Manufacture Of Urea

A REPORT SUBMITTED IN PARTIAL FULFILLMENT

OF THE REQUIRMENT FOR THE DEGREE OF

BACHLOR IN

CHEMICAL ENGINEERING

By

1. Heba Ramadan Mohammed

2. Haneen Mohammed Mahdi
3. Safa Ramadan Mohammed
4. Sarah Deia'a Khaleel
5. Mowafq Khalaf Suliman

Supervisor
Asst.Prof.Dr.Duraid F.A

University Of Tikrit

Department Of Chemical Engineering

2015
CONTENTS
Abstract

CHAPTER 1: Introduction PAGE NO.

1.1 Introduction 1
1.2 Physical Properties 2
1.3 Chemical Properties 3
1.4 Uses of Urea 4
1.5 Environmental Effects 5

1.5.1 Elimination Method 5

1.6 Urea Production Methods 7

1.6.1 Once- Through Urea Process 7
1.6.2 Partial recycle process 8
1.6.3 Stripping process based plants 9
1.7 Selection of the Process 13
1.8 Process Description 14

Chapter 2: Material Balance 19

2.1 Around Reactor 21

2.2 Around Stripper 23

2.3 Around Medium Pressure Decomposer 24

2.4 Around Low Pressure Decomposer 25

2.5 Around Vacuum Evaporator 27

2.6 Around Prilling Tower 28

Chapter 3: Energy Balance 32

3.1 Around Reactor 33

3.2 Around Stripper 35

3.3 Around Carbamate Condenser 37

3.4 Around Medium Pressure Decomposer 40

3.5 Around Low Pressure decomposer 42

3.6 Around Vacuum Evaporator 42

3.7 Around Prilling Tower 43

Chapter 4: Equipment Design 46

4.1 Reactor Design 48

4.1.1 Introduction 48

4.1.2 Thickness of Shell Design 49

4.1.3 Head Design 50

4.1.4 Piping Design 53

4.1.5 Sieve Plate Design 55

4.2 Carbamate Condenser Design 55

4.2.1 Introduction 55

4.2.2 Design Procedure 56

4.3 Low Pressure Decomposer Design 60

4.3.1 Introduction 60

4.3.2 Design Calculation 60

4.4 Vacuum Evaporator Design 62

4.4.1 Evaporation And Its Mechanism 62

4.4.2 Evaporator Types 63

4.4.3 Evaporator Selection 64

4.4.4 Design Calculation 64

4.5 Prilling Tower Design 71

4.5.1 Introduction 71

4.5.2 Material Of Construction 72

4.5.3 Design Calculation 72

Chapter 5:Process Control 76

5.1 Introduction 77

5.2 Control Objectives 77

5.3 Types Of Control System 78

5.4 Equipment Control 79

5.4.1 Around Reactor 79

5.4.2 Around Carbamate Condenser 81

5.4.3 Around Low Pressure Decomposer 82

5.4.4 Around Vacuum Evaporator 84

5.4.5 Around Prilling Tower 87

Chapter 6: Economy Cost 89

6.1 Introduction 90

6.2 Types Of Cost Involves In Manufacturing 90

6.3 Cost Calculation 90

Chapter 7: Safety Aspect 94

7.1 Introduction 95

7.2 Principle Of Protection And Prevention 96

7.3 Safety Precaution 96

7.4 List Of Safety equipment 97

7.5 Fire Hazards 98

Reference 99
Abstract

Urea in many ways the most convenient form of fixed nitrogen. It has

The highest nitrogen available in a solid fertilizer(46%). It is easy to

produce as prills or granules and easily transported in bulk or bags with

no explosive hazard. It leaves no salt residue after use in crops.

Its specific gravity 1.335, decomposes on boiling and it is fairly soluble in

water. The principle raw materials required for this purpose are NH3 and

CO2. Two reactions are involved in the manufacture of urea ,first ,

ammonium carbamate is formed under pressure by reaction between

CO2 and NH3.

CO2+NH3 NH2COONH4 ∆H= -37.4 kcal

The highly endothermic reaction is followed by an endothermic

Decomposition of ammonium carbamate.

NH2COONH4 NH2CONH2+H2O ∆H=+6.3 kcal

We selected snamprogetti ammonia stripping process for the

Manufacture of urea. The selected capacity of the plant 500,000 ton/year

Of urea producing 68055.56 kg/hr of( 98%) purity. Urea material and

Energy balance of the plant is done. Urea reactor, vacuum evaporator,

Carbamate condenser, low pressure decomposer and prilling tower are

Designed. The volume of reactor is calculated and found to be 119.97 m3

The length and diameter of the reactor are 17.65 m and 2.94 m
Respectively. The evaporator used is of climbing-film long-tube type.
 Chapter 1

Introduction
 1.1 Introduction

Urea is an organic compound with the chemical formula (CO(NH2)2 , the molecule

has two functional group joined by a carbonyl (C=O) functional group. Urea

scientific name (Carbonyl di amide); it is composed of 45% (N2), 20% ( C )

26% (O2) and 9% (H2) it has the highest nitrogenous fertilizer in common use

Therefore it being the preferred nitrogen fertilizer worldwide. It is used in solid

Fertilizer, liquid fertilizer, formaldehyde resins and adhesives. Roulle first

Discovered urea in urine in 1773. His discovery followed by the synthesis of urea

from ammonia and cyanic acid by Wӧhler in 1828. This is considered to be the

first synthesis of an organic compound from inorganic compound. In 1870

Bassarow produced urea by heating ammonium carbamate in a sealed tube in

What was the first synthesis of urea by dehydration. Urea is produced worldwide

On a large scale and its production volume exceeds 150*106 ton/year in 2010.

At the present urea is produced on an industrial scale exclusively by reactions

based on NH3 and CO2 as the raw material.

1
1.2 Physical Properties
Urea is a white odorless solid. Due to extensive hydrogen bonding with water ( up to

Six hydrogen bonds may form – two from the oxygen atom and one from each hydrogen)

Urea is very soluble.

Table 1.1 physical properties of urea

Cas number 57-13-6

Molecular weight 60.07

Melting point (C˚) 132.7

Boiling point(C˚) 135

3
Density(gm/cm ),solid 1.335

Bulkdensity( gm/cm3 ) 0.74

Viscosity ,v20 (mpa. Sec) 1.9

Heat of fusion (J/gm) 251

Heat of solutioninwater (J/gm) 243

Specificheat ,S0(KJ/kg. Co) 1.439

Specific gravity 1.335

Vapor pressure
<10
(pa)
o
Solubility inwater 108 (20C )
o
(g/100ml) 167(40C )
o
251 (60C )
o
400 (80C )
o
733(100C )

Table1.1physical properties of urea

2
1.3 Chemical Properties

 Urea decomposes to ammonia, biuret, ammelide and triuret at atmospheric

Pressure and it's melting point.

 Urea acts as a mono basic and forms salts with acids. Such as with Nitric acid
To form urea nitrate CO(NH2)2.HNO3 .

 Urea reacts with NOx, both in gas phase at (800—1150) . And in liquid phase
At lower temperature to form N2,CO2 and H2O. This reaction used industrially
To remove NOx from combustion gasses.

 Urea reacts with formaldehyde under acidic conditions to form methylene

Urea and it's derivative ( dimethylene, trimethylene, etc) which are used as
Slow released fertilizer.

 Urea is similar to the amids in the possibility of decomposition by dilution

Acids, alkaline or water vapor above temperature of 150 .
NH2CONH2+H2O 2NH3+CO2

3
1.4 Uses of Urea

 More than 90% of urea world production is destined for use as a fertilizer

 A raw material for the manufacture of plastics, to be specific,

Urea – formaldehyde resin.

 A raw material for the manufacture of various glues ( urea—formaldehyde

Or urea melamine—formaldehyde); the latter is waterproof and is used
For marine plywood.

 A flame—proofing agent ( commonly used in dry chemical fire extinguishers

As urea potassium bicarbonate).

 A reactant in some ready-to-use cold compressors for first-aid use, due to

The endothermic reaction it creates when mixed with water.

 A cloud seeding agent, along with salts, to expedite the condensation of water
In clouds, producing precipitation .

 Feed for hydrolyzation into ammonia which in turn is used to reduce emissions
From power plants and combustion engines.

4
1.5 Environmental Effect
The chemical fertilizer one of the most important factors that has helped to improve

The agricultural production, but ammonia, CO2 and urea releases from process

Have a negative influence on the environment, because nitrogen fertilizers break

Down into nitrates and travel easily through the soil. Because it is water-soluble

And can remain in groundwater for a long time, besides their emissions to air

And water. Urea, contributes to acid rain, groundwater contamination and ozone

Depletion due to release of nitrous oxide by denitrification process. In general

There are four types of emission estimation techniques (ETTs) that may be used

To estimate emissions from the facility. The four types are:

 Sampling or direct measurement

 Mass balance
 Fuel analysis or other engineering calculations
 Emission factor

1.5.1 Elimination Methods

Presently plants are equipped with the following features to keep the effluent and

Emissions at extremely low levels:

 N/C ratio meter

 Waste water treatment section
 Absorbers
 Special operational facilities

N/C ratio meter in the synthesis section

Instead of using spectrometer in the gas phase of the synthesis section

Nitrogen/Carbon (N/C) ratio meters are installed in the liquid phase (reactor

Liquid outlet) of the urea synthesis section. This N/C ratio meter allows the

Process at all times to be operated at the optimum ratio to achieve higher reactor

5
Efficiency combined with higher energy efficiency. Special procedures are used to

Eliminate emissions during start –up.

Waste water treatment section

The purpose of the process water treatment is to remove ammonia, carbon dioxide

And urea from the process condensate. This water is usually discharged from the urea

Concentration and evaporation section of plant. Removal of ammonia and urea from

Wastewater can be a problem as it is difficult to remove one in the presence of other

One method used to overcome this problem is the hydrolysis of urea to ammonium

Carbamate, which is decomposed to NH3 and CO2. These gasses can be then stripped

From the wastewater. This recovered water can be used for a variety purpose

Depending on the required quality such as cooling water, etc.

Absorbers

Absorbers are used to eliminate emissions to the atmosphere, can be classified as

1. The vent from the synthesis section of the plant: ammonia is washed out with

A large flow of low concentrated and cooled process water and secondly the

Remaining ammonia is absorbed in cooled condensate or clean waste water.

2. The vent from the low pressure section of the plant: the ammonia and carbon
Dioxide present in the off gases of the recirculation system, the process water

Treatment system are washed out in an atmospheric absorber where large

Amounts of cooled low concentrated process water are used to absorb all ammonia

Present in the said off gases .

6
1.6 Urea Production Method
Several processes are used to urea manufacturing. Some of them are used conventional

Technologies and others use modern technologies to achieve high efficiency. These

Process had several comparable advantage and disadvantage based on capital cost,

Maintenance cost, energy cost, efficiency and product quality. Some of the widely

Used urea production processes are.

1.6.1 Once-Through Urea Process

It is a conventional process in which the unconverted carbamate is decomposed to NH3

And CO2 by heating the urea synthesis reactant effluent mixture at low pressure. The

NH3 and CO2 is separated from the urea solution and utilized to produce ammonium

Salts by absorbing NH3.

Advantage

 Simple process

Disadvantage

 Large quantity of ammonia salt formed as a co product

 Overall carbon dioxide conversion is low
 High production cost
 High energy cost
 High environment pollution

7
 Figure 1.1 Typical once-through urea process

1.6.2 Partial Recycle Process

 Part of the off gas is recycled back to the reactor

 The amount of ammonia is reduced to 15% to that of once-through

that must be used in other process

 High CO2 conversion

 High energy cost

 High environmental pollution

 High production cost

8
 Figure 1.2 Typical partial recycle urea process

1.6.3 Stripping Process Based Plants (Internal carbamate recycle)

The unreacted carbamate and the excess ammonia are stripped from the urea
Synthesis reactor effluent by means of gaseous CO2 or NH3 at the reactor
Pressure, instead of letting the reactor effluent down to a much lower
Pressure. The NH3 and CO2 gas recovered at reactor pressure, is condensed
And returned to the reactor by gravity flow for recovery.

Snamprogetti Process (Italy)

 Synthesis and high pressure (HP) recovery (154 bar)

 Medium pressure (MD) purification and recovery (18 bar)
 Low pressure (LP) purification and recovery (4.5 bar)

9
  Vacuum concentration ( 2 steps: 0.3 and 0.03 )
 Process condensate process
 Finishing: prilling and granulation

Figure 1.3 Snamprogetti urea process

Stamicarbon CO2 Stripping Process :

NH3 and CO2 are converted to urea via ammonium carbamate at a pressure of

140 bar and a temperature of 180−185 C°, an NH3:CO2 molar ratio of 3:1 is

Applied. The greater part of the unconverted carbamate is decomposed in the

Stripper, where ammonia and carbon dioxide are stripped off using CO2 as

stripping agent. The stripped off NH3 and CO2 are then partially condensed and

recycled to the reactor. The heat evolved from this condensation is used to

10
produce 4.5 bar steam some of which can be used for heating purpose in the

downstream sections of the plant. The NH3 and CO2 in the stripper effluent are

vaporized in 4 bar decomposition stage and subsequently condensed to form

a carbamate solution. Further concentration of urea solution takes place in the

evaporation section, where 99.7% of urea melt is produced.

Figure 1.4 stamicarbon CO2 stripping process

ACES Process

ACES ( Advanced Process for Cost and Energy Saving ) process has been

developed by Toyo Engineering Corporation. Its synthesis section consists

11
of the reactor, stripper, two parallel carbamate condensers and a

scrubber all operated at 175 bar. The reactor is operated at 1900 C° and

an NH3:CO2 molar feed ratio of 4:1. Its consist of five main sections

 Synthesis section
 Purification section
 Concentration and prilling section
 Recovery section
 Process condensate treatment section

Figure 1.5 ACES urea process

12
1.7 Selection Of The Process
Snamprogetti ammonia-stripping urea process is selected because it involves a

High NH3:CO2 ratio in the reactor, ensuring the high conversion of carbamate

To urea. The highly efficient ammonia stripping operation drastically reduces

the recycling of carbamate and the size of equipment in the carbamate

decomposition. Snamprogetti differs from other methods in being based on

The use of excess ammonia to avoid corrosion as well as promote the

Decomposition of unconverted carbamate into urea. The success of any urea

manufacture process depens on how economically we can recycle carbamate

to the reactor.

NH2COONH4(s) 2NH3(g)+CO2(g) ∆H= +37.4 kcal/gmmol

This reaction involves increase in volume and absorption of heat. Thus this

Reaction will be favored by decrease in pressure and increase in temperature

Moreover decreasing the partial pressure of either of the products will also

favor the forward reaction. The process based on increase/decrease of partial

pressure of NH3 or CO2 is called stripping process. According to the above

equation we have:

K= (PNH3)2*(PCO2) [where, K= equilibrium constant]

The stripping is effected at synthesis pressure itself using CO2 or NH3 as

Stripping agent. If CO2 is selected, it is to be supplied to the decomposer

/stripper as in stamicarbon CO2 stripping process. While if NH3 , is to be

obtained from the system itself because excess NH3 is present in the reactor

as in snam's process. At a practical temperature K is constant so when (PNH3 )

is reduced to keep K constant, carbamate will reduce much faster by

13
decomposition as (PNH3 ) appear in the equilibrium equation with a power of

two. Selection of 1st decomposition should be in such a way that minimum

water evaporates because the recovered gases go along with the carbamate

to reactor again and if water enters reactor production will be effected

adversely due to hydrolysis of urea. So , stage wise decomposition of

carbamate is done.

1.8 Process Description

The urea production process takes place through the following main

Operations:

 Urea synthesis and high pressure recovery

 Urea purification and low pressure recovery
 Urea concentration
 Urea prilling

Urea Synthesis And High Pressure Recovery

Urea is synthesized from liquid ammonia and gaseous carbon dioxide under

Specific concentration, temperature and pressure conditions according to

the following reaction:

NH3(g)+CO2(g) NH2COONH4(s) ∆H= − 37.64 kcal/gmmol

NH2COONH4(s) NH2CONH2(s) + H2O(l) ∆H= + 6.32 kcal/ gmmol

The carbon dioxide is drawn at about 1.6 atm pressure and about 40

Is compressed in a centrifugal compressor up to 162 atm. A small quantity

Of air is added to the CO2 compressor in order to passivate the stainless

Steel surfaces. Thus protecting them from corrosion due to both the

14
reagent and the reaction product. The liquid ammonia is drawn from

ammonia receiver tank where its compressed to 23 atm by means of

centrifugal pump. Part of this ammonia is sent to the medium pressure

absorber and remaining part enters the high pressure synthesis loop. The

NH3 of this synthesis loop is compressed to a pressure of about 240 atm

The liquid mixture of ammonia and carbamate enters the reactor where it

Reacts with the compressed CO2.

The reactor operates at 154 atm, NH3:CO2 molar feed ratio of 3:1 is applied

A portion of the ammonium carbamate formed from the reaction

Dehydrates. The fraction of carbamate that dehydrates is determined

By the ratios of various reactants, operating temperature, the residence

Time in the reactor and reaction temperature.

The 1st reaction occurs rapidly and is completed. The 2nd reaction occurs

Slowly and determines the reactor volume. Urea reactor is a plug flow type

With 10 number of sieve trays to avoid back mixing and escape of gaseous

CO2 which must react in the lower part of the reactor. Stage wise

Decomposition is carried out to reduce water carry over to the reactor

Which could adversely affect conversion. Urea solution containing urea,

Carbamate, H2O and unconverted CO2 and NH3 enters the high pressure

Stripper Where the pressure is same as that of reactor. The mixture is

heated as it Flows down the falling film exchangers. The CO2 content of the

solution Is reduced by the stripping action of NH3 as it boils out of the

solution The carbamate decomposition heat is supplied by 24 atm steam.

The Overhead gases from the stripper and the recovered solution from the

15
MP absorber , all flow to high pressure carbamate condenser through

Mixer, where total mixture, except for a few inerts is condensed and

And recycle to reactor by means of carbamate ejector. Condensing the

Gases at high temperature and pressure permits the recovery permits the

Recovery of condensation in the production of steam at 4.5 atm in the high

Pressure carbamate condenser.

Urea Purification And Low Pressure Recovery :

Urea purification takes place in two stages at decreasing pressure as follow:

1st stage at 18 atm pressure , i.e. , MP decomposer

2nd stage at 4.5 atm pressure , i.e. , LP decomposer

1st stage purification and recovery stage at 18 atm:

It is falling film type MP decomposer. It is divided into 2 parts: top

Separator, where the released flash gases. The solution enters the tube

Bundle and decomposition section where the residual carbamate is

decomposed and heat is supplied by means of 24 atm steam condensate

flowin out of the stripper.

2nd Purification and recovery stage at 4.5 atm:

The solution leaving the bottom of MP decomposer is expanded at 4.5 atm

And enters the LP decomposer ( falling film type). This is divided into two

Parts: top separator where the released flash gases are removed before

the solution enters the bundle. Decomposition section where the last

residual carbamate are decomposed and the required heat is supplied by

means of steam saturated at 4.5 atm .

16
Urea Concentration

Next section is urea concentration and the objective is to reduce the water

Content as low as 1%. Vacuum concentrator of two stage is provided for

This purpose. The solution leaving the LP decomposer bottom with about

76% urea is sent to the 1st vacuum concentrator operating at a pressure of

0.23 atm. The mixed phase coming out enters the gas liquid separator,

where from the vapors are extracted by the 2st vacuum system. The

two concentrators are fed by saturated steam at 4.5 atm.

Urea Prilling

The molten urea leaving the 2nd vacuum separator is sent to the prilling

Bucket by means of a centrifugal pump. The urea coming out of the bucket

In the form of drops fall along the prilling tower and a countercurrent cold

Air flow causes its solidification. The solid prills to the bottom of the prilling

tower are sent through the screens to retain lumps only and then to belt

conveyor which carries the product to the automatic weighing machine and

to the urea storage section. Urea lumps by means of belt conveyor are

recycled to the underground tank, where they are dissolved.

17
 Figure 1.6 Snamprogetti Urea process

Figure 1.7 Snamprogetti Urea Process Block Diagram

18
Chapter2

Material
Balance

19
Material balance

Selected capacity 500,000 ton/year

No. of working days 300 day

Daily production 500,000/300=1666.667 ton/day

=69444.44 kg/hr

Composition of final products:

Urea : 98% (68055.56) kg/hr

Water : 1% (694.4444) kg/hr

Biuret : 1% (694.4444) kg/hr

Assumption: overall conversion to urea is assumed to be 95%

Main reactions:

1) CO2 + 2NH3 NH2COONH4

(44) (17) (78)

2) NH2COONH4 NH2CONH2 + H2o

(60) (18)

3) CO2 + 2NH3 NH2CONH2 + H2O (overall reaction)

Side reaction:

4)2NH2CONH2 NH2CONHCONH2 + NH3

(103)
20
 Input output= accumulation (general mass balance eqn.)

Input = output (accumulation=0)

Urea produced from reaction 4 = 694.4444*(2*60/103)=809.0615 kg/hr

Urea produced from reaction 2 = 809.0615+68055.56= 68864.62 kg/hr

NH3 produced from reaction 3 = 68864.62*(2*17/60)=39023.28 kg/hr

CO2 reacted from reaction 1 = (44/60)*68864.62= 50500.72 kg/hr

2.1 Reactor
Assuming 95% conversion of urea

NH3 input to the reactor = 39023.28/0.95 = 41077.14 kg/hr

CO2 input to the reactor = 50500.72/0.95 = 53158.65 kg/hr

Urea produced from reaction 3 in reactor = (60/40)*53158.65*0.95=68864.62

kg/hr

Urea converted to NH3 & Biuret in reaction 4 =68864.62 68055.56=809.0615

kg/hr

Biuret produced in reaction 4 in reactor = (103/2*60)*809.0615= 694.4444

kg/hr

Water produced in reaction 2 in reactor = (18/60)*68864.62= 20659.39 kg/hr

At reactor's exit (Urea=34%)

Flow rate of stream = 68055.56/0.34= 200163.4 kg/hr

NH3 reacted in reaction 1 = (2*17/60)*68864.62= 39023.28 kg/hr

NH3 produced in reaction 4 = (17/2*103)*809.0615 = 114.617 kg/hr

NH3 unreacted= NH3 input NH3 reacted + NH3 produced

= 41077.14 39023.28+114.617 = 2168.474 kg/hr

21
CO2 reacted in reaction 1 = (44/60)*68864.62= 50500.72 kg/hr

CO2 unreacted = CO2 input CO2 reacted

= 53158.65 50500.72= 2657.933 kg/hr

Flow rate of carbamate = Total flow rate of stream exit – (flow rate of
urea+CO2+NH3+Biuret+Water)

=200163.4 (68055.56+2657.933+2168.474+694.4444+20659.39)=10592
7.933 kg/hr

NH3=40177.14
kg/hr NH3=2168.474 kg/hr
Reactor

CO2=53158.68 CO2=2657.933 kg/hr

Kg/hr
Urea=68055.56 kg/hr
Carbamate=105927.6
Kg/hr Water=20659.39 kg/hr

Biuret=694.4444 kg/hr
Carbamate=105927.6 kg/hr
Figure 2.1 flow of materials
across reactor

Table 2.1 flow of material across reactor

Input Output
Flow rate Flow rate
Material Kg/hr % Kg/hr %

NH3 41077.4 43.589 2168.474 1.0833

CO2 53158.65 56.410 2657.933 1.3278
___ ___ 68055.56 34
Urea

Water ___ ___ 20659.39 10.321

Biuret ___ ___ 694.4444 0.3469

Carbamate 105927.6 100 105927.6 52.920

Total 200163.4 100 200163.4 100

22
2.2 Stripper
No reaction takes place in stripper. Only carbamate get recycled back to the

Reactor. Therefore, the amount of ammonia, NH3,CO2,Water & biuret in

the outlet stream of stripper will be the same as inlet stream.

Carbamate=84742.09 kg/hr

NH3=2168.474 kg/hr
CO2=2657.933 kg/hr
Stripper

Urea=68055.56 kg/hr
Water=20659.39 kg/hr
Biuret=694.444 kg/hr
Carbamate=105927.6 kg/hr
NH3=2168.474 kg/hr
CO2=2657.933 kg/hr

Urea=68055.56 kg/hr
Water=20659.39 kg/hr
Biuret=694.444 kg/hr
Carbamate=21185.52 kg/hr
Figure 2.1 flow of materials across stripper

23
 Table 2.2 flow of materials across stripper

Input Output
Flow rate Flow rate
Materials % Materials %
(kg/hr) (kg/hr)
Feed Bottom product
NH3 2168.474 1.0833 NH3 2168.474 1.8787

CO2 2657.933 1.3278 CO2 2657.933 2.3028

Urea 68055.56 34 Urea 68055.56 58.962

water 20659.39 10.321 Water 20659.39 17.899

Biuret 694.4444 0.346 Biuret 694.4444 0.6016

carbamate 105927.6 52.920 Carbamate 21185.52 18.354

Top product
carbamate 84742.02 100

Total 200163.4 100 200163.4 100

2.3 Medium Pressure Decomposer

The amount of ammonia,CO2,Biuret , Water and carbamate will be the same

As no Reaction takes place. 50% of ammonia&CO2 and 10% of carbamate are

Assumed to escape from the top of separator and the rest goes with the

bottom product.

24
 NH3=1084.237 kg/hr
CO2=1328.966 kg/hr
Carbamate=19066.67 kg/hr

NH3=2168.474 kg/hr

Medium pressure
decomposer
CO2=2657.933 kg/hr

Urea=68055.56 kg/hr
NH3=1084.237 kg/hr
Water=20659.39 kg/hr
CO2=1328.966 kg/hr
Biuret=694.444 kg/hr
Urea=68055.56 kg/hr
Carbamate=21185.552 kg/hr
Water=20659.39 kg/hr
Biuret=694.444 kg/hr
Carbamate=2118.552 kg/hr
Figure 2.3 flow of material across medium
pressure decomposer

Table 2.3 flow of materials across medium pressure decomposer

Input Output
Flow rate Flow rate
Materials % Materials %
(kg/hr) (kg/hr)
NH3 NH3 1084.237 1.154
2168.474 1.878

CO2 2657.933 2.302 CO2 1328.966 1.414

Urea 68055.56 72.444
Urea 68055.56 58.962
Water 20659.39 21.991
Water 20659.39 17.899
Biuret 694.4444 0.7392
Biuret 694.4444 0.6016 Carbamate 2118.552 2.255

Carbamate 21185.52 18.354 Total 1 93941.14 100

Losses
NH3 1084.237 5.0476
CO2 1328.966 6.1869
Carbamate 19066.97 88.765
Total 2 24180.17 100
Total 115421.3 100 115421.3 100

2.4 Low Pressure Decomposer

25
No reaction take place and the remaining NH3, CO2and Carbamate are
escaped from the top of .

NH3=1084.237 kg/hr
CO2=1328.966 kg/hr
Carbamate=2118.552bkg/hr

Low pressure decomposer

NH3=1084.237 kg/hr Urea=68055.56 kg/hr (76.11%)
CO2=1328.966 kg/hr Water=20659.39 kg/hr
Urea=68055.56 kg/hr Biuret=694.444 kg/hr
Water=20659.39 kg/hr
Biuret=694.444 kg/hr
Carbamate=2118.552 kg/hr

Figure 2.4 flow of materials across low

pressure decomposer

Table 2.4 flow of materials across low pressure decomposer

Input Output
Flow rate Flow rate
Materials % Materials %
(kg/hr) (kg/hr)
NH3 1084.237 1.154 Urea 68055.56 76.11

CO2 water 20659.39 23.106

1328.966 1.414
Urea 68055.56 72.44 Biuret 694.4444 0.776

Water 20659.39 21.99 Total1 89409.39 100

Biuret 694.4444 0.739 Losses
Carbamate 2118.552 2.255 NH3 1084.237 23.925
CO2 1328.966 29.325
Carbamate 2118.552 46.749
Total 2 4531.755 100
Total 93914.14 100 93914.14 100

26
2.5 Vacuum Evaporator
Total output from low pressure decomposer = 89409.39 kg/hr

Let

X mass fraction of urea in feed(F) =0.7611

Y mass fraction of feed in product(P) =0.9788

E water losses in vacuum evaporator

Urea balance

Input=output

F*X=P*Y P=(F*X)/Y

P=(89409.39*0.7611)/0.9788 =69523.38 kg/hr

Overall material balance

F=P+E E=F P

E=89409.39 19886.01=19886.01 kg/hr

Water=19886.01 kg/hr

Urea=68055.56 kg/hr (76.11%)

Vacuum evaporator

Water=20659.39 kg/hr
Biuret=694.444 kg/hr

Urea=68055.56 kg/hr (97.88%)

Water=773.37 kg/hr
Biuret=694.4444 kg/hr
Figure 2.5 flow of material across
vacuum evaporator

27
 Table 2.5 flow of materials across vacuum evaporator

Input Output
Flow rate Flow rate
Materials % Materials %
(kg/hr) (kg/hr)
Urea 68055.56 76.11 Urea 68055.56 97.88
Water 20659.39 23.106 Water 773.378 1.112
Biuret 694.4444 0.776 Biuret 694.4444 0.998
Losses
Water 19886.01 100

Total 89409.39 100 89409.39 100

2.6 Prilling Tower

Output from vacuum evaporator = 69523.38 kg/hr

Let

X mass fraction of urea in feed (F) =0.9788

Y mass fraction of urea in product(P) =0.979913

Urea balance

Input=output

P=(F*X)/Y P=(69523.38*0.9788)/0.979913 =69444.44 kg/hr

28
 Water=78.938 kg/hr
Air

Prilling tower
Air
Urea=68055.56 kg/hr (97.88%)
Water=773.37 kg/hr

Biuret=694.4444 kg/hr

Urea=68055.56 kg/hr (98%)

Figure 2.6 flow of materials across Water=694.4406 kg/hr
prilling tower
Biuret=694.4444 kg/hr

Table 2.6 flow of materials across prilling tower

Input Output
Flow rate Flow rate
Materials % Materials %
(kg/hr) (kg/hr)
Urea 97.88 Urea 68055.56 98
68055.56
Water 773.378 1.112 Water 694.44 0.999

Biuret 694.4444 0.998 Biuret 694.4444 1

Losses
Water 78.938 100

Total 69523.38 100 69523.38 100

29
 Table 1.7 a: Process flow diagram of materials

1 1A 2 2A 3 4 4A
Item NH3 FEED Pumped NH3 CO2 feed Compressed Reactor Stripped Carbamate
Stream no. CO2 outlet carbamate condenser

component
Mass flow rate of component (kg/hr)

41077.14 41077.14 ___ ___ 2168.474 ___ ___

NH3 (43.589%) (43.589%) (1.0833%)

___ ___ 53158.68 53158.68 2657.933 ___ ___

CO2 (56.410%) (56.410%) (1.327%)

68055.56
___ ___ ___ ___ (34%) ___ ___
UREA

20659.39
___ ___ ___ ___ (10.321%) ___ ___
WATER

694.4444
BIURET ___ ___ ___ ___ (0.3649%) ___ ___

CARBAMATE 105927.6
105927.6 105927.6
___ ___ ___ ___ (52.920%) (100%) (100%)

Temperature 40 180
40 40 40 185 185

Pressure
23 240 1.6 162 154 154 4.5

30
 Table 1.7 b: Process flow diagram of materials
5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 17 15 16
Item Stripper MPD MPD LPD LPD Pumped Evaporator Evaporated Pumped Air Prilling H2O(v)+
Stream no. outlet outlet1 outlet2 Outlet1 outlet2 LPD outlet water Evaporator feed outlet Air
outlet
443951.6 78.938
component
(100%) (100%)
2168.474 1084.237 1084.237 ___ 1084.237 ___ ___ ___ ___ ___ ___ ___
Mass flow rate of component(kg/hr)

NH3
(1.878%) (5.047%) (1.154%) (23.925%)

CO2 2657.933 1328.9661328.966 ___ 1328.966 ___ ___ ___ ___ ___ ___ ___
(2.302%) (6.186%) (1.414%) (29.325%)

UREA 68055.56 ___ 68055.56 68055.56 68055.56 68055.56 ___ 68055.56 ___ 68055.56 ___
___
(58.96%) (72.44%) (76.11%) (76.116%) (97.88%) (97.888%) (98%)

20659.39 ___ 20659.39 68055.56 ___ 20659.39 773.378519886.01773.3785 ___ 694.440 ___
WATER (21.991%) (23.106%) (23.106%) (1.112%) (100%) (1.112%) (0.999%)
(17.889%)

694.4444 ___ 694.4444694.4444 ___ 694.4444 694.4444 ___ 694.4444 ___ 694.4444 ___
BIURET (0.601%) (0.739%) (0.776%) (0.776%) (0.988%) (0.988%) (1%)

Carbamate 21185.52 19067.97 2118.552 ___ 2118.522 ___ ___ ___ ___ ___ ___ ___
(18.354%)(88.765%) (2.55%) (46.749%)

Temperature 185 140 140 80 80 85 27 27 23.77 20 30 30

(C˚)
Pressure
(atm) 154 18 18 4.5 4.5 4.5 0.03 0.03 0.03 1 1 1

31
Chapter 3

Energy
Balance
32
Assumption : reference temperature =25

Heat in +Generated= Heat out + Consumed ( conservation law of energy)

Table 3.1 specific heat constant

Speciefic Heat Constant

Component a b *10-2 c*10-5 d *10-7

NH3(gas) 8.4017 0.70601 0.10567 −0.01598

NH3( liquid) 4.6356 ___ ___ ___

CO2 (gas) 6.393 1.01 − 0.3405 ___

Urea 38.43 4.98 0.705 −8.61

Water 7.88 0.32 ___ −4.833

Carbamate 2.596 ___ ___ ___

Biuret 183.8 ___ ___ ___

3.1 Reactor

2NH3+CO2 NH2CONH2+H2O (main reaction)

∆H298°=∑(ni ∆Hf)p –(ni ∆Hf)R

∆Hf(urea)= −333.6 KJ/gm mol , ∆Hf(NH3)=−46.16 KJ/gm mol

∆Hf(CO2)= −393.5 KJ/gm mol , ∆Hf(H2O)= −285.84 KJ/gm mol

∆H298°= (-333.6+(-285.84)−((2*-46.16)+(-393.6))= −133.62 KJ/gm mol

Moles of urea formed during the reaction=68055.56/60=1134.259

kmole/hr =1134259 gmmol/hr

∆H298°=−133.62 KJ/ gmmol*1134259gm mole/hr = −151559722.2 KJ/hr

33
Inlet stream

∆HR°=mi where (Tin= ,Tref=25 )

Material specific heat(KJ/kg) flow rate(kg/hr)

NH3 −69.534 40177.14

CO2 −9.01033 53158.65

∆HR°=(−69.534*40177.14−9.01033 *53158.65) = −3335235 KJ/hr

Outlet stream

∆HP°=mi where (Tout=180 , Tref=25 )

Materials Specific heat (KJ/kg) Flow rate(kg/hr)

UREA 121.7623 68055.56

WATER 292.7034 20659.39

∆HP° =(121.7623 *68055.56 +292.7034*20659.39 ) = 14333675 KJ/hr

∆H = ∆H298° + ∆HP°+ ∆HR°

=−151559722.2--3335235 +14333675 =−140561282 kJ/hr

Q=∆H =−140561282 KJ/hr

Assumption : cooling water at 25 Co is used to remove heat from reactor.

The outlet is steam at an absolute pressure of 4.5 bar (Ts=147.9 Co).

Heat gained by cooling water = 140561282 KJ/hr

M(cp∆T+ )= 140561282 KJ/hr

=2120.8 KJ/kg from steam table & by interpolation

Cp=4.187 KJ/kg , ∆T=Ts−T Ts=147.9 , T=25

M(4.187*(147.9−25)+2120.8)= 140561282

M= 53336.2 kg/hr

34
 180 C˚

Feed

Reactor
Product
Q in= 3335235 KJ/hr Q out = 140561282 KJ/hr
M in=200163.4 kg/hr M out= 200163.4 kg/hr
Tin=40 C˚ Tout =180 C˚

Figure 3.1 energy flow across reactor

3.2 Stripper
Total heat input=14333675 KJ/hr

Outlet stream

 Liquid

Q =mi
Materials specific heat(KJ/kmol ) flow rate(kmole/hr) mole fraction(x)

NH3 6009.302 2168.474/17=127.5573 0.046413

CO2 4801.186 2657.933/44=60.40756 0.02198

UREA 7607.734 68055.56/60=1134.259 0.41271

WATER 5443.803 20659.39/18=1147.744 0.417617

BIURET 29408 694.444/103=6.742179 0.002453

CARBAMATE 32398 21185.52/78=271.60 0.098827

TOTAL=2748.319

35
CP of mixture=∑Xi CPi

=(6009.302* 0.046413+ 4801.186 *0.02198+ 7607.734*

0.41271+5443.803 * 0.417617+ 29408* 0.002453+32398*0.098827)

= 9071.611 KJ/kmole

Heat carried by outlet stream=2748.319*9071.611=24931683 KJ/hr

 Vapor Stream: ammonium carbamate

material specific heat (KJ/kmole) flow rate(kmole/hr)

Carbamate 32398.08 1086.436

For carbamate =210 KJ/kg

Heat carried by carbamate= m*cp*∆T+ m*

=32398.08* 1086.436+ 84722.085*210= 52994311 KJ/hr

Here, steam at 24 atm is used(Ts=221.8 C)

of steam =1855.3 KJ/kg from steam table

Heat supplied by steam= heat output−heat input

M =(52994311+24931683 −14333675)= 52994311 KJ/hr

M= 63592318 kg/hr

36
 Carbamate
Q out=52994311 KJ/hr
M out=84742.02 kg/hr
T= 185 C˚ T = 185 C˚
Feed

Stripper
Q in=14333675 KJ/hr
M in= 200163.4 kg/hr
T in= 180 C˚
T = 185 C˚
Q out=24931683 KJ/hr
M out= 115421.38 kg/hr
product

Figure 3.2 energy flow across stripper

5.3 CARBAMATE CONDENSER

Energy balance

Mv v=ms Cp *(Ts−25)+ms s

Where V : vapor of carbamate , S: steam

Putting the values we get

105927.6*210=ms[4.187x (147.9−25)+2120.8]

Ms =8440.824 kg/hr

Carbamate vapor

Carbamate liquid
=105927.6 kg/hr

25 C˚ 147.9 C˚
Water Steam
Figure 3.3 energy flow across carbamate condenser

37
5.4 MEDIUM PRESSURE Decomposer
Heat input=24931683 KJ/hr

Outlet stream

 Liquid

Q =mi

Material cp(KJ/kmol) flow rate(kmol/hr) mole fraction(x)

NH3 4241.15 63.77865 0.026465

CO2 3348.267 30.20378 0.012533

Urea 5068.511 1134.259 0.470669

Water 3879.049 1147.744 0.476264

Biuret 19655.8 6.742179 0.002798

Carbamate 23286.12 27.16092 0.011271

Total =2409.888

Cp of mixture=∑Xi Cpi

=(4241.15*0.026465+ 3348.267 * 0.012533+ 5068.511*0.470669+

3879.049 * 0.476264+ 19655.8* 0.002798+23286.12* 0.011271)

= 4704.691 KJ/kmol

Heat output=4704.691*2409.888=11337780 KJ/hr

 For Gasses Escaping From The Top

Material cp(KJ/kmole) flow rate(kmole/hr) mole fraction(x)

NH3 4241.15 63.77865 0.188454

CO2 3348.267 30.20378 0.089247

Carbamate 23286.12 244.4483 0.722299

38
Cp of mixture=∑Xi Cpi

=(4241.15*0.188454+ 3348.267* 0.089247+23286.12*0.722299)

= 17917.63 KJ/kmole

Material (KJ/kmole) flow rate(kmole/hr) mole fraction(x)

NH3 22777 63.77865 0.188454

CO2 20265 30.20378 0.089247

Carbamate 16380 244.4483 0.722299

Total = 338.4308

of mixture=∑Xi i

=(0.188454*22777+0.089247*20265+16380*0.722299)

= 17932.26 KJ/kmole

Heat escaping from the top =m(cp*∆T+ )

=338.4308(17917.63 +17932.26)= 12132708 KJ/hr

Assumption: cooling water enters at 25 & leaves at 50

Heat gained by cooling water =heat input−heat output

=(24931683−12132708 −11337780)= 1461196 KJ/hr

M*cp* ∆T=1461196

M=1461196 /(4.184*25)= 13969.37 Kg/hr

39
 Off-gases
Q out=12132708 KJ/hr
M out =24180.17 kg/hr
T=140 C˚ T=140 C˚

Medium pressure
Feed

decomposer
Q in=24931683 KJ/hr
M in=115421.3 kg/hr
T in= 185 C˚ T=140 C˚
Q out=11337780 KJ/hr
M out=93941.14 kg/hr
Products
Figure 3.4 energy flow across medium
pressure separator

5.5 Low Pressure Decomposer

Heat input=11337780 KJ/hr

Outlet stream

 liquid
Q =mi

Material Cp (KJ/kmole ) flow rate(kmole/hr) mole fraction(x)

UREA 2226.101 1134.259 0.495581

WATER 1833.484 1147.744 0.501473

Biuret 8195 6.742179 0.002946

Total = 2288.745

Cp of mixture=∑Xi*Cpi

40
 =(2226.101*0.495581+1833.484 * 0.501473+ 8195*0.002946)

=2046.797 KJ/kmole

Heat output= 4684597 KJ/hr

 For gasses escaping from the top

Material Cp(KJ/kmole) flow rate(kmole/hr) mole fraction(x)

NH3 1978.934 63.77865 0.526473

CO2 1534.283 30.20378 0.249323

Carbamate 11136.84 27.16092 0.224202

Total =121.1434

Cp of mixture=∑Xi*Cpi

=(1978.934* 0.526473+ 1534.283*0.249323+11136.84*0.224202)

= 3919.077 KJ/kmole

Material (KJ/kmole) flow rate(kmole/hr) mole fraction(x)

NH3 1851 63.77865 0.526473

CO2 1566 30.20378 0.249323

Carbamate 16380 27.16092 0.224202

Total =121.1434

of mixture =∑Xi*Cpi

=(0.526473* 1851 + 0.249323*1566 +0.224202*16380 )

=5073.415 KJ/kmol

Heat escaping from the top =m(cp*∆T+ )

=121.1434(3919.077 +5073.415)= 1085019 KJ/hr

Assumption : cooling water enters at 25 C & leaves at 50C

Heat gained by cooling water=heat input−heat output

41
=(11337780−1085019−4684597)= 5568163 KJ/hr

M*cp ∆T=5568163 KJ/hr

M=5568163 /(4.187*25)= 5394.177 kg/hr

Off-gases
Q out=1085019 KJ/hr
M out=4531.755 kg/hr
T=80 C˚ T=80 C˚

Low pressure
decomposer
Feed

Q in=11337780 KJ/hr
Min= 93914.14 kg/hr
T=140 C˚
T=80 C˚
Q out=4684597 KJ/hr
M out=89409.39 kg/hr
Products
Figure 3.5 energy flow across low
pressure decomposer

4.6 Vacuum Evaporator

For product stream coming out from 1st evaporator

Material Cp(KJ/kmole) flow rate(kmole/hr) mole fraction(x)

Urea 2443.41 1134.259 0.750452

Water 2002.149 370.4335 0.245087

Biuret 8940 6.742179 0.004461

Total =1511.435

Cp of mixture=∑Xi*Cpi

=(2443.41*0.750452+2002.149 * 0.245087+ 8940* 0.004461) =2364.243

KJ/kmole

42
M*cp ∆T= 2364.243*1511.435 =3573399 KJ/hr

Heat balance
1st Evaporator

Heat input(by feed)+Heat input by steam=Heat carried by water vapor +

Energy of bottom product

Heat input by feed+ S1 s1= E1HE1 +energy of bottom product

4684597+ S1 * 2123.8= 13991.58*2614.97+3573399

S1= 16687.25 kg/hr

2nd Evaporator

Heat input(by feed)+Heat input by steam=Heat carried by water vapor

+Energy of bottom product

3573399+ S1 * 2123.8=5894.424*2545.7+2464.393 *1183.967

S2= 6756.660 kg/hr

E1=13991.58 kg/hr E2=5894.424 kg/hr

Feed
Tin=80 C˚ T=23.77 C˚
T=63.1 C˚
Q in=4684597 KJ/hr P=0.03 atm
M in=89409.39 kg/hr P=0.23 atm

steam
steam
T=147.9 C˚ T=147.9 C˚
P=4.5 atm P=4.5 atm
T=27.25 C˚
Q out2=2917759 KJ/hr
M out=89409.39 kg/hr
Product
P1=75417.8 kg/hr
(90.93%) urea
Q out1=3573399 KJ/hr
Figure 3.6 energy flow across vacuum evaporator

4.7 Prilling Tower

Heat input= energy of bottom product of evaporator=m*cp*∆T

43
=2464.393 *1183.967=2917759 KJ/hr

Outlet stream

Q =mi

Material Cp(KJ/kmol) flow rate(kmol/hr) mole fraction(x)

Urea 192.8017 1134.259 0.961578

Water 165.0169 38.58003 0.032707

Biuret 745 6.74217 0.005716

Total= 1179.581

Cp of mixture=∑Xi*Cpi

=( 192.8017*0.961578+ 165.0169*0.032707+745*0.005716)= 195.0492

KJ/kmole

Heat output=195.0492*1179.581=230076.4 KJ/hr

Heat carried away by air=heat input−heat output

= 2917759−230076.4 =2687683 KJ/hr

(m*cp*∆T)dry air=2687683 KJ/hr

Cp air=1.009 KJ/kg , ∆T=26−20=6 ,

M=2687683/(1.009*6)= 443951.6 kg/hr

44
 Air
Q out=2687683 KJ/hr
M out=443951.6 kg/hr
T out= 26 C˚

Prilling tower
Feed

Q in=2917759 KJ/hr Air

M in=69523.38 kg/hr T in= 20 C˚

T in= 27 C˚

T out= 30 C˚
Q out=230076.4 KJ/hr
M out=69444.44 kg/hr
Product
Figure 3.7 energy flow across prilling tower

45
 Chapter 5

Equipment
Design

46
4.1 Reactor Design

4.1.1 Introduction
The reactor is the heart of a chemical process. It is the only place in the

Process where raw materials are converted into products, and reactor

Design is a vital step in the overall design of the process. Design of the

reactor is no routine matter, and many alternative can be proposed for

a process. In searching for the optimum it is not just the cost of the

reactor that must be minimized. One design may have lower reactor cost

but the materials leaving the unit may be such that their treatment

requires a much higher cost than alternative designs. Hence, the

economics of the overall process must be considered. Reactor design

uses knowledge , information and experience from a variety of areas

such as chemical kinetics, thermodynamic, fluid mechanics , heat transfer

,mass transfer and economics. Chemical reaction engineering is the

Synthesis of all these factors with the aim of properly designing a

chemical to find what a reactor is able to do we need to know the

kinetics , the contacting pattern and the performance equation.

The selected reactor for this project is plug flow type with ten numbers of

sieve trays in a continuous process. The liquid mixture of NH3 and

carbamate and gaseous CO2 are fed to the reactor where they meet 180

temperature and 154 bar pressure and form ammonia carbamate.

This carbonates dehydrates and forms urea.

47
4.1.2 Residence Time And Volume

2NH3+CO2 NH2CONH2+H2O (main reaction)

Let Ca= NH3 , Cb= CO2 , CS= urea , Cd = water

Density of liquid NH3 = 618 kg/m3

Density of CO2 gas at 40 =277.38 kg/m3 (density=PMwt/RT,P=162 atm)

Density of carbamate=1600 kg/m3

So, NH3 flowing into the reactor =41077.14/618 =66.46786 m3/hr

CO2 flowing into the reactor =53158.65/277.38 =191.6456 m3/hr

Carbamate flowing into the reactor =105927.6/1600= 66.20475 m3/hr

Total flow rate into the reactor=66.46786+191.6456+66.20475=322.7663

m3/hr

=Cbo

Where, = Residence time

−rb= rate of the reaction

Cbo= initial concentration of the limiting reactant

CO2 is the limiting reactant= CB , Xb=0.65

b=(2−1/3)=1/3

−rb=K1 CA CB – K2 CS CD

CA=CAO− xb*CBO

CB=CBO(1−xb)/1+ *xb

CS=xb*CBO , CD=xb*CBO

−rb=K1* CBO2 (CAO/CBO –xb)(1–xb)/(1+1/3 *xb)−K2* CBO2 *xb2

CAO=7.322205 kmol/m3 , CBO=3.743114 kmol/m3

K1 & k2 from Arrhenius equation k=ko* exp(Ea/RT)

48
For k1 Ea1=139500 j/mol , ko1=2.07 *1010 1/s

For k2 Ea2=98500 j/mol , ko2=9*1011 1/s

At T=180+273=453 k , R=8.314 j/mol k

K1=1.6978E-06 , k2=3.944292121 1/s

Now , = 1/CBO * – –

Using Simpson's rule to solve the above equation we get

=22.30223 min = 0.371704 hr

Volume of reactor(V)= *Vo

Volume of reactor=0.371704 *322.7663= 119.9735 m3

Assuming L/D= 6

V= /4 D2 *6*D = 3 /2 D3 D=2.942308 m ,L=17.65385 m

4.1.3 Thickness Of Shell

Data available:

Temperature inside the reactor= 180

Pressure inside the reactor= 154 atm

Material of construction : low alloy carbon steel

Ts= (P Di/2J f –P ) +c

Ts : thickness of the shell ( m)

Di : internal diameter (m)

P : design pressure (N/m2)

F: Allowable stress= 1.05*108 N/m2

J: Joint factor =1

49
C: corrosion allowance (m)

Internal pressure= 154 atm = 1.56 *107 N/m2

Design pressure =(10% extra) = 1.1*1.56 *107= 1.716 *107 N/m2

Ts=( 1.716 *107 *2.942308 /2*1.05*108 *1−1.716 *107)+0.003

= 0.264827 m = 265 mm

4.1.4 Head Design

For ellipsoidal heads

Th = P *Di/(2*J*f −0.2*P)

=(1.716 *107*2.942308 /2*1.05*108 *1−0.2*1.716 *107)=0.2474264 m

=248 mm

4.1.5 Piping design for reactor

Input pipes:

Data available:

Input temperature for all material =40

Design stress(f)=135 N/mm2

For liquid ammonia (NH3)

Pressure 240 atm =24.312 N/mm2

Density 618 kg/m3

Mass rate 41077.14 kg/hr

Velocity (u) 2 m/s

50
Volumetric flow rate 0.0184633 m3/s

Cross sectional area 0.00923165 m2

ID 0.10844381 m=4.26944151 in

Pipe thickness 10.7310329 mm=0.42248161 in

From schedule No.=120

D (nominal) 5 in

ID 4.563 in

OD 5.563 in

Thickness 0.5 in

For CO2 (gas)

Pressure 162 atm =16.4106 N/mm2

Density 277.38 kg/m3

Mass rate 53158.68 kg/hr

Velocity(u) 20 m/s

Volumetric flow rate 0.05323491 m3/s

Cross sectional area 0.00266175 m2

ID 0.05823022 m=2.292842 in

Pipe thickness 3.76826823 mm=0.14835702 in

From schedule No.=80

D(nominal) 2.5 in

ID 2.323 in

OD 2.875 in

51
Thickness 0.276 in

For carbamate (liquid)

Pressure 240 atm=24.312 N/mm2

Density 1600 kg/m3

Mass rate 105927.6 kg/hr

Velocity (u) 20 m/s

Volumetric flow rate 0.01839021 m3/s

Cross sectional area 0.0091951 m2

ID 0.10822896 m=4.26098281 in

Pipe thickness 10.7097724 mm=0.42164458 in

From schedule No.=120

D(nominal) 5 in

ID 4.563 in

OD 5.563 in

Thickness 0.5 in

Output Pipe

Data available:

Temperature of the outlet materials =185

Design stress(f) =105 N/mm2

Phase : solution

Pressure 154 atm =15.6002 N/mm2

Density 1283.97 kg/m3

52
Mass rate 200163.4 kg/hr

Velocity(u) 2 m/s

Volumetric flow rate 0.04330393 m3/s

Cross sectional area 0.02165196 m2

ID 0.16607866 m=6.53852974 in

Pipe thickness 13.3274841 mm=0.5247041 in

From schedule No.=160

D(nominal) 8 in

ID 7.437 in

OD 8.625 in

Thickness 0.594 in

4.1.6 Sieve Plate Tray

The reactor consists of 10 number of sieve plate

Diameter of reactor(d)=2.9423 m

Total area of reactor(At) = /4 *(2.9423)2=6.795883 m2

Area of downcomer(Ad) = 0.1* At

Ad=0.1*6.795883= 0.6795883 m2

Active area(Aa)= At−2* Ad=5.4367 m2

Weir length(Lw)=0.75*d

Lw=0.75*2.9423=2.147885 m

Weir height(Hw)= 40 mm

Assuming hole diameter (ho)=12 mm

53
Mass of outlet solution =2000163.4 kg/hr = 55.600 kg/s

Density of outlet solution=1283.97 kg/m3

Assuming (mmin)=70% of mmax

mmin=0.7*55.600=38.92066 kg/s

maximum weir crest, HWC =750(mmax /Lw* )2/3

=750(55.600/2.147885*1283.97)2/3 =55.557 mm

minimum weir crest, HWC =750(mmin /Lw* )2/3

= 750(38.92066 /2.147885*1283.97)2/3=43.997 mm liquid height

The constant(k2)of weep point correlation =30.8 at HWC +Hw =40+43.997

=83.997 mm
1/2
U min =(k2−0.9(25.4−ho))/ =0.5229 m/s the minimum vapor velocity
at the weep point

Actual minimum vapor velocity at minimum vapor flow rate

= actual vapor flow rate/AH

=70% of Qmax/AH =0.7*(0.0433/0.815) =0.03717 m/s

The minimum operating velocity is above the weep point velocity

Perforated area(AP)=AA−ACZ−AES

ACZ: calming zone area

AES: area occupied by edge strip

Lw/d= 2.147885/2.9423=0.73 , =95°

Angle subtended by the chord(edge plate), = 180−95=85°

The unperforated edge strip(edge plate)mean length from the geometry

LES=(d−50*10-3)* ( /180), =(2.9423−50*10-3)* ( /180)=4.288

AES=50*10-3* LES , AES=0.2144 m2

LCZ= weir length(Lw)+width of un perforated edge strip

54
=2.147885+50*10-3=2.197 m

ACZ=2*(50*10-3* LCZ)=0.219 m2

AP=AA−ACZ−AES=5.4367−0.219−0.2144=3.019 m2

Take total hole area AH=0.15 AA=0.815 m2

AH= /4*dh2*Nh =0.815 dh: hole diameter

Number of holes(Nh)=7214

D=2.942 m
H=17.653 m

Ts=0.2648 m

Th = 0.248 m
Figure 4.1 reactor design

4.2 Carbamate Condenser

4.2.1 Introduction
A condenser is a type of heat exchanger in which vapors are transferred

55
Into liquid state by removing the latent heat with the help of a coolant

such as water. Condensers may classified into two main types

 Those in which the coolant and condensing vapor are brought into
Direct contact.
 Those in which the coolant and condensate stream are separated by
A solid surface, usually a tube wall.

Condenser Types
 Double pipe and multiple pipe
 Air-cooled condensers
 Compact condensers
 Shell and tube

4.2.2 Design Procedure

The selected type for this project is fixed shell and tube condenser : 1

Shell and 4 tube passes. Carbamate is the shell side and cooled

Water in the tube side.

Water physical properties at 86.45

Specific heat(Cp) =4.2 KJ/kg

Thermal conductivity (k)= 0.746 W/m K

Density =966 kg/m3

Viscosity( )= 3.2*10-4 Pa. sec

Carbamate physical properties at 185

Specific heat(Cp) =2.596 KJ/kg

Thermal conductivity (k)= 0.531 W/m K

Density =1600 kg/m3

Viscosity( )= 5*10-4 Pa. sec

56
Water Flow Rate

Mass flow rate of carbamate= 105927.6 kg/hr =29.42433 kg/sec

Q=m * , of carbamate= 210 KJ/kg

Q= 29.42433 * 210= 6179.11 KJ/sec

Q=m cp ∆T + m (for water) , m= 6179.11/(4.2*(147.9−25)+2120.8)

M= 2.343 kg/s

Mean temperature difference ∆Tm

T1=T2=185 , t1=25 , t2=147.9

∆Tlm= ((T1−t2)−(T2−t1))/ln((T1−t2)/ (T2−t1))

=((185−147.9)−(185−25))/ln((185−147.9)/ (185−25)) =84.088

Ft =1 , ∆Tm=∆Tlm* Ft

∆Tm=84.088*1= 84.088

Overall heat transfer coefficient assuming

Assuming Uo= 500 W/m2

Total area and number of tubes

A=Q*1000/Uo* ∆Tm

A=(6179.11*1000)/(500*84.088)= 146.967 m2

Choose do= 20 mm , di= 16 mm L= 4.88 m

Area of one tube = do L = * 20*10-3 * 4.88 =0.306464 m2

Number of tubes(Nt)= total area/area of one tube

= 146.967/0.306464 = 480

Shell side diameter

For a triangular pitch (1 shell pass and 4 tube passes)

57
Pt =1.25 do , n=2.285 , k= 0.175

Db= do(Nt/k)1/n , Db= 20(480/0.175)1/2.285 =639.31 mm

From split ring floating head

C=61 , Ds= Db+ C , Ds=700.3138 mm

Tube side heat transfer coefficient (hi)

Tmean = 25+147.9/2 = 86.45 C

At = /4 *di2 * Nt/Np , At= /4 *(16*0.001)2 *480/4 =0.024115 m2

Gt=Wt/At , Gt= 2.343/0.024115= 97.17648 kg/m2 sec

Ut =Gt/ , Ut=97.17648 /966=0.100597 m/s

hi=4200(1.35+0.02 tmean)Ut0.8/di0.2 =1182.775 w/m2

shell side heat transfer coefficient (ho)

As =(pt−do)/pt * LB* Ds , pt=1.25 do , LB= Ds/5

As=0.019618 m2

Gs =Ws/As ,Gs=29.42433/0.019618=1499.89 kg/m2 sec

De=1.1/do (pt2−0.917 do2) =1.1/20*(252−0.917*202)=14.201 mm

Re=Gs*de/ = 42600.05

Pr= cp * /k = 2.596*1000*5*10-4 /0.531 =2.444

Jh =0.0028

ho*de/k=jh*Re*Pr0.33 , ho=5990.226 W/m2

Dirt coefficients

hid= 5000 W/m2

hod=5000 W/m2

Calculated overall heat transfer coefficients(Uo)

58
1/Uo =1/ho+1/hod + do*ln(do/di))/2*kw+(1/hi+1/hid)*do/di

Kw=50 W/m K

1/Uo=0.001718

Uo =518.9354 W/m2

Ucal Uassume

Tube side pressure drop

For Re=4858.824 , Jf=5.9*10-3

∆Pt= Np*(8*jf*(L/di)+2.5)* ut2/2

∆Pt= 4(8*5.9*10-3*(4.88*1000/16)+2.5)* 966*(0.100597)2/2

∆Pt=330.3384 Pa =0.3303384 Kpa

Shell side pressure drop

For Re=42600.05 , jf=4*10-2

∆Ps=8*jf* (L/LB)*(Ds/de)*( us2/2)

∆Ps=8*4*10-2*(4.88/0.140063)*(700.3138/14.201)*(1600*(0.937)2/2)

∆Ps=386539 Pa =386.539 kpa

Since the pressure drop of shell is too high it can be reduced by

Increasing the baffle pitch, tripling the pitch reducing the shell side

Velocity, which reduces the pressure drop by a factor of approximately

(1/3)2

∆Ps=386.539/9=42.94878 kpa

This will reduce the shell side heat transfer coefficient by a factor of

(1/3)0.8

ho=5990.226 *(1/3)0.8 =2487.403 W/m2

This will give overall coefficient of 511 W/m2 still above the assumed
value of 500 W/m2 .
59
 L=4.88 m

Ds =0.7003 m

Figure 4.2 carbamate condenser

summery

4.3 Low Pressure Decomposer

4.3.1 Introduction
The purpose of this section is to further stripping of NH3, CO2 and the left

Carbamate . it is divided into 2 parts: top separator, where the released

Flash gases are condensed and recycled to the reactor before the

Solution enters the tube bundle, where the last carbamate is

Decomposed and required heat is supplied by means of steam saturated

At 4.5 atm.

4.3.2 Design Calculation

Density of urea=1230 kg/m3

Density of biuret=1467 kg/m3

Density of water= 1000 kg/m3

Density of liquid( )=(0.7611*1230+0.00776*1467+0.231*1000)

=1178.696 kg/m3

Density of NH3(gas)= P*Mwt/R*T=(4.5*17)/(0.082*353)=2.64 kg/m3

Density of CO2(gas)= P*Mwt/R*T=(4.5*44)/(0.082*353)=6.8 kg/m3

60
Density of carbamate= P*Mwt/R*T=4.5*78/(0.082*353)=12.126 kg/m3

Density of gases( )=2.64+6.8+12.126=21.526 kg/m3

Mass flow rate of gases=4531.755 kg/hr

Qv = mass flow rate of gases/ density of gases( )= 4531.755/21.526

=75.854 m3/hr=0.0210 m3/sec

Mass flow rate of liquid=89409.39 kg/hr

QL=89409.39 /1178.696 =210.524 m3/hr=0.0584 m3/sec

Ut= 0.07*( − )/ )1/2=0.07*(1178.696−21.526/21.526)1/2=0.513m/sec

Without demister

Uv=0.15 ut , Uv=0.0769 m/sec

Dv=(4*Qv/ * Uv)=0.983 m

A=Qv/uv= 0.0210/0.0769=0.7596 m2

Setting time=10 min=600 sec

Volume held in the vessel=600* 0.0584=35.087 m3

Liquid height (HL)=V/A=35.087/ 0.7596=16.643 m

Feed height (Hf)=0.5* Dv=0.491 m

Vapor or gas height(Hv)= Dv=0.983 m

Total height=0.983 + 0.491+16.643=18.8711 m

Wall thickness of vessel

T=P*Di/2*J*f−P

Where

P: design pressure

D: diameter of vessel

J: welding joint factor

61
F: design stress

Operating pressure(P)=4.5 atm

D=938 mm

Design pressure(Pd)=1.2*P=5.472 bar=0.5472 N/mm2

F=125 N/mm2

T=( 0.5472 *983)/(2*125*1−0.5472) =2.157 mm

Dv=0.983 m

H=18.87 m

T=0.0215 m
Figure 4.3 low pressure decomposer
design summery

4.4 Evaporator Design

5.2.1 Evaporation And Its Mechanism

The objective of evaporation is to concentrate a solution containing the

Desired product or to recover the solvent. Sometimes both may be

Accomplished. Evaporator design consists of three principal elements

Heat transfer, vapor-liquid separation and efficient utilization of energy

In most cases the solvent is water , heat is supplied by condensing steam

And the heat is transferred by indirect heat transfer across metallic

62
Surface. For evaporation to be efficient, the selected and used must be

Able to accomplish several things.

1 transfer large amounts of heat to the solution with minimum

amount of metallic surface area. This requires, determines the

type, size, and cost of the evaporation system.

2 achieve the specified separation of liquid and vapor and to do it

with the simplest devices available.

3 Make efficient use of the available energy.

4 Meet the condition imposed by the liquid being evaporated or by

the solution being concentrated. Factors that must be considered

include product quality, salting and scaling, corrosion, foaming ,

product degradation, holdup, and the need for special type of

construction.

4.4.2 Types Of Evaporators

Evaporators are varying in the mechanical specifications and operating

parameters , this result in products with different characteristics. The

major types of evaporator are.

 Horizontal shell-side
 Short tube-vertical
 Basket type
 Long-tube vertical
 Climbing film
 Falling film

63
  Horizontal tube-side
 Plate type

4.4.3 Evaporator Selection

The selection of the most suitable evaporator type for a particular
application will depend on the following factors.

 The throughput required

 The viscosity of the feed and the increase in viscosity during
evaporation.
 The nature of the product required; solid, slurry or
concentrated solution.
 The heat sensitivity of the product.
 Whether the materials are fouling or non-fouling
 Whether the solution is likely foam
 Whether direct heating can be used.

The selected type for this project is climbing film long tube vertical

Evaporator.

4.4.4 Design Calculation

Vapor space pressure=0.23 atm

Vapor space temperature=63.1

BPR=21.9

Energy balance

For product stream coming out of 1st evaporator

Material Cp(KJ/kmole) flow rate(kmole/hr) mole fraction(x)

64
Urea 2443.41 1134.259 0.750452

Water 2002.149 370.4335 0.245087

Biuret 8940 6.742179 0.004461

Cp of mixture=∑Xi*Cpi

=(2443.41*0.750452+2002.149 * 0.245087+ 8940* 0.004461) =2364.243

KJ/kmole

M*cp ∆T= 2364.243*1511.435 =3573399 KJ/hr

1st Evaporator

Heat input(by feed)+Heat input by steam=Heat carried by water vapor +

Energy of bottom product

Heat input by feed+ S1 s1= E1HE1 +energy of bottom product

4684597+ S1 * 2123.8= 13991.58*2614.97+3573399

S1= 16687.25 kg/hr

Economy = 13991.58/16687.25=0.8384

2nd Evaporator

Heat input(by feed)+Heat input by steam=Heat carried by water vapor

+Energy of bottom product

3573399+S2 * 2123.8=5894.424*2545.7+2464.393 *1183.967

S2= 6756.660 kg/hr

Area of evaporator

∆T1 = (∆T)app – BPR

=(147.165−63.1)−21.9= 62.165

U1=2214.537 W/m2 k

Area of 1st evaporator

A1=S1 s1/U1∆T1

65
 A1 = 16704 * 2123.2 / 2214.537* (62.165+273)=47.78 m2
Area of 2nd evaporator

U2= 738 W/m2 k

∆T2 = (∆T)app – BPR

= (147.165 – 23.77) – 3.48 = 119.915

A2 = S2 λs2 / U2∆T2

A2 =6756.660 * 2123.2 / 738 *( 119.915+273)= 49.472 m2

[Ref : values of U1 & U2 from Perry's handbook, 10-35]

Number of tubes
Assume
Length = 6 m

Tube OD =25.4 mm

Tube ID =21.1836 mm

For a triangular pitch(Pt)=1.25 do

Area of one tube = do L
= *25.4*10-3 *6=0.47853 m2
Tubes of 1st evaporator
Nt1= A1/A
Nt1=47.78/0.47853=100

Tubes of 2nd evaporator

Nt2=A2/A
Nt2=49.472/0.47853=103
Shell diameter
For a triangular pitch , 1 shell−2tube pass
K= 0.249 , n=2.207
Shell diameter of 1st evaporator

66
Db =do(Nt/k)1/n
Db=25.4(100/0.249)1/2.207=384.26
C=55 mm , Ds=Db+ C
Ds=439.26 mm

Shell diameter of 2nd evaporator

Db =do(Nt/k)1/n
Db=25.4(103/0.249)1/2.207=389.19 mm
C=52 mm , Ds=Db+ C
Ds=441.19 mm
Wall thickness
Material of construction: Mild steel
F: 135 N/mm2
Di=21.16 mm
Ps=4.5 atm=4.413 bar
Pd=1.1*ps
Pd=0.4854 N/mm2
C= 3 mm
J=1

Tt= P*Di/2f*J−P
Where
Tt : thickness of tube
P: design pressure ( N/mm2)
Di : inside diameter (mm)
F: allowable stress ( N/mm2)
J: joint factor
C: corrosion allowance (mm)
Tt =(0.4854*21.16)/(2*135*1−0.4854)+3=3.038 1 mm

Drums diameters and height

Density of urea=1230 kg/m3

67
Density of water=1000 kg/m3
Density of biuret=1467 kg/m3
Diameter for 1st drum
Density of liquid( )=(0.7611*1230+0.231*1000+0.00776*1000)=1178.53
kg/m3
Density of water vapor( )= P*Mwt/R*T

=(0.23*18)/(0.082*336.1) =0.15 kg/m3

Volumetric flow rate of water vapor (Qv)=13991.58/0.15=93277.2 m3/hr

Volumetric flow rate of liquid(QL)= 75418.7/1178.53=63.993 m3/hr

Ut =0.07 *( − / )1/2= 0.07*(1178.53−0.15/0.15)1/2=6.204 m/s

Ut=Uv with demister

A= Qv/ Uv = 25.901/6.204 = 4.176 m2

Dv =(4* Qv/ *uv)1/2 =2.3 m

Dv=Hv

Dv: minimum vessel diameter

Hv: gas or vapor height

Hf=0.5*Dv= 1.15 m

Hf: feed height

Assume settling time= 10 min= 600 sec

Volume held in drum(V)= 0.01777*600=10.665 m3

HL= V/A=10.665/4.176 = 2.55 m

HL: liquid height

Total height(H)= 2.55+1.15+2.3 =6 m

For 2nd drum

Density of liquid( )=(0.9023*1230+0.0488*1000+0.0488*1467)=1230.34

kg/m3

68
Density of water vapor ( )= P*Mwt/R*T = (0.03*18)/(0.082*296.77)

=0.022 kg/m3

Volumetric flow rate of vapor(Qv)= 6233.488/0.022=283340.4 m3/hr

Volumetric flow rate of liquid(QL)= 89409.39/1230.34=72.670 m3/hr

Ut =0.07 *( − / )1/2=16.55 m/s

Ut=Uv

A= Qv/ Uv=4.574 m2

Dv =(4* Qv/ *uv)1/2 =3.028 m

Hv=Dv=3.028 m

Hf=0.5*Dv =1.514 m

Volume held in drum(V)=600*0.02018=12.111 m3

HL=V/A= 12.111/4.574=2.547 m

Total height =2.547+1.514+3.028=7.089 m

Drum thickness

1st drum

Drum operating pressure=0.23 atm

Design pressure = 0.25 bar

Thickness(t) =15 mm (assumed)

Atmospheric pressure=1 bar

Pa=1/0.23=4.167

Do=Di + 2*t , Do=2.3+2*0.015=2.33 m

L / Do=6/2.33=2.575 m

69
Do/t=155.3

Factor B=10878

Pa =B/(14.22*( Do/t)) =10878/(14.22*155.3)=4.92 bar

Pa is greater than design pressure , so the assumed thickness is

acceptable.

2nddrum

Operating pressure=0.03 atm

Design pressure= 0.032

Thickness(t)=20 mm

Pa =1/0.03=33.3 bar

Do =Di+2*t , Do=3.028+2*0.02=3.068 m

L /Do=7.089/3.068=2.31

Do /t= 3.068/0.02=153.4

Pa =B/(14.22*( Do/t)) =10878/(14.22*153.4)=4.98 bar

Pa is greater than design pressure

The assumed thickness accepted

70
 Ts=0.00303 m

6m

7.089

Product

-E
Figure4.4 vacuum evaporator design
summery

4.5 Prilling Tower

4.5.1 Introduction
Prilling is the process of spray crystallization. A liquid is sprayed to

Produce drops falling through a cooling medium and crystallizing into

Particles. The urea granulation process consists of following three

sections:

 Granulation section
 Recycle and product cooling section
 Dust removal and recovery section

Aqueous urea solution from urea plant is fed to the granulator to

Enlarge recycle particles in the granulator. In the granulator , the

Granules are dried and cooled simultaneously. The granulator is

Operated at 110 115 and at slightly negative pressure. Enlarged

Urea particles are cooled to about 90 in the after-cooler inside

The granulator to be transported to the recycle section. The

71
Discharged granules are separated into three sizes, product, small and

Large size by the screen. Product size granules are further cooled

Below 60 in the product cooler to be sent to the urea storage or

Bagging facility. Large size granules are crushed by the crusher. The

Crushed particles and smaller size particles from the screen are

Recycled to the granulator as seed. Urea dust contained in the exhaust

Air from the granulator and the product cooler is scrubbed in the dust

Scrubber by contacting counter currently with aqueous urea solution

Urea dust content in the exit air of the bag filter is 30 mg/m3. Or less

Urea recovered in the bag filter, approximately 2.5-3.5% of production

Rate , is recycled to the urea granulator. The process of crystallization

And cooling takes a number of seconds. Congealing towers can have a

Maximum free-fall height of 60 m, while the tower diameter may be

About 15 m.

4.5.2 Material of construction

Prilling tower are usually constructed in concrete(fertilizer), steel,

Stainless steel.

4.5.3 Design Calculation

Urea physical properties:

To=132.6 (To= melting point)

Hf=224457 J/kg (Hf= heat of fusion)

=1230 kg/m3 ( = melt density)

=1335 kg/m3 ( = Solid density)

Cp (l)=2098 J/kg. k (melt specific heat)

72
 Cp (s)=1748 J/kg. k (solid specific heat)

K(l)=0.83 w/m. k (melt thermal conductivity)

K(s)=1.19 w/m. k ( solid thermal conductivity)

Viscosity( )= 2.16*10-3 Pa.sec

Air physical properties

Density( )=1.168 kg/m3

Viscosity =18.48*10-6 Pa.sec

Cp air=1.009 KJ/kg .

Heat carried away by air=heat input−heat output

= 2917759−230076.4 =2687683 KJ/hr

(m*cp*∆T)dry air=2687683 KJ/hr

Cp air=1.009 KJ/kg , ∆T=26−20=6 ,

M=2687683/(1.009*6)= 443951.6 kg/hr

Tower diameter

Volumetric flow rate=380095.548 m3/hr= 105.5821 m3/sec

Assuming an air superficial velocity=1.2 m/sec

A=Q/u = 105.5821/1.2=87.985 m2

D=(87.985 *4/3.14)^0.5=10.586 m

Absolute velocity

Dp=1.5*10-3 m (Dp: particle diameter)

Assume ur=6.3 m/s (ur:Relative velocity)

Re = dp*ur* /

73
Re =1.5*10-3*6.3*1.168/18.48*10-6 =597

Cw=0.65 (Cw: resistance coefficient(falling particle))

/6 *dp3*( − )g=cw* /4*dp2 *1/2* *ut

LHS= /6*(1.5*10-3)3*(1335−1.168)=2.31112*10-5

RHS= 0.65* /4*1/2*1.168*6.3 =2.66109*10-5

LHS=RHS , the assumption ur=6.3 m/sec is correct

Ua=ur−superficial velocity from new diameter (ua: absolute velocity)

Ua=6.3−1.156=5.144 m/s

Heat transfer coefficient

Re =597 ,Pr= *cp/k ,Pr=18.48*10-6 *1009/0.02606=0.7155

Nu =2+0.552 Re0.5Pr0.33 =14.07952

Nu=ho*dp/k , ho=244.6082 W/m2k

Solidification time

Average air temperature=(20+26/2)=23

Ph=Hf+ cp(l)*(Tf−To)/cp(s)*(To−Tc) (ph= phase transfer number)

Tf=135 (Tf: melt temperature)

To=132.6 (To: melting point)

Tc=23 (Tc: average air temperature)

Ph=224457+2098*(135−132.6)/1748*(132.6−23)=1.198

Bi=ho*dp/2*k(s) , Bi=0.154164 (Bi: Biot number)

Fo =ph(1/6+1/3*Bi)=2.7922 (Fo: Fourier number)

A=k(s)*/cp(s)* =1.19/1748*1335=5.099*10-7 (A: thermal diffusivity)

Ts1=dp*Fo/4*A =1.5*10-3*3.132/4*5.099*10-7=3.08 sec (ts1= time for

solidification)

/ ,min=1.15
74
Corrected solidification time

Ts2=( / ,min)* Ts1=1.15*3.08=3.542 sec

Tower height for solidification=3.542*5.144=18.220 m

Prill cooling time

R=dp/2 =1.5*10-3/2=7.5*10-4 m (R: sphere radius)

1/ho2 R =1/7.5*10-4*(244.6082)2=7267.859 k/w

2(R−R/2)/k(s)*R2= 2*(7.5*10-4−7.5*10-4/2)/1.19*(7.5*10-4)2 =1120.448

1/kc R2=8388.307+211.93=7267.859+211.93=8388.307

Kc=211.93 W/m2 k

Cooling time tc= *dp*cp(s)/6*kc ln(To−Tc/Ts−Tc)

Tc =1335*1.5*10-3*1748/6*211.93 *ln(132.6−23/60−23)=1.494 sec

Prill cooling height=1.494*5.144=7.688 m

Total height=7.688+18.22=25.908 m.

D=10.586 m
H=25.908 m

Figure 4.5 prilling tower

75
Chapter 5

Process
Control
76
5.1 Introduction
Control may be defined as a set of organized actions directed towards

Achieving or maintaining a specific goal and it is one of the most

Important factors in improving process performance , which are

Equipment design, operating conditions and process control. Control

Action involves dynamic(active) command, regulation and co-ordination

Of the systems so as to fulfill the prescribed objective of the system in the

Most effective and efficient manner.

Equipment
Design

Operation
Conditions Safe and profitable
Plant operation

Process
Control

Figure 5.1 schematic representation of

the three critical elements for achieving

5.2 Control Objective

The primary objective of the designer when specifying instrumentation

And control schems are:

1. Safety:
The process control strategies contribute to the overall plant safety
by maintaining key variables near their desired values.
2. Environmental protection:
Control can contribute to the proper operation of units which is

77
 Deal with toxic components resulting in consistently low effluent
Concentration, in addition control systems can direct effluent to
Containment vessels when any extreme disturbance occur.

3. Equipment protection:
Operating conditions must be maintained within bounds to present
damage.
4. Smooth operation and production rate:
Key variables in streams leaving the process should be maintained
Close to their desired values to present disturbance to downstream
unit or maintain desired production rate.

5. Production quality :
Product quality which is needed may be expressed as composition,
Physical properties, performance properties or combination of all
Three. Process control contributes to good plant operation by
Maintaining the operating conditions required for excellent prduct
Quality.
6. Monitoring and diagnosis:
The plant operators require very rapid information so that they can
Ensure that the plant conditions remain within acceptable bounds.

7. Profit:
The equivalent goal is to provide the product at lowest cost. Before
Achieving the profit oriented goal, selected independent variables
Are adjusted to satisfy the first five higher priority control
objectives.

5.3 Types Of Control Systems

There are many types of control systems, the use of any system
depend on the process which we want to control it and the
variables that effect on the control process, some of these control
system are:

 Feed forward control system

 Feedback control system
78
  Cascade control system
 Ratio control system
 Inferential control system
 Level and inventory control system
 Predictive control system

5.4 Equipment Control

5.4.1 Reactor control

products

NH3 Feed

FR

Flow rate
Set point PIC PIT PI

CO2 Feed

Flow rate
PI PIT PIC Set point

Carbamate Feed

Figure 5.1 reactor process control

1. Reactor Pressure
Table 5.1 Element of control loop for reactor pressure

Process Reactor

Controller PID Controller

Controlled variable Pressure
Measuring element Manometer
Regulating element Valve (pneumatic)

Manipulating element Stream of CO2, carbamate

Load variables
Reactor temperature,feed
temperature and composition

79
2. Reactor Flow Ratio

Table 5.2 Element of control loop for reactor ratio

Process Reactor

Controller PID Controller

Controlled variable Flow ratio

Measuring element Orifice

Regulating element Valve

Manipulating element Stream of CO2, NH3

Load variables Feed temperature -vacuum

pressure

(PID) controller transfer function

G(s)=Kc*(1+1/ *s+ )

Where

Kc: proportional gain of the controller

: integral time constant (min)

: derivative time constant (min)

Kc=3

= 2 min

=0.5 min

Control valve transfer function

Gv(s)= Kv/ v*s+1

Where

Kv: the steady state gain of valve

v: time constant of valve

80
5.4.2 Carbamate Condenser Control
Objective: control of inlet water to the condenser

Carbamate in

Water out
Water in

Condensate
TI

TIC TIT

Figure 5.2 carbamate condenser process control

Table 5.3 Element of control loop for carbamate condenser temperature

Process Carbamate condenser

Controller PID Controller

Controlled variable Temperature of outlet water
Measuring element Orifice
Regulating element Valve

Manipulating element Steam flow rate

Load variables Pressure and temperature

of the feed

(PID)Controller transfer function

G(s)=Kc*(1+1/ *s+ )

Where

Kc: proportional gain of the controller

: integral time constant (min)

: derivative time constant (min)

81
Kc=2.5

= 2 min

=0.5 min

Control valve transfer function

Gv(s)= Kv/ v*s+1

Where

Kv: the steady state gain of valve

v: time constant of valve

5.4.3 Low Pressure Decomposer Control

Off gases
PI

PIC PIT

PIT

PI PIC
Feed

PG

FIT

FIC
FI
Product

Figure 5.3 Low pressure

decomposer process control

82
 1. Low pressure decomposer pressure
Table 5.4 Element of control loop for low pressure decomposer pressure
Process Low pressure decomposer

Controller PID Controller

Controlled variable Pressure
Measuring element Manometer
Regulating element Valve

Manipulating element Stream of feed, off-gases

flow rate
Load variables Pressure and temperature
of streams

3. Low Pressure Decomposer Flow Rate

Table 5.5 Element of control loop for low pressure decomposer flow rate

Process Low pressure decomposer

Controller PID Controller

Controlled variable Flow rate

Measuring element orifice

Regulating element Valve

Manipulating element Stream of outlet product

Load variables Pressure and temperature

of streams

(PID)Controller transfer function

G(s)=Kc*(1+1/ *s+ )

Where

Kc: proportional gain of the controller

: integral time constant (min)

: derivative time constant (min)

Kc=1

83
 = 1 min

=0.5 min

Control valve transfer function

Gv(s)= Kv/ v*s+1

Where

Kv: the steady state gain of valve

v: time constant of valve

5.4.4 Evaporator Process Control

PIC PIT

PI

Vapor

feed

TI TIT TIC

Steam
FIT

FIC FE

Product

1.Vacuum evaporator pressure

84
 Table 5.6 Element of control loop for vacuum evaporator pressure

Process Vacuum evaporator

Controller PID Controller

Controlled variable Pressure

Measuring element Manometer

Regulating element Valve

Manipulating element Stream of outlet vapor

Load variables Pressure and temperature

of steam and vacuum
pressure

2.Vacuum Evaporator Flow Rate

Table 5.7 Element of control loop for vacuum evaporator flow rate
Process Vacuum evaporator

Controller PID Controller

Controlled variable Flow rate of urea solution

Measuring element orifice

Regulating element Valve

Manipulating element Stream of the product

Load variables Pressure and temperature

of steam and vacuum
composition

3. Vacuum Evaporator Temperature

85
 Table 5.6 Element of control loop for vacuum evaporator temperature

Process Vacuum evaporator

Controller PID Controller

Controlled variable Temperature

Measuring element Thermocouple

Regulating element Valve

Manipulating element Steam flow rate

Load variables Feed temperature -vacuum

pressure

(PID)Controller transfer function

G(s)=Kc*(1+1/ *s+ )

Where

Kc: proportional gain of the controller

: integral time constant (min)

: derivative time constant (min)

Kc=1

= 1 min

=0.5 min

Control valve transfer function

Gv(s)= Kv/ v*s+1

Where

Kv: the steady state gain of valve

86
 v: time constant of valve

5.4.5 Prilling Tower Process Control

Air out

TI TIT

TIC

FI PG
feed

Air in

FI

product

Figure 5.5 prilling tower process control

1. Prilling Tower Temperature

87
 Table 5.7 Element of control loop for prilling tower temperature
Process Prilling tower

Controller PID Controller

Controlled variable Temperature of outlet air

Measuring element Thermocouple

Regulating element Valve

Manipulating element flow rate of inlet air

Load variables Feed temperature -vacuum

pressure

(PID)Controller transfer function

G(s)=Kc*(1+1/ *s+ )

Where

Kc: proportional gain of the controller

: integral time constant (min)

: derivative time constant (min)

Kc=1.5

= 2 min

=1 min

Control valve transfer function

Gv(s)= Kv/ v*s+1

Where

Kv: the steady state gain of valve

v: time constant of valve

88
Chapter 6

Economic
Cost
89
6.1 Introduction
Economical evaluation is a major component of chemical plant design

That decides whether the design is economically feasible since projects

Are built to make a profit. Also chemical engineers are concerned with

Cost as well as design.

6.2 Types Of Costs Involved In Manufacturing Process

1. Total capital investment

a. Fixed capital investment (manufacturing and non-
manufacturing)
b. Working capital
2. Operating costs (total production cost)
a. Direct expenses: variable and fixed charges
b. Indirect expenses

6.3 Cost Calculation

90
 Equipment Number of Cost of equipment Total cost
equipment ($)
Autoclave 1 61854.53 61854.53
Reactor

Medium pressure
1 12490.32 12490.32
decomposer

Low pressure 1 44210.53 44210.53

decomposer

Vacuum
evaporator 2 148830.5 297661

CO2 compressor 1 166672.2 166672.2

Prilling tower 1 545637.3 545637.3

Ammonia 1 6302.65 6302.65

pump

Conveying
system 4 393.92 1575.68

Stripper 1 120684.9 120684.9

Pumps 2 6922..384 13844.768

Total 1226723.348

Figure 6.1 equipment cost

Total capital investment

1. fixed capital investment

a. direct cost

91
 % purchased equipment
Item Total cost
cost
Equipment 100% 1226723.348
cost

Installation 25% 306680.835

Instrumentation 122672.334
And control
10%

Piping 25% 306680.835

Electrification 245344.668
20%

Building 30% 368017.002

Service facilities
40% 490689.336
Land 5068.933
4%
Requisition

Total 3071877.28

b. indirect cost

Item % purchased
Total cost
Equipment cost
Engineering &
supervision 10% 122672.334

Construction 10% 122672.334

Contactor 5% 61336.167

contigency 5% 61336.167

Total 368017.002

Fixed capital investment(FCI)

=DC+IC

=3071877.28+368017.002=3439894

92
b) Working capital investment(WCI)

=15% of FCI= 0.15*3439894=515984

Total capital investment

=FCI+WCI

=3439894+515984=3955878

c) Maintenance& Repair cost

=4% of FCI=0.04*3439894=137595

Fixed charges

1. Deprecation

=10% of FCI

=0.1*3439894=343989.4

2. Local taxes
=1.5% of FCI
=0.015*3439894=51598.41
3. Insurance
=1% of FCI
=0.01*3439894=34398.94

Fixed charges=34398.94+51598.41+343989.4=429986.75

93
Chapter 7

Safety
Aspects

94
7.1 Introduction
Safety is the state of being ''safe'', the condition of being protected

Against physical , social, financial , emotional ,physiological , educational

Or other consequences of failure, damage, error, accidents, harm or any

Other events which can be non-desirable. This can take the form of being

Protected from the event or from exposure to something that causes

Health or economic losses. No industry can afford to neglect the

Fundamentals of safety in design and operation of its plant and

Machinery. It is important that all the people responsible for

management and operation of any industry should have a good

knowledge of industrial safety.

Safety

Safe use of man, material or machine by safe system method of work is

to achieve zero accidents which result in higher productivity.

Accidents

An accidents is un planned or un expected events which interfere or

interrupts the planned process of work and results in personal injury

Accident factors

1 a personal accident injury occurs as a result of accident

2 an accident due to un safe act and/or unsafe condition

3 unsafe act/unsafe condition exists due to faults of persons

4 faults of persons due to negligence

Thus, if we can remove fault of a person we can prevent 98% of

accidents.

95
7.2 Principal Of Protection And Prevention:
Industrial accidents are caused by negligence of employer, the worker or
both employers ''efforts to reduce the accidents are generally motivated

By four considerations":

1 to lessen human suffering

2 to prevent damage to plant and machinery

3 to reduce the amount of time lost as a result

4 to hold the expenses of workman's compensation to minimum

The basic reasons for preventing industrial accidents are human and
economic . the most important of these should be to avoid human
suffering. Accidents are economic losses and this is a challenging

Reason for accident prevention.

7.3 Safety Precaution

1. when taking sample of anhydrous ammonia and when operating or
working on ammonia valves, equipment containing ammonia such as
ammonia feed pumps, operators laboratory and maintenance personal
must wear safety overalls.

2. goggles and rubber gloves. If any part of the skin has been exposed to
ammonia , wash immediately and thoroughly with water

3. work on the ammonia equipment should be done from the upwind

side of the equipment to avoid or minimize contact with escaping
ammonia.

4. the location of fire hydrants, safety showers , eyewash fountains

ammonia canisters gas mask, emergency air breathing apparatus should
be well known to all person's

5. instruments containing mercury must not be used if ammonia is likely

to come in contact with mercury

96
6. heavy leakage of ammonia can be dealt by spraying large quantity of
water with spray nozzles.

7.4 List of safety equipment

A. respiratory protective equipment

1 self—contained breathing apparatus sets of 30 min and 10 min

2 continuous airline mask

3 trolley mounted self contained breathing apparatus set 2.5 hours

4 canister gas mask

5 dust mask/cloth mask (air purifying respirator)

B. non—respiratory protective equipments

1 helmets

2 ear muff and ear plugs

3 goggles

4 face shield

5 hand gloves

6 aprons

7 safety shoes

8 suits

9 safety harness

C. warning instrument

1 oxygen, carbon dioxide , chlorine, ammonia indicator with replaceable

sensors.

2 explosive meters for measuring explosive range

3 fire fly instrument for confined space entry

D. Gas Leak Instruments

97
1.safety showers

2. manual water sprinklers

3. communication systems

7.5 Fire Hazards

The general types of fire are encountered in the process plants. One

involves common combustible material such as wood, rags, paper ,etc

(class A fires),the next flammable liquids and gasses such as lubrications

oil and solvents, ammonia vapors etc. (class B fires) and the third involve

Electrical equipment (class C fires)

In general three things required to make a fire

1. Something which will burn eg. A combustible material

2.Oxygen—air

3. A source of ignition or existence of a temperature at or above which a

material will start burning spontaneously.

98
Reference

 Shreve RN . chemical process industries, 3rdedition. New York:

McGraw hill book company, 1967

 Othmer Kirk, encyclopedia of chemical technology , vol. 21. New

York : John Wiley & Sons, 2004
 Perry RH. Chemical Engineering Handbook, 6th edition. New York :
McGraw Hill Book Co, 1984

 WWW.basf.Com

 WWW.wikipedia.COM

 Kern DQ. Process Heat Transfer. New Delhi : McGraw Hill

Companies , 2004

 Urea manufacture processes ''Ullmann's Encyclopedia of Industrial

Chemistry'', 5th Edition, Volume A27.

 R.K.Sinnot. Chemical Engineering Design, vol. 6, 4th edition.

Coulson & Richardson's, Elsevier,2005.

 Williad . Baasel. Preliminary chemical engineering plant design

99
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