm etsch Arnold, The Interpretation of the M usic o f the 17th and 18lh
Centuries. London: Oxford U niversity Press, 1946, 52.
2 7 .Ibid, p .2 4 2
Chapter VI : Conclusion
134
Leopold M ozart said, T im e is the soul o f m usic'. According to the
statem ent, tem po is not only one of the m ost fundam ental o f all musical
ingredients, but also a decisive factor in the interpretation of a musical
piece. In this study, I have analyzed the tem po practices o f the Baroque
period and investigated how the structural features of the violoncello and
bow influenced tem po, in an e ffo rt to provide a resource in reviving a
genuine tem po th a t has not been given to the music composed in th a t era.
Tempo practices in the Baroque period were found to be
trem endously confusing, because they were based upon different
principles and were used w ith am biguity and inconsistency. This
confusion was worsened by the interm ingling of different tem po practices.
For example, tem poral practices in the seventeenth century were
dom inated by the mensural notation inherited from Renaissance tempo
practice, w hich featured the tw o concepts of tactus and integer valor.
Confusion arose because there were too m any signs and sym bols from the
mensural notation and their definitions and usage varied considerably
among theorists.
Proportional notation involved a relationship between note values'.
This tem po practice, like mensural notation, was never system atic and its
tem poral meanings w ere also very confusing. Due to the overwhelm ing
intricacy and inconsistency, Baroque tem po practices gradually
disappeared around th e end of the seventeenth century and the modem
m eter system emerged. It is to be noted, how ever, that, w ith the
135
vanishing of proportions, fractional signs to o k modern meanings in th a t
the denom inator represented the m etrical unit while the num erator
indicated their number in a measure2. The concept of m eter-tem po
relationship to o k shape, assigning the num ber and the speed o f beats to
each m eter3.
A lth ough Baroque tempo practices were d iffe re n t in their principles,
they w ere not com pletely independent. They also contributed to the
emergence of the modern m etric system through their gradual
transform ation. For example, the connection between the denom inators
and integor valor (a heritage of the m ensural system) continued to be used
until the end of the eighteenth century2. Generally, the note values of
larger notes did not mean fast and those o f shorter notes did n o t im ply
slow . Furthermore, tem po was sig n ifica n tly influenced by m eter, because
m eter w as selected in order to match short or long values w ith com patible
denom inators2. Finally, fractional signs including 3/2, 3/4, and 3/8 , and
the sym bols C and , are still used in our modern m etric system .
In order to arrive at an authentic tem po fo r Bach's Cello Suite No.
2, I have adopted the proportional principle for the follow ing reasons.
First, it is likely th a t Bach used a traditional tem po system obsolete in his
tim e, because he did not give any tem po m arkings to the six cello suites,
despite the fa c t th a t tem po words w ere already available by the tim e he
com posed the suites. Second, Bach is know n to have emphasized a u n ity
in various musical elements, including tem po, in the six cello suites. In
136
particular, a u n ity in tem po was called for in polythem atic w o rk s such as
Bach suites2. One of the caveats, however, is th a t a d irect application o f
the proportional principle m ight result in a m athem atical, rath er than a
musical, tem po. Thus, based upon the fa ct th a t the suites were
composed as dance music, I have also taken into consideration the
characteristics of Baroque dance m ovem ents w hich reflected the tem po
trends o f the tim e.
Further research w ill be necessary in order to arrive at the proper
tempo th a t Bach intended. I think th a t Baroque dance choreography w ill
provide an interesting vie w p o in t for future approaches. Dance inspired the
instrum ental dance m usic in th a t the disciplines o f bow ing patterns and
rhythm s were in itia lly influenced by the accompaniment of dances3. Thus,
the tem pi of dance m usic have an inseparable relationship w ith the basic
concepts of its rhythm s, steps and m otions; specifically, one step unit in
choreography, com posed of tw o , three or four steps, corresponded to one
measure of m usic. The analytical symbols of the dance steps w ere also
related to m usic. Furthermore, it is notew orthy th a t Bach com posed his
suites under th e influence of dance elements, such as step p a tte rn s4.
This stu d y has attem pted to revive a Baroque tem po p ractice based
upon a Baroque principles and m usically relevant trad ition s. H ow ever,
comparing the resulting tempo w ith the tem pi em ployed by modern
cellists, I have noticed th a t they have interpreted Bach suite No. 2 w ith a
more subjective point of view . Modern perform ers have appeared to
137
choose a tem po w ith their own artistic perception and sensitive insight,
achieving creative interpretations of the piece. In th is regard, the
follow ing quote by Casals is notew orthy.
"The question of tempi is always decided by the intuition of the artist.
Composers are very grateful when the performer succeeds in realizing
through intuition their truest and deepest intentions, instead of following
blindly the written text, and this really proves how insufficient and vague are
the indications they can give us. What does matter is what we feel, and that
is what we have to express. With Bach, for instance, I knew that my duty
was to reject strongly the examples and the traditions around me, and to
persevere in search of my own way of feeling these works3.''
W ith this extrem ely liberal attitude to the interpretation o f a m usical piece,
Casals did not w a nt to confine him self w ith in the com poser's intention.
Each perform er is to be a re-creator of the original w ork, constructing his
or her ow n w orld of art.
It does not seem to be proper for a perform er to take one approach
over the other in choosing a tempo. Instead, I believe th a t tem po is a
m atter of the perform er's aesthetic views. Therefore, before playing a
musical w ork, a perform er should analyze a com position's m elodic,
harmonic, and rhythm ic schemes, and then determ ine the correct
138
approach to pursue in accordance w ith his or her own purpose. Tempo
should be selected to m anifest the unified beauty of a piece.
139
Notes to Chapter VI
ce n tu rie s. N ew York: Schirmer Books, 1 9 9 3 , 20.
2. Neumann, Frederick. "Changing tim es: M eter, Denomination, and
Tem po in M usic of the Seventeenth and Eighteenth Centuries",
H istorical Performance. Vol. VI/1 (spring, 1993).
3. Planer, John H. "S entim entality in the Performance o f Absolute Music:
Suite No. 2 in D minor for Unaccompanied Cello, s. 1008", The
m usical Q u a rte rly. Vol. LXXIII/2, 1989, 232.
4. Qureshi, Rifat Javed. "The Influence of Baroque dance on the
perform ance o f Johann Sebastian Bach's Six Suites a Violoncello
senza Basso", unpublished dissertation fo r the D .M .A ., Rice University,
1994.
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Donington, Robert. String Playing in Baroque M usic. London: Farber M usic
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Harding, Rosamond E.M. Origins of Musical Tim es and Expression.
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144
Suite No. 2 in D m inor fo r Unaccompanied Cello, s. 1 0 0 8 ", The Musical
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S pitta, Philip. Johann Sebatian Bach. New York: Dover Publications Inc.,
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Tortelier, Paul. J.S. Bach Six Suites for Solo Cello. N ew ly ed. Great
Britain: Stainer & Bell.
Veilhan, Jean-Claude. The Rules of Musical Interpretation in the Baroque
Era (17th -18th Centuries). Paris: Alphonse Leduc & Cie M usic Publishers,
1977 and 1979.
W inzenburger, W alter. "M eter and Tempo Indications in M usic of the Early
Baroque", Quarterly journal of th e Riemenschneider Bach In s titu te . Vol. Ill
/1 (January 1972)
146
Markevitch, Dimitry. Cello Story. New Jersey: Sum m y-Birchard Music.
1984.
Appendix : The Score of the Violoncello Suite No. 2 by J. S. Bach
PRELUDE
148
149
Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission
150
151
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Vita
The author, Yoonju Cho, has studied the cello w ith Jae-hong Kim,
Cheong-shim Baik, Bunny Ham pton, Toby Sachs, and Davis Raymond.
She graduated from Seoul Ye-w on A rts School and from Seoul A rts High
School. She subsequently attended Seoul National U niversity School of
Music fo r fo u r years and com pleted her B.A. in M usic in 198 8. Her M .A .
in cello w as at Seoul National U niversity Graduate School o f M usic. In
June o f 1 9 9 4 she received another M .A . in cello perform ance at San
Francisco C onservatory of M usic. In September of 1 9 9 4 she was
m atriculated fo r the Doctor of M usical A rts at U niversity o f W ashington
and in A pril o f 1997 o fficia lly attained doctoral candidacy.
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IN F O R M A T IO N T O U SE R S

The quality of this reproduction is dependent upon the quality of the

Oversize materials (e.g., maps, drawings, charts) are reproduced by

Photographs included in the original manuscript have been reproduced

A dissertation subm itted in partial fu lfillm e n t

Doctor o f M usical A rts

UMI Microform 9836154

This microform edition is protected against unauthorized

In presenting this dissertation in partial fu lfillm e n t o f the requirements for

A Study o f Baroque Tem po Practices

Chairperson o f the Supervisory Com m ittee

Tempo underwent significant changes during the Baroque period, and an

acceptable tem po remains elusive to modern m usicians because tem po

m arkings are rarely indicated in Baroque w orks. In order to choose a

proper tem po fo r the Cello Suite No. 2 by J. S. Bach, this study

the tim e have undergone various structural alterations in response to

changes in sound ideals, w hich greatly influenced tem po practice. The

suited fo r fast-tem po m ovem ents. In particular, the Baroque bow may

slow strokes of great pressure as opposed to the modern bow . Second,

s u ffic ie n t knowledge about Baroque tem po from tactus to Q uantz's

system is im portant in attaining an appropriate tem po, because tem po

o f d = 7 6 , and by using the tem po as a benchm ark by which the tem pi of

the remaining movements were calculated proportionally. In conclusion,

thro ugh the incorporation of several aspects - texture, key, m etric

relationships exist between all m ovem ents of the Suite No. 2.

List of F ig u re s................................................................................................ iii

Chapter I: In tro d u c tio n .................................................................................. 1

Chapter II: Development o f the Violoncello and the Bow

Chapter III : Tempo Practice in Baroque Era

2. Cut Time and Common Tim e.................................................................. 39

Chapter IV : General Characteristics o f Baroque Dance M ovem ents

1. Criteria fo r a Proper Tempo S e le c tio n .................................................. 98

3) Tempo Selections fo r the M o v e m e n ts ................................... 109

Chapter VI : C o nclu sion................................................................................... 133

B ib lio g ra p h y ........................................................................................................ 140

Figure 3-1. Im perfect breve subdivided into tw o s e m ib re v e s ............... 38

Table 3-1. The notation of tempus dim inutum .............................. 36

I w ishes to thank m y adviser Rajan Krishnasw am i fo r his

The musical tradition of a period can be described by the particular

Baroque period, tem po was generally tied to the conventions of

Renaissance notation and tem po practice2. Such a proportional tem p o

system is quite different from the modern concept of tempo.

Am ong Baroque composers, Johann Sebastian Bach is unique in

th a t he composed musical w orks em ploying traditional rules and

conventions, w hile m ost o f his contem poraries w illingly ignored and

in the eighteenth century1. In the Age of the Enlightenment, older

traditions in general as well as Bach's w orks in particular were alm ost

com pletely abandoned. Although his m usic was restored to popularity

during the nineteenth century, the original meaning and intent o f th e

Romantic-era tem po indications1. Therefore, it is very im portant fo r a

comprehend the differences in the concepts of tempo between th e

Baroque and the modern period.

O f all ingredients of musical perform ance, tempo is one o f the m o st

fundam ental and crucial elements in the successful interpretation of

m usic. However, an acceptable tem po remains elusive to m odern

m usicians because tem po m arkings are rarely indicated in m usical w o rks

only to interpret music but also to im provise it3. Thus, it is necessary fo r

modern performers to seek clues to the tem po and expressiveness o f a

Baroque piece while m aintaining the a rtistic style intended by the

o f tem po selection. A t the same tim e, th e y should also consider other

m usical practices unique to th e Baroque period. If the historical

background and performance practice o f the period are neglected, the

The fundamental aims of this study are to understand the m usical