Characteristics of Foaming Slag in Smelting Reduction Processes
Dr S K Dutta, Member
R Sah, Non-member
Smelting reduction processes, without using coke, are alternative ironmaking technologies for production of hot metal.
Gases, which are generated due to reaction, cannot be removed from the reactor without foaming of the slag.
Characteristics of foaming slag are important in the smelting reduction processes. Main foaming parameters are foaming
index and foam life.In this paper measurement of foaming index and influence of additives on foam are discussed.
Keywords : Alternate ironmaking ; Non-coking coal ; Slag foam ; Foaming index ; Foam life
INTRODUCTION
Blast furnace (BF) ironmaking technology has dominated the world
scenario as most economic and widespread resource of iron used
in steelmaking. Till today, BFs have played a major role in achieving
high degree of gas utilisation. However, this dominancy of BF
technology has been facing problems due to shortage of
1
metallurgical coke and higher investment cost . As shown in Table
1, the availability of coking coal in India is limited (15.4% only of the
2 Foaming slag provides a large surface area and the chemical reactions
total reserve). while it has a huge reserve of non-coking coal .
The need of an alternative ironmaking technology arises to complement
BF process in order to produce hot metal using non-coking coal. Such
processes are known as Smelting Reduction (SR) Processes. The term
smelting reduction is used to designate processes for the production of
3
hot metal without using metallurgical coke . Recently, the smelting
reduction process, for production of liquid iron, has received
considerable attention due to its many advantages, such as lower
capital cost (due to absence of auxiliary units), high production rate, and
4 understand the fundamental features of slag foaming in the process.
the diversity of charging materials .
In most of the smelting reduction processes, coal and iron ore are
injected into an iron bath, the main reactions are the cracking of the
coal and the reduction of iron oxide in the slag phase by solid carbon
and carbon dissolved in metal. Therefore, a large amount of CO and H 2
gases are evolved when a high production rate is maintained. The
gases at the slag-metal or slag-carbon interface, as a result, form
bubbles and the volume of the slag increases extensively due to
5
foaming , ie, the gases cannot come out from the reactor through the
slag phase without foaming. Slag foams are formed, when gas bubbles
entrapped in the slag can not readily coalesce and foam
Table 1 Coal reserves in India2
Type of Coal Reserves, Mt Percentage of Total
Coking coal 28 031 15.4
Non-coking coal 148 284 81.3
Lignite 5 978 3.3
Total 182 293 100.0
Dr S K Dutta is with the Metallurgical Engineering Department, Faculty
of Technology and Engineering, M S University of Baroda, Vadodara
390 001; and R Sah is with the Mechanical Engineering Department,
Institute of Technology, Nirma University, Ahmedabad.
This paper was received on September 12, 2005. Written discussion on
the paper will be received until January 31, 2006.
54
comprises a system of tightly packed bubbles separated
from one another by thin films of liquid slag. In true foam, the
liquid is eliminated from the films separating the bubbles by
drainage and thus a high viscosity, by retarding the rate of
6
drainage, tends to stabilise the foam . On the other hand,
the energy requirement for formation of foam increases with
increasing surface tension, and hence, low surface tensions
are favourable for both formation and durability of foam.
proceed more favourably. Slag foaming becomes the production rate
limiting step in the process. At a high production rate, the slag can foam
out of the reactor, which is somewhat similar to the slopping
4
phenomenon in oxygen steelmaking . The foaming slag is also
important, because it is the medium for post combustion and heat
transfer, which is the key to an energy efficient process. Hence, foamed
slag plays an important role in heat transfer from the post combustion
flame to the bulk slag in the reactor. Therefore, slag foaming is
important in the smelting reduction process, and it is critical to
FOAMING PARAMETERS
Foaming Index
Considerable research activities were concentrated toward
understanding the foaming behaviour of slag in the past decade, the
4,5,7,8
major contribution coming from Fruehan and co-workers . They
measured the foaming behavior of different slags. To
5
quantify the foaming behaviour, Ito and Fruehan defined
the foaming index (Σ, s) of the slag as
s (1)
∑ = h / Vg
where h is the height (cm) of the foam at steady state when gas
s
with superficial velocity (Vg , cm /s) is passed through it.
s
The superficial gas velocity (Vg ) is defined as
s
V g =Qg /A (2)
Q 3
where g is a volumetric gas flow rate (cm /s) and A is
2
cross-sectional area (cm ) of the reactor.
The superficial gas velocity is also correlated to the void function (α),
IE(I) Journal-MM
 V Therefore,
volumetric fraction of gas, and the actual gas velocity ( g ,cm /s)
s (3) (8)
V g = α Vg Rate of volume change due to bubble rupture = k NV b
assumed to be proportional to the number of bubbles. Assume that
the kinetics of bubble ruptures follow first order rate equation.
The foam height (h) is expressed as a function of void
function and foam layer thickness (L , cm) Vol 86, October 2005
h=αL

(4
)

Using equations (8) and (9), equation (7) can be written as:
Finally, foaming index is expressed in terms of the foam layer d V /dt =Q − k αV (10)
and actual gas velocity as
(5) 3
∑= L /Vg where Q is the rate of gas generation or injection (cm /s).
If foam is produced in a reactor of uniform cross sectional
From equation (5) it is clear that foaming index means the average
area, the equation (10) can be written as:
gas travelling time through the foamed layer. This equation is valid
when void function (α) is independent of foam height (h), ie, void
function can be assumed as constant. The foaming index was found
to be independent of reactor size for reactor diameter greater than 3
4
cm and depends only on the physical properties of the slag .
Knowing the foaming index of the slag, the gas evolution rate, and
the reactor size, the foam height in any process can be calculated.

The foaming index means the foaming ability of the slag in the
foam caused by blowing gas. So, the foaming index has been
correlated as a function of the physical properties such as the
density, viscosity, and surface tension of the liquid slag. Zhang
7
and Fruehan have demonstrated that the foaming index is also
inversely proportional to the gas bubble size. For dimensional
4
analysis, Jiang and Fruehan have assumed that the foaming
index is a function of all the variables and dimensional
constants that may affect the foaming index (Σ).

Therefore,
∑ = f ( µ, σ , ρ, d b ) (6)

where µ, σ, and ρ are the viscosity (g /cm-s), surface

2 3
tension (g /s ), and density (g /cm ) of slag respectively,
and db is the gas bubble diameter (cm).

Foam Life

9
The foam volume is determined by the balance equation

Rate of change of foam volume = {(rate of gas generation

or injection)-(rate of volume change due to bubble rupture)} (7)

The gas bubble rupture on the top layer of foam causes a decrease
in foam volume because of gas escape. Bubble rupture inside the
foam leads to bubble coalescence and, consequently, a change in
the liquid film thickness between the bubbles and their packing.
Coalescence of bubbles also leads to a decrease in foam volume.
Besides, non-uniform bubbles, which are produced by coalescence,
make the foam unstable. Hence, the bubble rupture rate can be
where k, N and Vb are the rate constant for bubble rupture
-1
(s ), total number of bubbles, and average volume of a gas
3
bubble (cm ), respectively.

The total volume of foam and the bubbles volume are can be
related by:
α = NV /V (9)
b
where α is the average void fraction and V is the volume of foam
3
(cm ).
s (11)
d h /dt = V g − k α h

Foaming index is defined by equation (1), so equation (11) becomes:

d h /d t = ( h / ∑ )− k αh (12)

Therefore, at steady state, equation (12) can be written as:

∑ = 1/( α k) (13)

The bubble rupture takes place due to drainage of the liquid.

The average foam life (τ, s) is defined as
10
τ = (1/V0 )∫ t d V (14)
3
where V0 is an initial liquid volume (cm ) in foam.
Again,
− kt (15)
V = V (1 − e )
0
Therefore,

−kt (16)
d V /d t = kV e
0
Combining equations (14) and (16) can be written as:

− kt (17)
τ=k∫te d t = 1/k

Foam life (τ) is the time (s) required to drain the liquid entrapped
between two consecutive layers of bubbles, the rate constant (k) for
bubble rupture is inversely proportional to foam life (τ). Again by
combining equations (13) and (17), can be written as:
τ = α∑ (18)

Equation (18) shows the relationship between foaming index

and foam life. For an ideal slag (ie, a slag of constant void
fraction) the foaming index is equal to the average foam life.
55
MEASUREMENT OF FOAMING INDEX
5,8
Fruehan and co-workers used a molybdenum disilicide
resistance furnace for experiment. Slag was taken in an alumina
crucible (41 mm intenal diameter and 300 mm height). Argon gas
was introduced into the molten slag through an alumina tube (1.57
mm intenal diameter). When foam height reached a steady state
level, the foam-gas interface was detected by two molybdenum wire
probes (0.76 mm φ). They observed that the foam height increases
linearly with the increasing superficial gas velocity (Figure 1). The
foaming index is obtained from the slope of the line shown in Figure
1. Similar experiments were also carried out at different
temperatures. As shown in Figure 2, the foaming index decreases
with increasing temperature because of a decrease
in viscosity and an increase in surface tension. Similar
11
observations were also made by Wu, et al .
surface tension increased and viscosity decreased with increasing
CaO in slag. Therefore, low surface tension and high viscosity
stabilised the slag foam. On the other hand, foaming index
increased with increasing basicity, when basicity was greater than
the liquidus composition. This was because solid particles such as
2CaO. SiO2 and CaO precipitated at higher CaO content and the
particles significantly increased the foam stability. Therefore, the
precipitation of second phase particles had a larger effect than the
increase in surface tension and decrease in viscosity on foam
stability. Table 2 shows the laboratory experimental data of foaming
index for smelting reduction slag at 1773 K.
20
CaO-SiO2-FeO-Al2O3
10 FeO=30%, Al2O3=3%-5%

Σ s,
5
5
Ito and Fruehan found that the foaming index was independent of
reactor diameter (>3.2 cm) and wall effects were small. Foaming index 1573 K
decreased with increasing basicity (B = CaO / SiO 2) upto a maximum 2 1673 K
(B=1.2 to 1.22) and then increased (Figure 3) at 1673K due to presence
of second phase particles (CaO or 2CaO. SiO2). The
1
1.50 2.0
0 0.5 1.0 1.5
CaO/(SiO2+Al2O3)
1.25 Figure 3 Relation between foaming index Σ and the basicity ratio of the
height, cm

1.00 slag at 1573K and 1673 K

Table 2 Foaming Index for Smelting Reduction Slag at 1773 K

0.75
Basicity Slag Addition to Foaming Reference
(CaO/SiO2) Composition the Slag, % Index (Σ , s)
gFoamin

0.50
0.50 30% CaO 10% CaF2 2.000

0.25 60% SiO2

1.00 - 5% FeO 1.400
7.5% FeO 1.200
0.00 10% FeO 0.900
12.5% FeO 0.800
15% FeO 0.750
0.00 0.50 1.00 1.50 2.00 2.50 1.25 - 0% FeO 0.600
Superficial gas velocity, cm/s 3% FeO 1.300
Figure 1 The relation between foam height and gas flow rate for a 48 % 5% FeO 0.900
CaO - 32 % SiO2 -10 % Al2O3 - 10 % FeO slag at 1873 K 7.5% FeO 0.800 Jiang and
10% FeO 0.800 Fruehan4
1.50 15% FeO 0.700
1.50 45% CaO 0% FeO 2.900
30% SiO2 1% FeO 2.000
10% MgO 3% FeO 1.600
1.25 15% Al2O3 6% FeO 1.300
9% FeO 1.200
1.10 37.2% CaO -
Forming index

33.8% SiO2 0.387

1.00 18% MgO
11% Al2O3
1.60 41.2% CaO -
25.8% SiO2 1.073
0.75
8% MgO
Wu, et al 11
2 3

0.50 15% Al O
2.00 48.7% CaO
24.3% SiO2 20% CaF2 0.681
7% MgO
1700 1750 1800 1850 1900 2.60 47.7% CaO
18.3% SiO2 20% CaF2 1.170
Temperature, K
9% MgO
Figure 2 Effect of temperature on foaming index for a slag containing 10% Al2O3
48% CaO, 32% SiO2, 10% Al2O3, and 10% FeO

56 IE(I) Journal-MM
 4
Jiang and Fruehan have conducted slag forming measurements in
terms of the foaming index on reduction smelting slags (CaO - SiO2

- FeO, CaO - SiO2 - MgO - Al2O3 - FeO) at 1773 K and found

that the slag foam stability decreases with increasing FeO (>2
%) content and basicity. For the slag system (CaO - SiO 2 -
FeO), no stable foam was observed at very low FeO content (< Foam
2%). As percent of FeO increases, the slag foaming index goes
through a maximum and then decreases. Foams formed from
gases, resulting from chemical reactions on metal surfaces,
Pellet
have significantly smaller bubbles and more stability.

INFLUENCE OF ADDITIVES ON FOAM

Coke can reduce slag foaming in steelmaking processes. It was

reported that top injection of coke was very effective in controlling
excess foaming during smelting reduction of iron chrome ore. The use
of carbonaceous particles in controlling foaming had been experimented
on 1 t smelting reduction furnace at Sakai Works, Nippon Steel Dense-slag
Corporation, Osaka-fu, Japan as pilot scale bath-smelting
12 7
experiments . Zhang and Fruehan observed that the foam height
was found to decrease significantly with the increase of the ratio of the
carbonaceous particles to that of the slag. X-ray examinations showed
that small gas bubbles ruptured and spread over the surface of a coke
particle present in the slag. Then several spread bubbles coalesced and Figure 4 Iron ore pellet in foaming slag
evolved from the top of the coke particle as a single larger bubble. Table 3 Effect of Number of Particle and Size of Coke on Foaming Index
Wettable particles showed a completely different behaviour when at 0.5 Slag Basicity7
interacting with the foaming slag. The X-ray images of an iron ore pellet Diameter of Coke Number of Particles Foaming Index
7 Particle, mm (Σ, s)
in the foamed slag is shown in Figure 4 . The iron ore pellet is totally
3 0 1.65
immersed in the foaming slag. The foam grew and passed the pellet
2 1.10
without any gas bubbles being ruptured or coalesced, even when some 6 0 1.80
of the mechanical movement was applied to the pellet. The wettability of 1 0.90
the solid particle with the liquid slag plays a key role in slag foaming. 4 0.62
8 0 3.60
1 1.30
5 5 0.51
Ito and Fruehan studied the effect of P2O5, sulphur, MgO, and 10 0 2.00
CaF2 on foaming of slag. Potassium (K), phosphorous (P), and 2 0.75
sulphur (S) are surface active components, which lower the surface 4 0.47

tension of the slag. P2O5 slightly increases foaming index (Σ) 6 Added 76 µm coke
whereas marginally decreases foaming index indicating surface
5 Added 110 µm coke
tension alone does not determine slag foamability. CaF 2 decreased No additive
foaming index by lowering the viscosity of the slag. Large addition
h, cm

4 Added 1 µm coke
of CaF2 significantly decreases the foam stability by increasing Added 3 µm coke
CaO solubility and consequently dissolving some of the second
phase particles. MgO increases foaming index probably because it 3
Foam height,

increases the amount of solid particles in the slag.

2
7
Zhang and Fruehan found that the anti-foam effect of coke or coal
1
char particles was primarily contributed by the non-wetting nature of
11
the carbonaceous materials with the liquid slag. Wu, et al also 00 2
investigated foaming behaviour of slag with addition of additives
such as coal, coke, graphite and CaO. The effect of different coke
1 3 4
size on the foam behaviour of slag at 1773 K is shown in Figure 5.
-1
The foam height increases with fine powder coke (76 µm and 105 Flow rate,V, cm-s
µm) and decreases with grain coke (1 mm and 3 mm). Effect of Figure 5 Effect of various coke sizes on form behavior of sample slag at
number of particle and size of coke on foaming index for laboratory 1773 K
7 13
experimental data is shown in Table 3 . In the smelting reduction Hara and Ogino also studied the effect of surface active components
process of the thick slag layer, it is very important to keep slag on foaming of slag. They found that vigorous foaming appears when the
height stable without abnormal slag foaming. Adding carbonaceous slag contains components, which stabilize the bubble, especially
material can control the slag foaming. surface active components such as SiO2, P2O5, and CaF2.
Vol 86, October 2005 57
The mechanism of the stabilization of the foam is
considered to be a surface tension driven flow, namely,
the Marangoni effect. This effect also plays an important
role in the suppression of foaming by coke addition.
SUMMARY
The slag foaming is an important factor for the smelting reduction
process. To quantify the foaming behavior, the foaming index (S) of
the slag is measured. The foaming index means the foaming ability
of the slag in the foam caused by injecting of gas. For an ideal slag
(ie, a slag of constant void fraction) the foaming index is equal to
the average foam life. The control of the foaming index is required
for steady state operation in the smelting reduction process.
Foaming index decreases with increasing basicity up to a
maximum and then increases due to presence of second phase
particles (CaO or 2CaO.SiO2). The slag foam stability
decreases with increasing FeO content and basicity. The
foaming index decreases with increasing temperature because
of a decrease in viscosity and an increase in surface tension.
The anti-foam effect of coke or coal char particles was primarily
contributed by the non-wetting nature of the carbonaceous
materials with the liquid slag. Adding carbonaceous material can
control the slag foaming. Wettability between the particle and
the slag is the key factor in determining the ability of the particle
to control foaming of slag.
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58 IE(I) Journal-MM