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⎡E ⎤ ⎡X ⎤ ⎡ TE ⎤
⎢ ⎥ ⎢ ⎥ ⎢ ⎥
⎢N ⎥ = λ R κ φ ω ⎢ Y ⎥ + ⎢ TN ⎥ (1)
⎢⎣U ⎥⎦ ⎢⎣ Z ⎥⎦ ⎢⎣ TU ⎥⎦
⎡E ⎤ ⎡X ⎤
⎢ ⎥ ⎢ ⎥
⎢N ⎥ = ( λ ′ + δλ ) RS ⎢ Y ⎥ (2b)
⎢U ⎥ ⎢Z ⎥
⎣ ⎦ ⎣ ⎦
⎡ X ′′ ⎤ ⎡cos φ 0 − sin φ⎤ ⎡ X ′ ⎤ ⎡E ⎤ ⎡X ⎤ ⎡ TE ⎤
⎢ ⎥ ⎢ ⎥⎢ ⎥ ⎢ ⎥ ⎢ ⎥ ⎢ ⎥
⎢ Y ′′ ⎥ = ⎢ 0 1 0 ⎥ ⎢ Y′ ⎥ (12)
⎢N ⎥ = λ R κ φ ω ⎢ Y ⎥ + ⎢ TN ⎥ (1)
⎢⎣ Z ′′ ⎥⎦ ⎢⎣ sin φ 0 cos φ ⎥⎦ ⎢⎣ Z ′ ⎥⎦ ⎢⎣U ⎥⎦ ⎢⎣ Z ⎥⎦ ⎢⎣ TU ⎥⎦
(R φ )
To prove that this transformation is indeed
(iii) Rotation of κ about the new Z ′′ axis. This conformal, i.e. angles between points in the XYZ
rotates the X ′′ and Y ′′ to X ′′′ and Y ′′′ with survey system are preserved when transformed into
the Z ′′ and Z ′′′ axes coincident. the ENU design system, consider the following.
Coordinates in the new system will be given (i) Let three points a, b and c in the survey
by the matrix equation system be transformed into A, B and C in
the design system; points in both systems
⎡ X ′′′ ⎤ ⎡ cos κ sin κ 0⎤ ⎡ X ′′ ⎤ located by vectors a, b, c and A, B, C.
⎢ ⎥ ⎢ ⎥⎢ ⎥
⎢ Y ′′′ ⎥ = ⎢− sin κ cos κ 0⎥ ⎢ Y ′′ ⎥ (13)
Using (1) with R as the rotation matrix and t
⎢⎣ Z ′′′ ⎥⎦ ⎢⎣ 0 0 1⎥⎦ ⎢⎣ Z ′′ ⎥⎦ as the vector of translations, we may write
( κ)
R the transformation of a to A as
⎡ X ′′′ ⎤ ⎡X ⎤ ⎡X ⎤
⎢ ⎥ ⎢ ⎥ ⎢ ⎥
⎢ Y ′′′ ⎥ = R κ R φ Rω ⎢ Y ⎥ = R κ φ ω ⎢ Y ⎥ (14)
⎢⎣ Z ′′′ ⎥⎦ ⎢⎣ Z ⎥⎦ ⎢⎣ Z ⎥⎦
with
5
U C 2
• (a) u = uT u
Ru = ( Ru) Ru = u T R T Ru = u T u
c E
• (b)
2 T
b
•
θ v
u Equating (a) and (b) gives Ru = u which
•a
can be substituted into (18) to give
X Y
Ru u
U= =R = Ru (19)
u u
Figure 4. Conformal transformation
of two vectors.
and using similar reasoning
(ii) Let θ be the angle at a in the survey system
between the vectors u = b − a and V = Rv (20)
v = c − a ; and θ′ the complementary angle
at A in the design system between vectors (v) In the design system the angle θ′ between U
U = B − A and V = C − A . and V is given by the dot product
cos θ′ = U • V = U T V and using (19)
(iii) In the survey system, the angle between the and (20) we may write
vectors is found from the vector dot product
of unit vectors u and v
cos θ′ = ( Ru) Rv = u T R T Rv = u T v
T
(21)
cos θ = u • v = u 1v1 + u 2 v 2 + u 3 v3
Comparing (17) and (21) shows that θ = θ′ and
where u 1 , u 2 , u 3 and v1 , v 2 , v3 are the constitutes a proof that angles are preserved by the
transformation (1). [Baetslé (1966) has a similar
components of the two unit vectors, noting proof but in a slightly different form.]
u
that a unit vector is defined as u =
u Conformal mapping has a long mathematical
where u is the magnitude. history. Vlcek (1966) in a discussion paper on the
topic notes that the famous French mathematician
The dot product is equivalent to a matrix
Liouville (1847) determined all the conformal
multiplication, hence
transformations in an analytical way and in a
theorem bearing his name showed that the only
cos θ = u • v = u T v (17) ways of conformal representation of space on itself
are:
(iv) In the design system we may use (16) to
write 1. by translation and rotation, accompanied
by constant magnification,
U = B − A = λ R b + t − (λ R a + t) = λ R u 2. by inversion with respect to the sphere,
which, at the very least, demonstrates that
and the unit vector U conformal 3D transformations have been with us
for a long time.
λRu Ru
U = = (18)
λRu Ru
6
THE 3D ROTATION MATRIX FOR SMALL ANGLES CENTROIDAL COORDINATES
For small angles δω , δφ , δκ the rotation matrix In a solution for the transformation parameters, the
R κ φ ω may be simplified by the approximations three translations TE , TN and TU can be
eliminated by adopting a system of "centroidal"
cos δω ≈ 1 coordinates, i.e. a system of coordinates whose
origin is at the centroid of the n control points.
sin δφ ≈ δφ (radians)
sin δκ sin δω ≈ 0 Denoting the coordinates of the centroid (in both
systems) with a subscript g
and (15) becomes the anti-symmetric (or skew-
symmetric) matrix (Harvey 1986). X1 + X 2 + + X n
Xg =
n
⎡ 1 δκ −δφ⎤ Y1 + Y2 + + Yn
⎢ ⎥ Yg = (24)
RS = ⎢− δκ 1 δω ⎥ (22) n
⎢⎣ δφ −δω 1 ⎥⎦ Z1 + Z 2 + + Z n
Zg =
n
It should be noted that RS is no longer orthogonal
and similarly for E g , N g and U g . Centroidal
but its inverse will, nevertheless, be given by its
transpose ( RS−1 = RST ), since it is the approximate coordinates (denoted with an over-bar) are
7
the rotations are small. Bearing this in mind ⎡δω ⎤
(noting that a method of determining the ⎢ δφ ⎥ ⎡Ei − λ′ Xi ⎤
⎢ ⎥
parameters of an initial transformation is discussed x = ⎢ ⎥, fi = ⎢N i − λ ′ Yi ⎥
⎢ δκ ⎥
later) we may use (23) to write for each of the n ⎢ ⎥ ⎢U i − λ ′ Z i ⎥
⎣ ⎦
control points an equation of the form ⎣ δλ ⎦
where vE , v N and vU are residuals at the control with the solution for the parameters as
points. Now, since the rotation angles and δλ are
( )
−1
small, their products will be negligible x = BT WB B T Wf (30a)
( δλ δR ≈ 0 ), thus (27) can be expanded and re-
arranged as where W is the weight matrix associated with the
observations, which in this case are the triplets of
⎡δω ⎤ centroidal coordinates X i , Yi , Z i and E i , N i , U i .
⎡ vE ⎤ ⎡ 0 −Z Y X ⎤ ⎢ ⎥
⎢ ⎥ ⎢ ⎥ δφ
⎢vN ⎥ + λ ′ ⎢ Z 0 −X Y ⎥ ⎢ ⎥ Mikhail (1976 pp. 64-66) defines weight matrices
⎢ δκ ⎥ W, cofactor matrices Q and variance-covariance
⎢⎣ vU ⎥⎦ ⎢− Y X 0 Z ⎥⎢ ⎥
⎣ ⎦ δλ matrices Σ as follows
⎣ ⎦ (28)
⎡E ⎤ ⎡X⎤
⎢ ⎥ ⎢ ⎥ W = Q −1 (30b)
= ⎢N ⎥ − λ′ ⎢ Y ⎥
⎢U ⎥ ⎢Z ⎥
⎣ ⎦ ⎣ ⎦
Σ = σ 02 Q (30c)
An equation of the form of (28) can be written for
each control point and represented symbolically in where the elements of Q are estimates of the
partitioned matrix form as variances and covariances of the observations and
σ 02 is the reference variance whose posteriori
⎡ v1 ⎤ ⎡ B1 ⎤ ⎡ f1 ⎤ estimate is (Mikhail 1976, p. 288)
⎢v ⎥ ⎢B ⎥ ⎢f ⎥
⎢ 2⎥ + ⎢ 2⎥x = ⎢ 2⎥
⎢ ⎥ ⎢ ⎥ ⎢ ⎥
(29a)
σ 02 =
v T Wv f Wf − x B Wf
=
T T T
( ) (30d)
⎢ ⎥ ⎢ ⎥ ⎢ ⎥ n−u n−u
⎣ v n ⎦ ⎣ Bn ⎦ ⎣fn ⎦
n and u are the number of observations and
where each component v i ( i = 1, 2, … , n ) of the
unknown parameters respectively.
vector of residuals v and Bi of the matrix of
coefficients B is The partitioned form of W in (30a) is
⎡ vE i ⎤ ⎡ 0 −Zi Yi X i ⎤ ⎡W1 0 0 ⎤
⎢ ⎥
⎢ ⎥
v i = ⎢ v N i ⎥ , Bi = λ ′ ⎢ Z i 0 − X i Yi ⎥
⎢0 W 0 ⎥
W=⎢
2 ⎥ (30e)
⎢⎣ vU i ⎥⎦ ⎢− Yi X i 0 Z i ⎥⎦ ⎢ ⎥
⎣ ⎢ ⎥
⎣0 0 Wn ⎦
and the vector of parameters x and the
components fi of the vector of numeric terms f where each diagonal element Wi contains weights
are associated with the coordinate triplets of each i th
control point, and the elements of Wi must be
obtained from a pre-analysis of the survey
techniques used to determine their values. The
off-diagonal elements of W are null matrices,
8
indicating that the observations (coordinate
triplets) are considered to be independent of each (ii) In the survey system, the angle θ between
other. the vectors is found from the dot product
magnitude. Centroid
9
Figure 5. ξ ηζ coordinate system where the left-hand-side of (39) can be
considered as an initial transformation of the
survey coordinates. Thus with an
(iii) The ξ ηζ and X Y Z centroidal systems,
approximate rotation matrix R A = R 2T R1
are rotated with respect to each other, the
ξ -axis making angles α1 , β1 , γ 1 with the and the approximate scale factor λ A we
have (32) as given above where
X , Y and Z -axes respectively. Similarly,
the η and ζ -axes make angles α 2 , β 2 , γ 2
and α 3 , β3 , γ 3 . The elements of q are the ⎡R 11 R 12 R 13 ⎤
⎢ ⎥
direction cosines cosα1 , cosβ1 and cos γ 1 RA = R 2T R1 = ⎢R 21 R 22 R 23 ⎥ (40)
(Wolf 1974) and ⎢⎣R 31 R 32 R 33 ⎥⎦
ξ = X cos α1 + Y cos β1 + Z cos λ1 (36a) R A has the same form as R κ φ ω (15) and values of
the approximate rotations ω A , φ A and κ A can be
or calculated from
ξ = X q1 + Y q 2 + Z q 3 (36b) −R 21
tan κ A = (41)
R 11
Similarly for the elements of a and p we
may write
R 11
cos φ A = (42)
η = X a1 + Y a 2 + Z a 3 cos κ ′
(36c)
ζ = X p1 + Y p2 + Z p3
10
An example computation of the transformation
parameters and residuals of a simple plane figure Harvey, B.R. 1986, 'Transformation of 3D co-
ABC with measured XYZ coordinates and ENU ordinates', The Australian Surveyor, Vol. 33, No.
design coordinates is provided in the Appendix. 2, June 1986, pp. 105-125.
11
Sprott, J. S. 1983, 'Least squares reinstatement', matrix Rκ φ ω with values κ = 10 ,
The Australian Surveyor, Vol. 31, No. 8,
φ = 94 , ω = 310 then (iii) rounding the
December 1983, pp. 543-556.
transformed centroidal coordinates to the
Vlcek, J. 1966, 'Discussion paper: Simultaneous nearest 0.1m and "adding back"
three-dimensional transformation', E g , N g and U g .
Photogrammetric Engineering, Vol. 32, No. 2,
March 1966, pp. 178-180. The solution for the transformation parameters is
accomplished in the following steps.
Wolf, P. R. 1974, Elements of Photogrammetry,
McGraw–Hill, New York. Step 1: Shift the origin of the survey system to
the centroid by subtracting X g , Yg and
APPENDIX
Z g from the coordinates of A B and C
Calculation of transformation parameters between then calculate the unit vectors a and b .
survey and design locations of the figure ABC.
A B C
X -240.000 380.000 -140.000
Survey system X, Y, Z
Y 20.000 -240.000 220.000
1620.0 X
B 740.0 Y Z 120.000 -540.000 420.000
340.0 Z
Table 1. Survey system centroidal coordinates
A
1000.0 X • 1240.0 X g
1000.0 Y Centroid 980.0 Y g a = −240 i + 20 j + 120 k
1000.0 Z 880.0 Z g
a = −0.891953 i + 0.074329 j + 0.445976 k
C
1100.0 X
b = 380 i − 240 j − 540 k
1200.0 Y b = 0.540874 i − 0.341605 j − 0.768610 k
1300.0 Z
b×a
p = = p1 i + p 2 j + p 3 k
Figure A sin θ
= − 0.181090 i + 0.845086 j − 0.503027 k
Note: In Figure A the ENU design system
coordinates have been generated from the
Step 4: Use the vector cross product (35) to
XYZ survey system coordinates by (i)
calculate the unit vector q perpendicular
shifting to the centroid of ABC,
(ii) transforming to E , N and U using (2) to a and p
with a scale factor λ = 1 and rotation
12
q = a × p = q1 i + q 2 j + q 3 k ⎡Q1 Q 2 Q3 ⎤
= − 0.414278 i − 0.529438 j − 0.740317 k ⎢ ⎥
R 2 = ⎢ A1 A 2 A3 ⎥
⎢P P P ⎥
⎣ 1 2 3⎦
Step 5: Form the rotation matrix R1 in (37) from ⎡ 0.933776 0.065506 −0.351812⎤
⎢
the elements of the unit vectors q , a and = ⎢ −0.327359 −0.240782 −0.913707 ⎥⎥
p ⎢⎣ −0.144563 0.968366 −0.203392⎥⎦
A B C −R 21 −0.012267
-88.100 540.600 -452.500 tan κ A = =
E R 11 −0.068675
N -64.800 168.100 -103.300
κ A = 190o 07 ′ 39′′
U -245.900 416.100 -170.200
13
Table 3. Initial Survey system centroidal ⎡ vE A ⎤ ⎡ 0.011 ⎤
coordinates (Iteration 1) ⎢v ⎥ ⎢ 0.006 ⎥
⎢ EB ⎥ ⎢ ⎥
⎢ vE C ⎥ ⎢−0.016 ⎥
The least squares solution of δλ (correction to the ⎢ ⎥ ⎢ ⎥
approximate scale factor) δω , δφ and δκ (small ⎢vN A ⎥ ⎢ 0.009 ⎥
rotation angles) follows; noting that the ⎢ v N ⎥ = ⎢−0.002 ⎥ metres
⎢ B⎥ ⎢ ⎥
approximate scale factor is assumed to be unity ⎢vN C ⎥ ⎢−0.008 ⎥
(λ ′ = 1) . ⎢v ⎥ ⎢ 0.037 ⎥
⎢ UA ⎥ ⎢ ⎥
⎢ vU B ⎥ ⎢−0.011 ⎥
Step 11: With a re-arrangement of the order of ⎢v ⎥ ⎢−0.026 ⎥
residuals in (30) the coefficient matrix B ⎣ UC ⎦ ⎣ ⎦
becomes
and the transformed centroidal
⎡ 0 245.8534 −64.7877 −88.0833⎤ coordinates of A, B and C can be found
from (2b) with the elements of RS given
⎢ 0 −416.0761 168.0919 540.5791⎥
⎢ ⎥ above ( δω = 0.28′′ , δφ = −171
. ′′ ,
⎢ 0 170.2227 −103.3042 −452.4958⎥
⎢ ⎥ δκ = 0.40′′ ) and
⎢ −245.8534 0 88.0833 −64.7877 ⎥
λ ′ + δλ = 1.000 041 870 .
⎢ 416.0761 0 −540.5791 168.0919⎥
⎢ ⎥
⎢ −170.2227 0 452.4958 −103.3042⎥ A B C
⎢ 64.7877 −88.0833 0 −245.8534 ⎥ X -88.0892 540.6055 -452.5164
⎢ ⎥
⎢ −168.0919 540.5791 0 416.0761⎥ Y -64.7906 168.0985 -103.3079
⎢ 103.3042 −452.4958
⎣ 0 −170.2227 ⎥⎦ Z -245.8635 416.0888 -170.2259
and the vector of numeric terms is Table 4. Survey system centroidal coordinates
(Iteration 2)
⎡−0.0167 ⎤
⎢ 0.0209⎥ Step 14: A second iteration using the centroidal
⎢ ⎥ coordinates of Table 4 gives solutions as
⎢ −0.0042⎥
⎢ ⎥
⎢ −0.0123⎥ ⎡δω ⎤ ⎡ 3.27 × 10−8 ⎤ radians ⎡0.01 ⎤ sec
f = ⎢ 0.0081⎥ ⎢ δφ ⎥ ⎢ ⎥ ⎢ ⎥
⎢ ⎥ ⎢ 3.22 × 10−9 ⎥ radians ⎢0.01 ⎥ sec
⎢ ⎥ x= = =
⎢ 0.0042⎥ ⎢ δκ ⎥ ⎢ 176. × 10−8 ⎥ radians ⎢0.00 ⎥ sec
⎢ −0.0466⎥ ⎢ ⎥ ⎢ −8 ⎥ ⎢ ⎥
⎢ ⎥ ⎣ δλ ⎦ ⎢⎣ −3.13 × 10 ⎥⎦ ⎣0.031⎦ ppm
⎢ 0.0239⎥
⎢ 0.0227 ⎥ These solutions, which are at least an order of
⎣ ⎦
magnitude less than the corrections of the first
iteration (demonstrating that the solution is
Step 12: Forming the matrix products B T B converging) are probably due to rounding errors in
(normal coefficient matrix) and B T f the calculations and the first iteration results can
(vector of numeric terms) and solving be assumed as "exact".
(31) gives the solution as To transform any additional points in the XYZ
survey system to the ENU design system the
⎡δω ⎤ ⎡ 1.38 × 10−6 ⎤ radians ⎡ 0.28 ⎤ sec following process should be adopted:
⎢ δφ ⎥ ⎢ ⎥ ⎢ . ⎥ sec
−8.30 × 10−6 ⎥ radians ⎢−171
x=⎢ ⎥=⎢ = ⎥
(a) convert to centroidal coordinates then
⎢ δκ ⎥ ⎢ 1.93 × 10−6 ⎥ radians ⎢ 0.40 ⎥ sec
⎢ ⎥ ⎢ −5 ⎥ ⎢ ⎥ perform an initial transformation as per Step
⎣ δλ ⎦ ⎢⎣4.1870 × 10 ⎥⎦ . ⎦ ppm
⎣ 41870 10 using (32) with the numerical values of
R A as determined in Step 9,
14
⎡X ⎤ ⎡X ⎤
⎢ ⎥ ⎢ ⎥
⎢Y⎥ = λ A RA ⎢ Y ⎥ (32)
⎢Z ⎥ ⎢Z ⎥
⎣ ⎦ IN ITIAL ⎣ ⎦ O RIGIN AL
⎡E ⎤ ⎡ X ⎤ ⎡ Eg ⎤
⎢ ⎥ ⎢ ⎥ ⎢ ⎥
⎢N ⎥ = (1 + δλ ) RS ⎢ Y ⎥ + ⎢N g ⎥
⎢⎣U ⎥⎦ ⎢ Z ⎥ ⎢U g ⎥
⎣ ⎦ ⎣ ⎦
15