The Islamic Roots of Liberation, Justice, and Peace: An Anthropocentric Analysis of the

Concept of "Tawhīd"
Author(s): SUMANTO AL QURTUBY
Source: Islamic Studies, Vol. 52, No. 3/4 (Autumn-Winter 2013), pp. 297-325
Published by: Islamic Research Institute, International Islamic University, Islamabad
Stable URL: http://www.jstor.org/stable/43997226
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Islamic Studies 52:3-4 (2013) pp. 297-325

The Islamic Roots

An Anthropocen
Tawhld*

SUMANTO AL QURTUBY

Abstract

Using the concept o/Tawhîd- a cardinal Islamic belief, as a point of departure and as
a theoretical framework, this paper examines the Islamic roots and theological
foundations for the ideas and practices of liberation, peacebuilding, justice, and
nonviolence within Islam. It argues that the notions of pacification, equality, freedom,
and fairness hold a central place in Islam because such ideas are deeply rooted in the
concept of tawhld. Unlike most studies that tend to put emphasis merely on analyses of
tawhid through theological and eschatological explanations (theocentric framework),
this paper examines it from the lens of anthropocentrism by understanding and
interpreting it as a "principle of unity" for liberation, justice, and peace, while still
acknowledging its theocentric dimension . In short, this article lays emphasis on
analysis of tawhld as an n anthropocentric theism. " In the concept of tawhld, this
paper underlines the significance of the unity of God, the unity of the many streams of
revelation, the unity of humanity, and ultimately the unity of existence (Wahdat al-
Wujûd), principles on which freedom, conciliation, egalitarianism, and nonviolence
are grounded.

<o>

Introduction

Tawhid is the hub of Islamic teaching. Muslims generally tend to

tawhid merely from the lens of "theocentricism* that asserts the o
God and is filled with eschatological explanations and religious jarg
not from the framework of "anthropocentricism," or in the term of W

I wish to thank the anonymous reviewers and the editor for providing detai
comments on the earlier draft of this article. I also wish to express my deepest tha
Kroc Institute for International Peace Studies at the University of Notre Dame fo
research fellowship from 2012-2014 that enabled me to write this manuscript. Any
remain are of course entirely my own.

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29g SUMANTO AL QURTUBY

Jones (1746-1794), "humanocentric

concept of Islam, it argues that Isl
intrinsically and historically contains
to liberation and peacemaking, a
conciliation, tolerance, and justice in
This article, moreover, builds on
conventional idea and understand
describing the existence of God, the b
world. Although this understanding
distance tawbid' s historical, cultura
theological concept with a socio-hist
the social and religious conditions of
to say that tawbid needs to be view
but also from a socio-anthropological
it as a sort of an "anthropocentric th
notion of tawbid cannot be fully gr
historical aspects, political-religious
societies when Islam was introduced
brief, the comprehension of the h
perspective of proper understanding o
The article thus argues that tawhtd
is a fundamental Islamic principle
element aiming at establishing a jus
simply mean a declaration of the onen
and aims to create- a condition of a
individuals, regardless of their religio
their faiths and rights freely and tol
entails establishing "positive peace"
conventionally as simply the abs
involves, in the phrase of Ibrahim Ka
conditions" aiming at "making pe
equilibrium, rather than a mere ev
differently, the term "positive peace"
also the presence of justice.3 It is prec

1 William R. Jones, Is God a White Racist ? A

Press, 1998).
2 Ibrahim Kalin, "Islam and Peace: A Survey o
Crescent and Dove: Peace and Conflict Reso
D.C.: United States Institute of Peace Press, 2
3 Cf. James Melvin Washington, ed., A Testam
King, Jr. (San Francisco: HarperSanFrancisco,

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THE ISLAMIC ROOTS OF LIBERATION, JUSTICE, AND PEACE 299

Islam, with the idea of its tawbtd, would like to pursue in this world.
Prior to explaining tawkïd as a theological source of an Islamic just-peace,
it is necessary to discuss briefly (1) debates in the academia and non-academia
pertaining Islamic sources of violence and injustice as well as resources for
peace and justice and (2) approaches of peacebuilding and conflict resolution
developed by some Muslim scholars, activists, and practitioners. The
discussion of these two issues aims to locate frameworks and objectives of this
article. As I will explain in the following paragraphs, there are certainly
multiple approaches of so-called "Islamic just-peacebuilding," most of which
do not use tawhtd, as a framework; accordingly this article will complement
previous studies of Islamic concepts of justice and peace.

Islam, Violence, and Peace

The discussion about Islam as a peaceful, just, and nonviolent religion remains
a major challenge because the negative narratives about Islam added with
violent acts of some extremist Muslim groups, have been dominated in media
as well as academic discourses that influence public opinion.4 The usual
response of many, perhaps most, non-Muslims when a Muslim tries to explain
Islam to them as a peaceful religion is as follows: "how can you say that 'Islam
means peace', if so much violence seems to come from it?"5 Others, especially
the intelligent people, will respond the same by referring to the wars fought
during the life of Prophet Muhammad and early days of Islam or medieval and
modern Muslim involvements in the warfare failing to appreciate their
particular socio-political settings. Rather than agreeing with and supporting
the idea of Islam as a religion of peace and nonviolence, [some] non-Muslims
in both the West and non-Western countries alike even consider this sort of
explanation as an apologetic argument contrasts with the facts of Muslim
practices and basic teachings of the Qur'ân that seemingly allow Muslims to
commit violence against the evil and infidels. Some of them even go further by
provoking non-Muslims to not welcoming Muslims in the Western countries
arguing that their presence shall be a potential source of arising resentment,
intolerance, and terrorism.6
No doubt one of the common mistakes among Westerners and non-
Muslims alike towards Islam deals with the idea that this religion inherently
teaches its followers to commit violence, war, and terrorism, as well as
encourages Muslims to practice intolerance and injustice against non-Muslims,

4 For instance, see John L. Esposito and Dalia Mogahed, Who Speaks for Islam ? What a Billion
Muslims Really Think (New York: Gallup Press, 2007).
5 John R. Bowen, A New Anthropology of Islam (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2012), 3.
6 See Bowen, Blaming Islam (Cambridge, MA: MIT Press, 2012).

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3QQ SUMANTO AL QURTUBY

women, and minorities.7 A flood of pu

hostility, fanaticism, and bigotry with
Lewis (b. 1916), in his much-debated ar
of 1990, titled "The Roots of Muslim
publications8, for instance, argues tha
from the ideas of violence mainly beca
mankind, a Manichaeism-influenced
and evil, light and darkness, order and
Adversary, variously known as devil, I
the struggle of good and evil, Islam,
and even military dimensions."9

Lewis, moreover, states,

Muhammad, it will be recalled, was no

founders of other religions; he was also
a ruler and a soldier. Hence his struggle
the fighters in the war for Islam, the ho
for God, it follows that their opponent
is in principle the sovereign, the sup
Prophet and, after the Prophet, the c
sovereign commands the army. The arm
enemy. The duty of God's soldiers is
possible to the place where God will chas

7 Such mistakes might be rooted in the lack o

apparently relative ignorance and increduli
including Islam, is well portrayed in the 201
Religious Knowledge Survey" (available onlin
knowledge-survey-who-knows-what-about-rel
most Westerners (Americans) could not ident
Muslim societies and some basic religious tea
Study Religion in the Twenty-First Century
lack of knowledge of other religions ca
misunderstandings, and tensions or conflict
societies.

8 For instance, see Bernard Lewis, The Assassi

2002); Lewis, What Went Wrong? The Clash betw
York: Perennial, 2003); Lewis, The Cńsis of Isl
Random House,, 2004).
9 Lewis, "The Roots of Muslim Rage," The
http:/ / www.theatlantic.com/ magazine/ archiv
accessed February 20, 2013.
10 Ibid., 49.

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THE ISLAMIC ROOTS OF LIBERATION, JUSTICE, AND PEACE

In short, for Lewis, Islam historically and intrinsically deems itself as a

symbol of the "good" (dãr al-Islãm) while the rest [dar al-barb) is considered to
be the "bad"- the "infidels"- that needs to be abolished or conquered until
they vanish or surrender under the banner of Islamic faith. Based on this sort
of reasoning, hence for Lewis, violent or terrorist actions of some extremist
Muslim groupings are essentially Islamic in part because these acts are
"theologically" justified and mainly rooted within Islamic teachings and
Qur'änic texts, as well as the practices of Prophet Muhammad and early
generations of Islam. In brief, Lewis considers "Islamic fundamentalism"
movements nowadays which he equates occasionally with terrorism as arising
out of the overtly religious and intolerant traditions of Islam. Although Lewis
recognizes that Islam contains strong warrants for violence and extremism, he
does acknowledge positive aspects of this religion. However, Lewis seems to
argue, since the Qur'än, Hadlth, and Islamic teachings provide ample resources
for conservatism, fanaticism, and radicalism, added with the historical legacy
of war committed by the prophet and -his early followers, it is difficult for
Muslims to hide or shun from such violent acts and intolerant practices.11
Lewis is not alone for sure. There are some Western scholars,
policymakers, authors, columnists, journalists, activists, conservative leaders,
or propagandists who cheer Lewis ideas. In their eyes and minds, the image of
Islam and Muslim societies, more or less, resembles al-Qaeda [al-Qa'idah],
Taliban [Taliban], and other Islamist extremist groups that (1) exert and
legalize violent means to achieve their goals, (2) advocate oppressing and
torturing women, (3) condemn Westerners and non-Muslims as infidels,
(4) struggle for an Islamic state or application of Islamic Sharī'ah, (5) oppose
Western values of democracy, secularism, or liberalism, to name but a few.12
Such biased perception towards Islam is certainly only partially true.13
Blaming Islam as a "religion of violence" and Muslims as a terrorist and
"uncivilized" group ignored the whole picture of the Muslim world and
missed the other widespread facts of peaceful Islam and civilized, tolerant
Muslims. More importantly, such biased views apparently fail to notice and

" For instance, see Ibid.; Lewis, "Islam and Liberal Democracy," The Atlantic Monthly, February
1993, http://www.theatlantic.com/past/docs/issues/93feb/lewis.htm, accessed February 20,
2013; Lewis, The Assassins; Lewis, What Went Wrong. Lewis, The Crisis of Islam.
12 For instance, see Samuel P. Huntington, "The Clash of Civilizations?," Foreign Affairs 72:3
(1993); Daniel Pipes, In the Path of God: Islam and Political Power (New York: Basic Books,
1983); Anthony Dennis, The Rise of the Islamic Empire and the Threat to the West (Bristol, IN:
Wyndham Hall Press, 1996); Robert Spencer, The Myth of Islamic Tolerance: How Islamic Law
Treats Non-Muslims (Amherst, NY: Prometheus Books, 2005).
13 Joseph E. B. Lumbard, ed., Islam, Fundamentalism, and the Betrayal of Tradition: Essays by
Western Muslim Scholars (Bloomington, IN: World Wisdom, 2009).

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 3Q2 sumanto al qurtuby

differentiate Islam as a universal

Arabs, or as a temporary politi
on him) in both Makkah and M
distinguish between the essence o
of Islamdom. Failing to notice t
misunderstandings toward the
such unfair views of Islam
internalization in the minds o
subsequently formed an attitude
and Muslim communities.14 Jo
ignorance, stereotyping, histor
chauvinism, too often blind even
and Muslim world."15
This paper thus aims^to balan
and unsympathetic critics, and
Muslim extremist groups that "h
for their own political interests a
and "Islamist militants," in some
they look at Islam as a religion
the two have different reasons
instance, is believed by the mi
Moreover, the radical militants, w
may have led them to believe tha
the idea of peace (Arabic: sulh) as
as S. M. Farid Mirbagheri aptly po
acts committed nowadays by ad
to claim that they now pursue vi

14 Abu-Nimer reveals that there are som

Islam and Muslim societies pejorative
reporting (print and electronic), lack of
in Islamic Society, the legacy of colo
ignorance of cultural differences, failure
Israeli conflict." (Mohammed Abu-Nime
Practice (Gainesville, FL: University Pres
15 John L. Esposito, The Islamic Threat
1999).
16 For instance, see Khaled Abou El Fadl, The Great Theft: Wrestling Islam from the Extremists
(New York: HarperSanFransisco, 2005); cf. Natana J. DeLong-Bas, Wahhabi Islam: From
Revival and Reform to Global Jihad (New York: Oxford University Press, 2004).
17 S. M. Farid Mirbagheri, War and Peace in Islam: A CHtique of Islamic/ist Political Discourses
(New York: Palgrave MacMillan, 2012), 10-11.

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THE ISLAMIC ROOTS OF LIBERATION, JUSTICE, AND PEACE jqj

Islamic Approaches to Conciliation and Conflict Resolution

The late British scholar of Islam Martin Lings (1909-2005) in his famous
biography of Muhammad, recorded a fascinating story of peaceful response of
the Qur'an towards a group of pagan Arabs who mocked and attacked some
early Muslims in Makkah. Lings states,

In these early days of Islam the Companions of the Prophet would often go out
together in groups to the glens outside Mecca where they could pray the ritual
prayer together without being seen. But one day a number of idolaters came
upon them while they were praying and rudely interrupted them with ridicule.
Finally they came to blows, and Sa'd [Sa'd] of Zuhrah struck one of the
disbelievers with the jawbone of a camel and wounded him. This was the first
bloodshed in Islam. But after that they decided to refrain from violence until
God should decide otherwise, for the Revelation continually enjoined patience
upon the Prophet and therefore upon them. Bear with patience what they say , and
part from them with a courteous farewell [Q. 73:10] and also Deal gently with the
disbelievers, give them respite for a while [Q. 86: 17]. 18

As a "civilization of text," to borrow the term of Nasr Hāmid Abū

Zayd,19 Islam has undeniably provided ample resources with regard to the
ideas of conciliation, justice, and nonviolence. From its inception, the Qur'an
itself emphasised peace as an intrinsic Islamic value. The Qur'an instructs
Muslims to avoid violence for settling their differences, but instead rely on
arbitration or even simple forbearance.20 Islam calls for Muslims to work for
achieving global just-peace, human solidarity, and social harmony. The Qur'an
itself enjoins human societies to "strive as in a race in all virtues" (fa istahiqü 'l-
khayrãt ).21 Within the Muslim ummah (Islamic community), this summon has
manifested and will continue to manifest in varied ways that mirror incessant
attempts to construe and employ Islamic values in specific historical, social,
and cultural settings. Moreover, Islamic aspirations, premised on the Qur'an
and Sunnah, have long reflected an extensive and holistic idea of peace,
whereas the keynote of the revelation of the Qur'an could be typified as
"integration and wholeness through surrender to God" (read, tawbid). This
critical theme is articulated in a "universalistic spirit, suggesting a world view

18 Martin Lings, Muhammad: His Life Based on the Earliest Sources (Rochester, VT.: Inner
Traditions International, Ltd, 2006), 52.
19 Nasr Hāmid Abū Zayd, Mafhum al-Ņass: Dirasah fi Vlum al-Qur'an (Cairo: al-Hay'ah al-
Misriyyah al-'Āmmah li'1-Kitāb, 1990).
20 Qur'an 8:46.
Ibid., 5:48.

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ßQ4 SUMANTO AL QURTUBY

premised in tolerance and inclusivenes

Indeed, in Islam, peace begins with G
His ninety nine beautiful names ( al
Coincidentally the word "Islam" ha
state of peacefulness and safety fr
Dictionary of Modern Written Ar
resignation, and reconciliation"
etymologically means "peace, safety, s
well-being."23 Based on this definition
Muslim is thus the one who believes in
will as manifested in the concept of ta
the one who practices peace in daily
chosen the word peace {salām) as th
Paradise. God also calls the communi
(dār al-salām).24 The concept of peace,
Islam. Louay M. Safi said that, review
on the experience of the early Musl
peace was always the original positio
punitive measure to annihilate tyrann
to stop aggression."25
By careful examination towards th
political practice of Muhammad (peac
notion, unlike Bernard Lewis' claim sk
nothing to do with Islamic faith and
Muhammad (peace be on him) was in
polite approach to call people to Islam,
of your Lord with wisdom and beau
ways that are best and most gracio
notwithstanding the violent opposition
in Makkah, Prophet Muhammad (pe

22 Abdul Aziz Said, Nathan C. Funk, and Ayse

in Islam: Precept and Practice (Lanham, MD: U
23 Hans Wehr and J. M. Cowan, eds., A Dictio
(Ithaca, NY: Spoken Language Services, Inc., 1
24 Qur'ân 10: 25.
25 Louay M. Safi, "War and Peace in Islam," Am
41-42; for details, see 29-57; cf. Safi, Peace
Conception of Jihad (Herndon, VA: Internatio
26 Qur'an 16:125. Mostly the translations of t
Yusuf Ali, The Qur'an: Text, Translation an
Qur'an, 1987).

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THE ISLAMIC ROOTS OF LIBERATION, JUSTICE, AND PEACE jqij

peacefully and nonviolently to Islamic religion, and the Muslims were further
commanded, for prudential reasons, not to respond to the hostility of the
Quraysh. Muslim pacifism and tolerance during the Makkl period was not
only a "religious mandate," but also socio-political means to influence social
changes and to protect Muslims from mass destruction.27
Furthermore, one might trace the Islamic roots for conciliation and
peacebuilding, which is a term describing interventions that are designed to
prevent the start or resumption of violent conflict within a society by creating
a sustainable peace, from the perspectives of Islamic law (fiqh), Islamic
mysticism ( tasawwuj) , theology {kalām), history (ta'rīkh), and philosophy
(falsafah), among others. The diversity of Islamic approaches to peace can be
found in various academic works written by both Muslim and non-Muslim
scholars of Islam.28 Scholars varied in responding to the Islamic concepts of
peacemaking. The multiple approaches to peace include (peace through)
political power {siyãsat al-quwwah), the power of law and institutions {islãh
and tajdid), the power of communication (sulk), the power of human spirit
(lā'unf), and the power of love {tasawwuj)?
The first approach, political power {siyãsat al-quwwah), was advocated by,
Majid Khadduri (1909-2007) and Ibn Khaldūn (1332-1406 CE). Both Khadduri
and Ibn Khaldūn present state as legitimate power and authority and for
preserving social order. Ibn Khaldūn states,

Social organization is necessary to the human species. Without it, the existence of
human beings would be incomplete ....
When mankind has achieved social organization, . . . people need someone
to exercise a restraining influence and keep them apart, for aggressiveness and
injustice are in the animal nature of man. The weapons made for the defense of
human beings against the aggressiveness of dumb animals do not suffice against
the aggressiveness of man to man, because all of them possess those weapons.
Thus, something else is needed for defense against the aggressiveness of human
beings toward each other .... He must dominate them and have power and

27 See Abdullahi Ahmed An-Na'im, Toward an Islamic Reformation: Civil Liberties, Human
Rights, and International Law (Syracuse, NY: Syracuse University Press, 1996).
See Said, Funk, and Kadayifci, Peace and Conflict ; Abdulaziz Sachedina, The Islamic Roots of
Democratic Pluralism (New York, NY: Oxford University Press, 2001); Robert W. Hefner, ed.,
Remaking Muslim Politics: Pluralism, Contestation, Democratization (Princeton, NJ: Princeton
University Press, 2005); Abu-Nimer, Nonviolence and Peace Building in Islam-, Scott Appleby,
The Ambivalence of the Sacred: Religion, Violence, and Reconciliation (Lanham, MD: Rowman
and Littlefield Publishers, 2000); Daniel Philpott, Just and Unjust Peace: An Ethic of Political
Reconciliation (New York: Oxford University Press, 2012); Qamar-ul Huda, Crescent and Dove-,
Mirbagheri, War and Peace in Islam.
25 For instance, see Said, Funk, and Kadayifci, Peace and Conflict.

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2Q£ SUMANTO AL QURTUBY

authority over them, so that no one of the

is the meaning of royal authority.
It has thus become clear that royal authori
absolutely necessary to mankind.30

This political power approach views

absence of war or "negative peace,"31
created by "the restlessness of political su
external enemies."32 The main goal of
Khadduri, is to present "God's law" on
"Islamic nomocracy." Khadduri states, "
the state: it provides the basis of the stat
law which really governs; and, as such,
not theocracy." In the Oxford Dictionary,
government based on a legal code; the rul
continues to argue that "since the Israel
based on divine legal orders; it follows
divine nomocracies."33
In contrast to the political power
approach implies a conception of Islam as
highlighting processes for institutionalisi
social order. For the supporters of this
teachings of the Qur'ân and Hadlth und
the questions of peace, justice, and war. F
sees peace, including the concept of peace
what Johan Galtung calls "direct violence
marked by the presence of such fundame
human dignity, fairness, equilibrium,
ecological stability, or in brief, a mor
becomes the ultimate goal of Islam.

30 'Abd al-Rahmān b. Khaldūn, Al-Muqaddimah

translation is of Ibn Khaldûn, The Muqaddimah
Rosenthal, 3rd ed. (Princeton, NJ: Princeton Univ
31 John »Paul Lederach, Preparing for Peace: Conf
NY: Syracuse University Press, 1996).
32 Said, Funk, and Kadayifci, Peace and Conflict, 17
33 Majid Khadduri, War and Peace in the Law of I
14-18.

34 For instance, see Qamar-ul Huda, Crescent and

35 Johan Galtung, Peace by Peaceful Means: Peac
(Oslo: International Peace Research Institute, 1996

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THE ISLAMIC ROOTS OF LIBERATION, JUSTICE, AND PEACE ļQļ

Furthermore, the power of communication (sulb) approach, influenced by

Arab culture, explores the vocabulary and practices associated with traditional
Arab methods to reconciliation such as sulb and musālabab, which were later
adopted by the Qur'an, as well as methods of mediation (wast) and arbitration
(tabkim) that have prevailed in Islamic cultural areas. Mohammed Abu-Nimer
and Ahmed Moussalli assert that this approach underlines a restorative
conception for losses, care to issues of social esteem, rejection of vengeance for
the sake of the whole, and forgiveness.36 The concept of sulb, an extract of
lessons and principles used by Arab traditional elders who peacefully resolve
family, interpersonal and community disputes, is close to the ideas and
practices of mediation, arbitration, and reconciliation in contemporary
conflict resolution methods.
The next approach, namely peace through "power of love," is a
nonviolence method. It emphasises that while Islam forbids silence or passivity
(quietism) in the face of oppression, authoritarianism, dictatorship, tyranny,
and injustice, it also discourages violence and subversion. A core idea of this
approach is that only a linkage of just ends with just means can protect lasting
justice, enduring peace, and authentic human dignity.37 The following
approach to peace is the Islamic paradigm for transformation of the human
heart and mind, prescribing a deep internalisation of Islam that leads to inner
freedom and to the spiritual elevation of individuals. Based on principles and
practices of Sufism that were widely diffused throughout the Islamic world by
means of spiritual brotherhoods and fellowships, this approach defines peace
as "a condition of all-embracing harmony perceived through the inward
renewal and transformation of human consciousness."38 This approach is
represented by, among others, Sri Lankan Sufi and peacemaker Muhammad
Raheem Bawa Muhaiyaddeen.39
To conclude there are various approaches and perspectives with regard to
Islam and its relations to the notions of peace, justice, and nonviolence. These
multiple methods and perspectives are deeply rooted in the richness of Islamic

36 Abu-Nimer, Nonviolence and Peace Building in Islam ; Ahmed Moussalli, "An Islamic Model
for Political Conflict Resolution" in Peace and Conflict Resolution in Islam: Precept and Practice ,
ed. Abdul Aziz Said, Nathan C. Funk, and Ayse S. Kadayifci (Lanham, MD: University Press of
America, 2001).
37 For instance, see Chaiwat Satha-Anand (Qader Muheideen), The Nonviolent Crescent : Two
Essays on Islam and Nonviolence (Alkmaar, The Netherlands: International Fellowship of
Reconciliation, 1996); Daniel L. Smith-Christopher, ed., Subverting Hatred: The Challenge of
Nonviolence in Religious Traditions (Maryknoll, N.Y.: Orbis Books, 2007).
38 Said, Funk, and Kadayifci, Peace and Conflict Resolution in Islam , 21.
39 M. R. Bawa Muhaiyaddeen, Islam and World Peace: Explanations of a Sufi (Philadelphia, PA:
The Fellowship Press, 1990).

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•jQg SUMANTO AL QURTUBY

values, traditions, cultures, and texts.

the roots of Islam for peace and justic
Qur'ân, Hadlth, and classical Islamic
on him) paragons, and historical f
cultures, Islamic rituals and traditi
societies. Although scholarship that lin
peace is lacking, the concept of tawhld
notions of just-peacebuilding; there
establishing peace and justice.

Multiple Interpretations and Roots

Muslim scholars, sufis, jurists, and

interpreting tawhld. Muhammad 'A
tawhld as the "science that studies the
and the possible affirmation about
necessary to make relating to Him."
sometimes called Neo-Mu'tazilism
apostles and the authenticity of their
appropriate qualities and of what is
to its uniting character, 'Abduh the
'Abduh seems to argue that the nature
that this concept aims to purify th
Arabs, and then replace these with Isla
Abū Hāmid al-Ghazālī (d. 1111) cla
each of which represents a condition
(maqatn) of a Muslim. The first phase
person speaking the words "There i
heedless or even denies it. The secon
phrase ( kalimah al-tawhld) and believi
heart. The third represents those "who
on the path of interior illumination b
step, the fourth, is "that of those
existence, which is the witness of righ
"annihilated" by faith in divine uni
category as the highest stage in under
the existence of God.41

40 Muhammad Abduh, The Theology of Unity,

George Allen & Unwin Ltd, 1980), 29-30.
Abu Hamid al-Ghazali, Faith in Divine Unity
Burrell (Louisville, KY: Fons Vitae, 2001), 9-13

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THE ISLAMIC ROOTS OF LIBERATION, JUSTICE, AND PEACE 3Q9

Unlike 'Abduh and al-Ghazālī, Sayyid Abū 'l-'Alā al-Mawdūdī (d. 1979),
one of the most prolific Islamist writers of the twentieth century and founder
of then Pakistan-based Jamā'at-i Islāmī, regarded tawbid as a highly political
imperative, not simply a theological tenet or a spiritual belief. Mawdûdï,
argues that in the idea of tawhtd, it entails granting the full legal and political
implications of the "power of God." For Mawdûdï, God alone is the source of
the law; consequently all people (Muslims) must submit to this law. It is the
completion of this God's law that becomes the sole mandate of the foundation
of the Islamic state. Islamic values and norms exist, Mawdûdï reveals, not
merely to be followed by Muslims on their personal initiative and in their
individual lives but "need to be put into effect through the coercive power of
the Islamic state."42 Based on this sort of reasoning, Mawdûdï disagrees with
the approaches and understandings of tawbid proposed by Sufis that emphasise
the vigor and essentiality of love and compassion in part because, he asserts,
"without the [political] power to enforce, it is meaningless merely to believe in
or present a doctrine or a way of life."43 Roxanne L. Euben and Muhammad
Qasim Zaman see Mawdûdï's approach, by emphasising the central authority
of leadership, is a to despotism in the name of Islam.44
Scholar of Sufism William C. Chittick, rather than simplifying- and
politicising- the meaning of tawbid , tends to complexify it arguing that this
notion is not for political end but a sort of test of human's love and
submission to God. Literally means "to say one, to make one, to assert one, to
declare one," tawbid theologically, Chittick holds, means "to declare that the
ultimate reality, by whatever name it may be called, is one."45 Chittick reveals
that this statement is not only found in Islam, but also in practically almost all
religious traditions, world religions or local beliefs, and most premodern
philosophy. As Chittick points out, the essence of tawbid had indeed been
practiced by sedentary or tribal societies of Arabia in the pre-Islamic era.46

42 Sayyid Abul A'la Maududi, The Islamic Law and Constitution, trans, and ed. Khurshid Ahmad,
2nd ed. (Lahore: Islamic Publications, 1960), 196-213.
43 Maududi, A Short History of the Revivalist Movement in Islam, trans. al-Ash'ari (Lahore:
Islamic Publications, 1963), 22-23.
44 Roxanne L. Euben and Muhammad Qasim Zaman, Princeton Readings in Islamic Thought:
Texts and Contexts from Al-Banna to Bin Laden (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press,
2009), 82.
45 William C. Chittick, "Islam and the Goal of Love," Huffington Post, November 6, 2010,
http:/ / www.huffingtonpost.com/ william-c-chittick-phd/ the-goal-of-love_b_776173.html,
accessed March 30, 2015.
46 See, Chittick, The Sufi Path of Love: The Spiritual Teachings of Rumi (Albany, NY: State
University of New York Press, 1983); Chittick, The Sufi Path of Knowledge: Ibn al-'Arabi's
Metaphysics of Imagination (Albany, NY: State University of New York Press, 1989).

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 3ļQ SUMANTO AL QURTUBY

In fact the concept of tawhid, an a

practiced by, among others, pre-Is
Joseph von Schelling (1775-1854) an
Max Muller (1823-1900), henotheism
the pre-Islamic Arabia. The Merria
henotheism, derived from the Gre
worship of one god without denyin
refers to the ascription of suprem
several gods (of a tribe or a family) i
evidence of henotheism in Arabia can be traced back to a tribe called the
'Āmir, who lived close to Yemen and who worshipped a High God they
called dhü Samäwi- "The Lord of the Heavens." Most scholars are convinced
that by the sixth century C.E., when Islam was born, henotheism became a
standard belief of the vast majority of sedentary Arabs, who not only accepted
Allah as their special God, but insisted that he was the same God as Yahweh
(YHWH), the God of the Jews.
Furthermore, the origins of both tawhid and henotheism can be traced
back to the concept of monotheism in the ancient Jewish tradition. The
tawhid can be connected to the concept of Shema Yisrael (or Shema for short)
in the Jewish religious tradition. Literally means "Hear (O) Israel," Shema
Yisrael are the first two words of a section of the Torah. As well, Shema
Yisrael is the title of a prayer that serves as a centerpiece of the morning and
evening Jewish prayer services. In brief, it is the central prayer in the Jewish
prayerbook (Siddur) and the first section of the Jewish Scripture. The first
verse encapsulates the monotheistic essence of Judaism is as follows: "Hear, O
Israel: The LORD our God the LORD is one."49 In another verse, it states, "I
am the LORD your God, who brought you out of Egypt. You shall have no
other gods before Me."50 This statement marks the declaration that Israelites
believed in one God as their Lord.51
Did not the word Allah resemble El in the Jewish tradition!? The
resemblance of the Islamic tawhid to the "Jewish monotheism" might be due
to the influences of Jewish culture and religion in the Arabian Peninsula. The
Jewish presence in the peninsula began with the Babylonian Exile a thousand
years earlier, though subsequent migrations may had taken place in 70 C.E.,

47 Contrary to the henotheism, tawhid negates the existence of other gods save the God.
41 See http://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/henotheism, accessed March 31, 2013.
49 Deuteronomy 6:4.
50 Ibid., 5:6-7.
51 For a short explanation of the Shema Yisrael see http://www.hebrew4christians.com
/Scripture/Torah/The_Shema/the_shema.html.

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THE ISLAMIC ROOTS OF LIBERATION, JUSTICE, AND PEACE jļļ

after Rome's sacking of the Temple in Jerusalem, and after the messianic
uprising of Simon Bar Kokhba.52 The historian of Jews in Arabia, Norman
Stillman said that when Prophet Muhammad was born, Jews not only
inhabited Arabia in considerable numbers but "were well integrated into the
life and culture of the peninsula."53 During that time, the Jews, as other pagan
tribes, spoke Arabic, were organized into clans and tribes, and had assimilated
many of values of desert society. Stillman maintains that Jewish influence in
Arabia was quite vital so that for a short time Judaism was adopted by the
royal house of the Yemenite kingdom of Himyar under Yûsuf As'ad Dhū
Nuwãs, and Muhammad's hometown Makkah was a great mercantile entrepot
situated along the caravan route linking Yemen in the south with Byzantine
Egypt and Syria-Palestine to the northwest and the Sasanian Empire to the
northeast. Muhammad was believed to meet Jews in both Syria and Arabia.54
In brief, the Jews were a thriving and highly influential diaspora whose
cultures and traditions had been thoroughly integrated into the social and
religious milieu of pre-Islamic Arabia; thereby it is not a coincidence if there
are some Jewish cultural-religious elements in Islamic cultures and teachings,
including the concept of tawhld.

Like Judaism, Christianity had also an influential presence in the Arabia.

Such influence can be understood partly because by the time of Muhammad
lived, Arab Christian communities, like Jews, had already well-established in
this region. As historians have noted Arab tribes were surrounded by
Christians: from the Syrians in the northwest, to the Mesopotamian
Christians in the northeast, to the Abyssinians in the south. In fact, by the
sixth century C.E., Yemen had become the seat of Christian aspirations in
Arabia; the city of Najrān was largely considered to be the nucleus of Arab
Christianity, while in San'ā', a massive church had been constructed that vied
with Makkah as the primary pilgrimage site in the region. Islamic traditions
also reported the famous Waraqah b. Nawfal from the clan of Asad, a
Christian who predicted the coming of an Arab prophet in Arabia.55 In the
Sirat Rasiti Allah, the primary traditional biographical source for the life of
Prophet Muhammad (peace be on him), Ibn Ishãq (d. 767) mentioned five

52 Reza Asian, No god but God: The Origins, Evolution, and Future of Islam (New York: Random
House, 2006), 8-9.
53 Norman A. Stillman, The Jews of Arab Lands: A History and Source Book (Philadelphia, PA:
The Jewish Publication Society of America, 1979), 4.
54 Ibid., 4-5.
55 Lings, Muhammad ; Mahmoud Ayoub, A Muslim View of Christianity: Essays on Dialogue, ed.
Irfan A. Omar (Maryknol, NY: Orbis Books, 2007); Asian, No god but God.

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 jļ2 SUMANTO AL QURTUBY

main instances of the encounter bet

with the early Muslim communities,

One of the most famous stories o

be on him) and Christian communi
with the Christian leaders and ru
(present-day Ethiopia). The ruler o
Negus had even given asylum to a
fled to his area due to attacks and te
Quraish tribes.57 Perhaps due to t
once said, "Leave the Abyssinian
peace."58 Based on this hadīth, M
795), the founder of the Mālikī sc
Muslims should not conquer Abyss
maintained its Christian identity lon
North Africa.60 The Qur'ânic verses
and John the Baptist, to name bu
various chapters {sūrahs) of the Qur'
Muslim good relations, as well as of
doctrines including, but not limited
instance, can be connected to Jesus'
"Love the Lord your God with all y
all your mind"62 or "Love your neig

The narrative sketched above how

of Islamic tawhid was solely shaped b
teachings or by Yemeni henotheism.
tawhid is not unique to Islam, b
traditions.

56 See for an early Muslim-Christian encounter Muhammad Ibn Ishak, The Life of Muhammad: A
Translation ofhhaq's Sirat Rasūl Allāh, trans. Alfred Guillaume (London: Oxford University
Press, 1955), 150-155.
57 See, Hugh Goddard, A History of Christian-Muslim Relations (Chicago, IL: New Amsterdam
Books, 2000), 20.
58 Sunan Abi Da'ūd, Kitab al-Malahim, Bab al-Nahy 'an Tahyii al-Habashah, Hadith No. 4309.
59 Rudolph Peters, trans, and ed., Jihad in Mediaeval and Modern Islam: The Chapter on Jihad from
Averroes' Legal Handbook 'Bidayat Al-Mudjtahid' and the Treatise 'Koran and Fighting' by the Late
Shaykh-Al-Azhar, Mahmud Shaltut (Leiden: Brill, 1977), 11.
60 Safi, "War and Peace in Islam," 40-41.
61 Ayoub, A Muslim View of Christianity.
62 Matthew 22:37.
63 Ibid., 22:39.

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THE ISLAMIC ROOTS OF LIBERATION, JUSTICE, AND PEACE ļļļ

Tawhïd as an "Anthropocentric Theism"

As stated earlier, the word tawhïd, formulated in the words Lā ilāha illā Allah 64
meaning "there is no god except Allah," does not only mean simply believing
in oneness of God but also the unity of humankind and the whole creation.65
A close reading to the Qur'an and the prophetic practices of Muhammad,
along with the works of early Muslim theologians, Sufis, and philosophers,
will show that tawhïd is more than a declaration of the oneness of God. It also
entails the meaning of unity of mankind (in the time of Muhammad it was
initially focused on the "unity of Arab tribes"). This idea, specifically, is not
only a form of the "purification" or replacement of polytheistic faith of pagan
Arabs with a monotheistic Islam that follows the path of Abrahamie
traditions, but more importantly, a proclamation of movement and protest
against the oppressive and monopolistic powers of "non-God gods." This is to
say that the objective of tawhïd is not simply to prove that (one) God (Allah)
exists since God does not need evidence for His existence, but, more
significantly, to establish that God cares about human sufferings (at that time
Muslims were the main victims) by liberating them from the oppressors (the
ruling class of Arab tribes) and keeping the peace in Arabia.

Farid Esack had done a great job by putting the socio-political settings of
Arabia and the ill-treatment of tribal leaders toward Muslims during the time
of Muhammad into South African contexts. Based on the bitter experience of
Muslims (and South African Christians) in his country during the Apartheid
system, Esack developed an Islamic theology of liberation, rooted in the
concept of tawhïd, as a religious foundation to resist against the Apartheid.
Just as Latin American Catholic leaders who used Biblical traditions to
advance a liberation theology to oppose violence and oppression,66 Esack
describes an astounding account of the use of Qur'ânic texts and Islamic
teachings and values, added with the prophetic practices of Muhammad, as a

64 The word Allah is not a proper name but a contraction of the word al-ilāh which means
simply athe god." The word ilāh itself was derived from the Hebrew word the name of a
god in the ancient Israelites. Thus the words Lã ilāha illā Allah can be translated as "No god but
the God" (Nurcholish Madjid, "The Necessity of Renewing Islamic Thought and
Reinvigorating Religious Understanding," in Liberal Islam : A Source Book , ed. Charles Kurzman
(New York: Oxford University Press, 1998), 284-294.
65 For instance, see Ismā'īl Rāji al-Fārūqī, al Tawhïd: Its Implications for Thought and Life , 2nd ed.
(Abu Dhabi: United Arab Bureau, 1994); Sayyid Abul Qasim Radhawi, Essential Tawhid: What
the Ahl ul'Bayt Told Us ... (Raleigh, NC: Lulu Press, 2011).
66 For example, Gustavo Gutierrez, A Theology of Liberation: History , Politics , and Salvation
(Maryknoll, NY: Orbis Books, 1988).

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 ■j SUMANTO AL QURTUBY

means for mobilisation and protes

Apartheid regime.67
In the concept of tawhid, it impli
except God," by definition, a Muslim
forms, and embrace the God- the M
mystery), to borrow Rudolf Otto's
deify or idolise other subjects/ obje
local bosses, tribal leaders, military
to name but a few, they do not yet
the five pillars of Islam. Tawhid hen
William C. Chittcik has put it,69
reference for "true understandin
human-God relations. Once tawh
bridging the gap between the assert
language of Sufis, the objective of l
ila Allah). As created, people dw
dissonance, and discord. All huma
from these qualities, and tawhid p
issues. By embracing tawhid, theo
authorities or artificial realities b
reality and holds absolute power.
life] depends on overcoming the i
loves and misleading desires."70 In t
called "others" meaning anything
Real- God.
The depiction sketched above suggests that tawhid is basically the central
precept of Islam aiming at establishing social justice (W/)- and creating equal
social structures within societies, which is a vital ingredient for peacemaking
mainly because peace without justice is an illusion. As noted earlier,
establishing a just peaceful society has been among the primary objectives of
Islam and the revelation of the Qur'ân.71 It is thus a Muslim's duty to work for
justice and rebuff injustice and repression, both interpersonal and structural
levels. It is vital to remember that Islamic concept of justice is for all humans

67 Farid Esack, Qur'ân, Liberation and Pluralism: An Islamic Perspective of Interreligious Solidarity
against Oppression (Oxford: Oneworld, 1997).
68 Rudolf Otto, The Idea of the Holy: An Inquiry into the Non-Rational Factor in the Idea of the
Divine and its Relation to the Rational, trans. John W. Harvey (London: Oxford University
Press, 1958).
69 William C. Chittick, "Islam and the Goal of Love," Huffington Post, November 6, 2010.
70 Ibid.

71 Qur'an 5: 8; 57: 25, among others.

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THE ISLAMIC ROOTS OF LIBERATION, JUSTICE, AND PEACE 3 J5

and an absolute value and not relative and reserved for the Muslim community
only. Moreover, the pursuit of justice and peacebuilding is directly linked
because, as Abu-Nimer has aptly pointed out, "there is a correlation among
the act of preserving the common good, serving others, protecting the weak,
preserving human dignity, and ensuring that peace is established and sustained
in human affairs."72
Such understandings of the interconnectedness between justice and peace
are not only drawn from the Qur'an but also from the practices of
Muhammad. It is imperative to note that the rise of the concept of tawhid. as a
theology of liberation, justice, and peace cannot be separated from the socio-
political-historical contexts of Makkah and Arabia in general where
Muhammad lived and spread Islam in the sixth and seventh centuries. During
the time, two major empires of the world, Persia in the east and Byzantine in
the west, were involved in bloody communal conflicts and bitter wars
resulting in countless deaths and destructions.73 The Arab nation, consisted of
various tribes and clans, was also sundered by violent conflicts among tribal
groups. Each tribe, 'Abduh said, "gloried in wars with its neighbors, capturing
the women folk, killing the chieftains, and pillaging the land."74 As an
outcome of these unhealthy rivalries and brutal clashes, local people and tribes
lived in difficulty and suffering. Major issues of local societies of Makkah and
Arabia in general were economic gaps, social differences, political bankruptcy,
ignorance, corruption, slavery, collapse of the tribe-based economy, and
trading oligarchy, among others.75 The late Indian scholar and activist Asghar
Ali Engineer depicts the picture of Makkan societies as follows: oligarchy
thrived due to greed toward materials and properties as well as ignorant tribal
mie. As a result nobody took care of orphans, widows, the old, the poor, etc;
female and male slaves spread throughout the region. They were forced to
work without earnings and female slaves were compelled to do sexual acts
with their masters.76

72 Mohammed Abu-Nimer, "An Islamic Model of Conflict Resolution: Principles and

Challenges," in Crescent and Dove, 76-77.
73 For instance, see Fred M. Donner, "Muhammad and the Caliphate: Political History of the
Islamic Empire up to the Mongol Conquest," in The Oxford History of Islam, ed. John L.
Esposito (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1999), 1-62.
74 Abduh, The Theology of Unity, 111.
75 For instance, see Ira M. Lapidus, A History of Islamic Societies (Cambridge: Cambridge
University Press, 2002).
76 Asghar Ali Engineer, Islam dan Pembebasan [Islam and Liberation ] (Yogyakarta: Pustaka
Pelajar, 1994); Engineer, On Developing Theology of Peace in Islam (New Delhi: Sterling
Publishers, 2003); Engineer, The Prophet of Nonviolence: Spirits of Peace, Compassion, and
Universality in Islam (New Delhi: Vitasta Publishing, 2011).

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 SUMANTO AL QURTUBY

Muhammad 'Abduh illustrates heartbreaking social conditions of Arabia

and major gaps between the elites and lay people at the time of Prophet
Muhammad as follows:

There was unparalleled opulence and arrogance, luxurious living and indulgence
in many forms, alike in royal palaces and among amirs, sultans, and religious
leaders on either side. Their greed knew no bounds. Taxes were extortionate and
excise duties so excessive that they became more than the population could bear,
depriving the people of the due fruits of their labours. Those who had the power
used it to snatch from them the possessions of the poor, while the clever schemed
to steal from the foolish. And in consequence these nations fell victims to the
multiplied evils of poverty, degradation, fear and turmoil. Neither soul nor
property were secure.77

In short, ordinary people had no dignity, political structures were

chaotic, social systems were disordered, and the economy was collapsing.
People or societies lived in a time of ignorance or so-called " jâhiliyyah "-
condition to describe a Ufe without social ethics, norms, laws and fair rules
This lengthy political and cultural crisis among tribal societies and the collapse
of their economy had stimulated the descendent of Fihr who came to be
known as Quraysh of the Outskirts,78 one of the most powerful Arab tribes of
Abrahamie descent, to take part in resolving conflicts and predicaments. As
guardians of the Holy House, the great centre of pilgrimage for all Arabia, the
Quraysh, founded by Qusayy b. Kilāb in 480 CE, ranked higher in dignity
than any other Arab tribes.79 Far before Muhammad, who was himself a
Qurashî, he migrated to Yathrib (lately Madlnah) in 622 CE, and instructed his
followers to unite and respond peacefully toward the oppressors of Arab tribal
leaders and political elites. When Muhammad founded Madlnah, he declared
the idea of tribal unity (i.e. tawhîd) as a state proclamation and a political
solution to resolve such political chaos and economic crises.80
Tawhid first and foremost aimed at threefold: (1) designating to address,
delegitimise, and demolish multiple tribal gods (idols) which were numbered
in the hundreds [al-Kalbī in his al-Asnām sums about 360 idols were put in
Ka'bah (Bayt Allah) each of which represented and symbolized gods of each
tribe in Makkah], (2) introducing the Real God for human societies, and

77 Abduh, The Theology of Unity, 109-10.

71 See the list of the offspring of Quraysh and family tree of Prophet Muhammad in Lings,
Muhammad.
79 Ibid., 6-8.
80 Khalil Abdul Karim, Hegemoni Quraisy: Agama, Budaya, Kekuasaan [Quraish hegemony:
Ķeligion, culture, power] (Yogyakarta: LKIS, 2002), 242-245.

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THE ISLAMIC ROOTS OF LIBERATION, JUSTICE, AND PEACE ļļj

(3) bonding Makkï/Arab societies under one flag of Islam in order to oppose
political discrimination and trading oligarchy controlled by tribal leaders and
gluttonous Arab bourgeoisie.
These revolutionary messages of Islam were cheerfully welcomed by the
oppressed, ordinary people, but on the other hand, these were harshly
opposed by some local bourgeoisie, traditional aristocrats, and tribal leaders
including those from Muhammad's own tribe, the Quraysh, the dominant
tribal group upon the appearance of Islam.81 These particular groups of Arab
elites deemed Muhammad's presence as a real menace to their socio-economic-
political existence; consequently they tirelessly endeavoured to banish and
fight and his companions by mobilising local tribes and using religious
languages. They also approached Abū Tālib (549-619 CE), Muhammad's
powerful uncle, to exert his influence on his nephew to end his da'wah
activities.82 An in-depth look at the activities of the opponents of Muhammad
reveals the fact that their opposition was not intended to defend their beliefs
nor motivated by religious reasons, rather they considered missions and
teachings of prophet as a serious peril for monopolistic, socio-economic
structures and established tribal political systems. Some leaders of the Quraysh
and other Arab tribes, Muhammad (peace be on him) showed no inclination
toward the use of force in any form, even for self-defense. Focusing on the
values of patience and steadfastness in the face of oppression and
discrimination, Muhammad (peace be on him) conducted nonviolent
resistance through all his instructions and teaching during the Makkī period
(610-622 CE), in which Muslims were a minority.83
Against this backdrop, tawhîd thus must be understood in two main
dimensions, namely the unity of Godhead ("vertical dimension") and the unity

" The Quraysh's dominance in Makkah began at the end of the fourth century when Qusayy
managed to gain control of the Ka'bah by uniting a number of conflicting clans tinder his
authority. Clans in the Arabian Peninsula were composed of large extended families of what so-
called bayt (house) or banū (sons) of the family's patriarch. Prophet Muhammad's clan was
known as Banū Hāshim ("the Sons of Hãshim"). Through intermarriage and political alliances, a
group of clans could join to become an ahi or a qawm which means "a people" but more
commonly called a tribe. In essence, Qusayy had managed to do was unite those clans who were
nominally bound to each other through blood and marriage into a single dominant tribe, that
was, the Quraysh (Asian, No god but God, 24-25). However among clans within the Quraysh
tribe itself, violent conflicts very often broke out due to scramble for position, power, influence,
etc. The presence of Muhammad (peace be on him), who was from the Banū Hāshim's clan, was
also opposed, not only by other tribes, but also by part of the Quraysh, tribe which was from a
different clan. Abū Jahal and Abū Lahab, the most persevering opposing people against
Muhammad, were also from the Quraysh tribe.
82 Lings, Muhammad, 54-57.
,} Abu-Nimer, "An Islamic Model of Conflict Resolution," 81-82.

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 SUMANTO AL QURTUBY

of humankind ("horizontal/social dimension"). Theological consciou

toward this unity of mankind posits that the doctrine of tawhid rejec
type of oppression, discrimination, exploitation, and violence Such r
rests on a belief that all humans are equal before God; the only thing
differentiates one from another is his or her positive contribution to oth
The fact that humans differ from one another with respect to colour, ethn
and place does not mean that the idea of the "unity of humankind"
realistic and opposes diversity. Conversely, because of these difference
heterogeneity, humans need others to channel, build, acknowledge, con
and bridge relationships among them. This is the essence of what the Q
states, "O mankind! We created you from a single (pair) of a male an
female, and made you into nations and tribes, that ye may know each
(not that ye may despise (each other). Verily the most honored of you in
sight of God is (he who is) the most righteous of you."84
Pluralism and diversity, undeniably, are among the core values of
Islamic religious and cultural traditions. The Qur'ân recognises diversit
based on gender, "That He did create in pairs,- male and female," 85
colour, language, "And among His Signs is the creation of the heavens and
earth, and the variations in your languages and your colours: verily in tha
Signs for those who know,"86 belief or faith "It is He Who has created
and of you are some that are Unbelievers, and some that are Believers
Allah sees well all that ye do."87 As well, the Qur'ân asserts that distin
and plurality are inherent in human life and part of God's plan for human
Thus differences among people are unavoidable, natural, and integral part
the future of humanity as Qur'ân reveals, "If thy Lord had so willed, He c
have made mankind one people; but they will not cease to dispute
another verse, Qur'ân says, "He would have made you a single people
(His plan is) to test you in what he hath given you: so strive as in a race in
virtues."89

Islam thus understands diversity, plurality, and differences as a m

conduit for establishing harmonious life and as a means to bridge netw
connections or relationships among different people, societies, and na
Again, peacebuilding or building a "positive peace" is fundamentally
relationship. This is why the Qur'ân calls on Muslims to keep away f

84 Qur'ân 49:13.
85 Ibid., 53:45.
86 Ibid., 30:22.
87 Ibid., 64:2.
88 Ibid., 11:118.
8' Ibid., 5:48.

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THE ISLAMIC ROOTS OF LIBERATION, JUSTICE, AND PEACE jjg

fighting and to coexist peacefully with people of other religions and

ethnicities, except to those repress Muslims.90 The idea of interconnectedness
(i.e. "the unity of mankind") has been chiefly vital in today's era when
suspicion and mistrust among people of different religious traditions and
ethnic backgrounds become an epidemic throughout the world. In addition
when (some) humans and countries decide to break off diplomatic relations
and forbid building bridges with other people from different countries and
religions in the name of security and safety, the presence of such a concept is
like a "refreshing spiritual oasis."
In the framework of the unity of humankind, all humans, regardless of
their beliefs, religions, races, countries, tribes, flags, colours, languages, etc, are
interconnected and united as a human body consisting of different but
interrelated cells and organs; consequently, as in our bodies, when one organ is
injured, the other ones feel sickness; if another human suffers, we have to feel
his/her suffering. In other words, human life is one single family, and every
human life has a value equivalent to the sum total of all human lives. This is
what Qur'ân states, "And if anyone saved a life, it would be as if he/ she saved
the life of the whole people."91 This verse clearly affirms that Islam views
human Ufe as a sacred and praiseworthy thing and this view is strongly
connected to the principles of building peace in part because peacebuilding
approaches presume that human life is valuable and must be protected and
these resources should be used to maintain social balance and prevent violent
conflict.
The ultimate purpose of Qur'ânic revelation for Muslims, as Abu-Nimer
claims, is also to create a peaceful and just social order.92 However, in an
attempt to establish peace and justice, Islam does not totally reject the use of
force. Unlike pacifism, Islam envisages the possibility of the use of force (or
violence) as a last defense in certain conditions, for instance, in a condition in
which Muslims are denied the right of worship. In such a condition, a Muslim
is allowed to apply force.93
Moreover Muslim scholar Abdulaziz Sachedina clarifies the use of the
term pacifism. As Pius XII's motto Opus justitiae pax ("Peace to be a fruit of
justice"), he places greater importance on justice and rejects the type of
pacifism that calls for absolute rejection of all forms of violence without
concern for justice as an "ingredient" of peace. Sachedina reveals that Islam's

90 Ibid., Qur'ân 2:91, 8:61, 60:8.

" Ibid., 5:32.
Abu-Nimer, Nonviolence and Peace Building in Islam, 60.
93 Khwaja Ghulam Saiyidain, Islam: The Religion of Peace (New Delhi: Har-Anand Publications,
1994) 175.

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 220 SUMANTO AL QURTUBY

defensive strategy with regard to hu

rejection of faith. "Pacifism in the sense
opposing all war and armed hostility b
says, "has no place in the Qur'anic doct
projection into not only identifying wit
it on earth."94 Sachedina continues to ar
continuous violation of justice amoun
unjust forces, and that was regarded as a
to God."95 Indeed Islam, as illustrated
forces in certain conditions, for instance
defend human dignity, to protect human
defense, among others.
On one hand Islam promotes peace
blessed, and having a value equivalent
seeing humankind as one single family,9
and legitimises the use of limited forc
and under specific conditions, Islam adm
and violence. Such a dilemma, howe
However there exists a variety of inte
violence and use of force.98

Legitimising Violence in Islam: Altern

Besides the idea of just-war theory

Khadduri, Ibn Khaldūn, and al-Fārā
alternative interpretations on the tex
Satha-Anand (Qader Muheideen), for
"active nonviolent resistance." It is obvio
against injustice cannot be eschewed, but

* Abdulaziz A. Sachedina, "Justifications for V

Pacifism and Quietism in the Abrahamie Trad
Georgetown University Press, 1996), 147.
95 Ibid., 148.
* Qur'än 5:32; 10:09.
97 See for details, Terry Nardin, ed., The Ethics of War and Peace: Religious and Secular
Perspectives (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1998).
98 Niall O'Brien, Island of Tears, Island of Hope: Living the Gospel in a Revolutionary Situation
(Eugene, OR: Orbis Books, 1993), 56.
" Al-Fārābī was perhaps the first Muslim scholar to characterise wars as just or unjust on the
basis of whether they served the individual interest of the ruler or promoted the general good of
the people (Majid Khadduri, War and Peace in the Law of Islam (Richmond, VA: William Byrd
Press, 1955), 172). Basically "just war Muslim theorists" claim that forces/ wars be used to
establish just-peace and to destroy crime.

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THE ISLAMIC ROOTS OF LIBERATION, JUSTICE, AND PEACE 12'

can be avoided. Alternatives to violence must be adopted if the sanctity of life

is to be maintained. Because nonviolent alternatives do exist, he continues, "an
argument can be made that for Muslims to be true to their faith, they have no
alternative but to utilize nonviolent action in the contemporary world."100
Satha-Anand's approach is in line with pacifist models of conflict resolution
and peacebuilding boosted by, among others, Anabaptists who highlight love,
forgiveness, mercy, compassion, and nonviolence as central norms and values.
As a peace scholar and activist, Satha-Anand has been strongly influenced by
pacifist traditions, Mohandas Gandhi's nonviolent resistance and his concepts
of ahimsa101 and satyagraha.101 Like Satha-Anand, I agree that as long as
nonviolent alternatives exist as a means of struggle against injustice,
oppression, and dictatorship, violent ways should be avoided. As the Qur'ân
has revealed, added with the practice of Muhammad (peace be on him),
violence is the last resort if nonviolent actions to stop evil do not work.

It is important to note that the Qur'anic concept of war is based on verses

related to particular events and conditions. At times, they seem to contradict
one another. Therefore, as political scientist Bassam Tibi reminds us, it is not
possible to reconstruct from these verses a single Islamic ethic of war and
peace. Instead, there are a number of different traditions, each of which draws
selectively on the Qur'än to establish legitimacy for its view of war and peace.
Tibi argues that the common foundation for all Islamic concepts of war and
peace is a worldview based on the difference between the house of Islam (dār
al-Islām), the home of peace (dār al-salām), and the non-Muslim world, the
abode of war (dār al-barb)}01 Indeed this distinction was the trademark of the
Islamic system before the globalization and modernization of European

100 Satha-Anand, The Nonviolent Crescent, 34.

101 Ahimsa etymologically means nonviolence but if we look at it from the terminological point
of view, this word has several meanings including the ban of any evil/bad deeds. Ahimsa is a
positive doctrine about love, friendship, and equality (Smith-Christopher, Subverting Hatred ).
102 Satyagraha consists of words Satya = Truth and graha = power, force. This word is often
translated as a "Truth-force." What the exact meaning of Satya or "Truth" by "T" is only
Gandhi knows. Philosophically he said, "The word satya (T ruth) is derived from "Sat" which
means being. And nothing is or exists in reality except Truth. That is why Sat or Truth is
perhaps the most important name of God. In fact, it is more correct to say that the Truth is
God, than to say that God is Truth" (Joan V. Bondurant, Conquest of Violence: The Gandhian
Philosophy of Conflict (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1988), 17). My understanding
is that the concept of satyagraha cannot be separated from ahimsa (nonviolence) which became a
symbol of Gandhi's movements. It could be the word satya ("Truth") here is ahimsa
("nonviolence") itself (ibid.).
103 Bassam Tibi, "War and Peace in Islam," in The Ethics of War and Peace: Religious and Secular
Perspectives, ed. Terry Nardin (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1996), 128-145.

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222 SUMANTO AL QURTUBY

society and the emergence of modern

Interestingly, as Tibi claims, the ex
not Qur'anic; it was coined in the
Islamic kingdoms.105 In other words,
based upon the logic, reason, and spir
and not based on the spirit of Islam
the term "just-war" that some Muslim
of Islam and a misunderstanding of
justice, diversity, pluralism, freedom
term contradicts the meaning of "Isla
war" in Christianity, in my impressio
from Jesus Christ's peaceful and non
Former Grand Muftì of al-Azhar,
1963) in his authoritative textbook
Theology and Islamic Law"), affirms t
and is open to pluralism. Shaltūt q
peoples and tribes to make you k
legitimacy of interpreting scriptur
rejects the idea that Islam must resor
Qur'än, "Had Allah wanted, all peop
Him, would you then dare force fai
same spirit, that is, the spirit of plur
difference, and pluralism, includin
"natural"- granted by God.
Indeed, in various verses, the Q
pluralism and tolerance. Examples ab
and in that which has been revealed t
Abraham and Ishmael and Jacob and
which the Lord revealed to Moses and
Lord. We make no distinction betwe
God."m Again, the Qur'än promises th
Sabians, the Christians - anyone who
does good deeds , will have nothing to

104 Marshall Hodgson, The Venture of Islam

1974); Adam Watson, The Evolution of Intern
(London: Routledge, 1992).
105 Tibi, "War and Peace in Islam," 129-130.
106 Qur'än 49:13.
107 Ibid., 10:99.
lM Ibid., 3:84, emphasis added.
109 Ibid., 5:69; emphasis added.

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THE ISLAMIC ROOTS OF LIBERATION, JUSTICE, AND PEACE ^23

said as "God's proclamation" toward the existence and value of freedom,

harmony, pluralism, safety, egalitarianism, etc. which become fundamental
and inborn rights for all human beings on earth.

Martin Lings, explores the ideas of peace and reconciliation in Islam by

looking at two pivotal moments of Muhammad's life: his initial reconciling
orientation towards others in Madīnah, and his reconciling stance of
Muhammad toward his former foes in Makkah. It is worth noting that after an
initial period of persecution and oppression in Makkah, Muhammad migrated
to Madīnah where his status and community grew, and in 630 CE he came
back to Makkah with his followers and took over the city. When Makkah was
taken there the prophet Muhammad tried to remove resentments of his
enemies on his encounter to then he quoted the story of Joseph (Prophet
Yüsuf) who forgave his brothers, Muhammad (peace be on him) declared,
"Verily I say as my brother Joseph said: This day there shall be no upbraiding of
you nor reproach. God forgiveth you , and He is the most Merciful of the
merciful ."u0

This event of the conquer of Makkah clearly shows the steps taken by the
Holy Prophet for provided a great example of ideas and peace, reconciliation,
and nonviolence.111

What Muhammad (peace be on him) did by living peacefully and

nonviolently with other religious communities was rooted in his
understanding of tolerant-in-pluralism as granted by God. As a result, in so far
as nonviolent ways are still possible, war and any forms of violence should be
avoided. Furthermore war and violence contradict the Divine will and even
oppose the true characteristics of God. It is because, in Islam, the concept of
peace is not mere absence of war and violence nor a condition derived from
the defeat of an enemy or the maintenance of a particular social institution,
but it is drawn from one of the most beautiful names of God (al-asmã' al-
husnā)-al-Salām ("the Peace").112

Conclusion

The narrative and analysis illustrated in the preceding paragraphs can be

concluded as follows. First, the very fundamental teaching and intrinsic belief
of Islam is not about coercion, discrimination, and violence rather than
liberation, justice, and conciliation. Muslim scholars and activists vary in

110 Lings, Muhammad , 300-301.

111 For instance, see Hodgson, The Venture of Islam, 1:194..
112 Qur'an 59:23-24.

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J24 SUMANTO AL QURTUBY

responding to the ideas of Islamic roots

arguments based on the concept of co
others through the power of love
(tasawwuf). Whereas some Islamic s
institutions, others use the power of "lo
Arab cultural practices of peacebuilding
matter what or which perspective an
practitioners use, peace has occupy
precepts, Peace in Islam suggests a sta
social, from which a pattern of harm
condition, it should be noted, is both
job of a Muslim as an adherent of I
addition to "total submission" (to God)

The idea of justice, peace, and liber

because these notions are deeply roote
tawhld which is a principle of unity
achieving political justice, social harm
Tawhld. , moreover, underscores not on
the unity of humanity. "To Allah belo
declares.113 Unity, furthermore, embra
If unity is the truth {haqq) or essenc
concept of tawhld, a Muslim must appro
peaceful ways and harmony. Tawhld acc
the fundamental unity of all humank
reality rooted in conflict, dissention,
essence of peace in Islam in which ea
tawhld as a "peace theology" obliges to b
modern era in which, on one hand, v
countries while on the other both
misunderstood in the West and non-Mus

Third, despite the fact that Islam h

liberation, social justice, and peacebuil
that can potentially be used or misuse
and violence. Again, as I explained
scholars differ in responding to opp
article however maintains that the term
radical Muslim scholars and leaders to
and misunderstanding of the history

113 Ibid., 2:115.

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THE ISLAMIC ROOTS OF LIBERATION, JUSTICE, AND PEACE -J25

nonviolent acts to stop evil do not work. This is to say that as long as
nonviolent peaceful alternatives exist as a means of struggle against injustice
and tyranny, Muslims should avoid violent ways. Tawbid entails and demands
Muslims to erect justice and peace and to struggle for liberation in the society
through civilized peaceful mechanisms.

$ $ $

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