Professional Documents
Culture Documents
AT‐GRADE INTERSECTION
Associate Professor Ir. Dr. Leong Lee Vien
TOPIC OUTCOMES We l e a d
• Able to identify local standards (JKR and LLM) for at‐grade
junctions.
• Able to explain different types of sight distances in junction
design.
• Able to describe different junctions' types and means of traffic
control.
• Able to describe the role of acceleration and deceleration lanes
in enhancing junction capacity.
• Able to consider safety issues in junction layout such as
provision of central divider, refuge lanes, avoidance of traffic
conflict, lane balance, junction location.
• Able to explain the function of traffic islands to enhance traffic
safety.
INTRODUCTION We l e a d
• Junction/intersection refers to the area where two or more
highways meet or intersect.
• Intersection area may be located on the same or at different levels.
• Hence, two general types – at‐grade and grade separated
intersection.
• Good junction design promotes safety since vehicle traffic streams
merge, diverge, turn, cross with each other at junctions.
• Hence, many accidents take place at junctions!
• Solution via grade separated is a costly option.
• Engineers must ensure all vehicle activities at junction takes place
SAFELY and minimum DELAY.
• Reference:
– Arahan Teknik (Jalan) 8/86 – A Guide on Geometric Design of Roads
– Arahan Teknik (Jalan) 11/87 – A Guide to the Design of At‐Grade Intersections
– Meor Othman Hamzah (1989). Rekabentuk Geometri Jalan dan Lebuhraya,
Penerbit USM.
TYPES OF MOVEMENT/CONFLICT We l e a d
Crossing-vehicle
Turning-vehicle path crosses other
turns to another traffic stream
direction perpendicularly
In practice, there are a variety of junction configuration
due to:
• Number of approach roads.
• Types of traffic control enforced.
• Six basic shapes:
Three‐legged
Four‐legged
Five‐legged
TYPES OF AT‐GRADE INTERSECTION We l e a d
• Junctions incorporating traffic islands and flared corners.
TYPES OF AT‐GRADE INTERSECTION We l e a d
• Based on traffic control techniques, the following
junctions emerged:
– Priority or stop‐controlled junction
– Rroundabout
– Signalised junction
• Traffic control is mandated to avoid accidents by
minimising the occurrence of traffic conflict.
• Each junction type is reinforced by the appropriate
pavement markings and road signs such as “BERHENTI”
or “BERI LALUAN” sign boards.
TYPES OF AT‐GRADE INTERSECTION We l e a d
Stop‐controlled junction Yield‐controlled junction (left‐in left‐out)
Signalised roundabout
SELECTION OF JUNCTION TYPE We l e a d
Factors influencing choice of junction type:
• Traffic volume
• Hierarchy of intersecting road
• Type or degree of access control
• Accident data/history at junction
• Availability of land area and land cost
• Number of conflict points at junction
• Construction and maintenance costs
However, most dominant influencing factor is traffic
volume which is related to road hierarchy.
SELECTION OF JUNCTION TYPE
(TRAFFIC VOLUME) We l e a d
SELECTION OF INTERSECTION TYPE
(ROAD HIERARCHY) – URBAN AREA We l e a d
• Minimum spacing required to ensure operation of one junction
will not adversely affect the operation of a nearby junction.
• Hence require minimum spacing so that queue at one junction
will not prolong onto the next junction.
CATEGORY OF MAJOR ROAD MIN DESIRABLE
AREA
SPACING (m)
EXPRESSWAY (R6) 3,000
HIGHWAY (R5) V x 20
RURAL PRIMARY (R5/R4) V x 10
SECONDARY (R4/R3) V x 5
MINOR (R2/R1/R1a) V x 3
EXPRESSWAY 1,500
ARTERIAL V x 3 x n
URBAN COLLECTOR V x 2 x n
LOCAL STREET V x 1.5 x n
V = DESIGN SPEED (km/h)
n = No. OF THROUGH LANE IN ONE DIRECTION
DISTANCE BETWEEN JUNCTION We l e a d
Average delay per vehicle in seconds (d)
Level‐of‐
(including geometric delay)
Level‐of‐service service for v/c
Signalised Stop and Give‐Way
> 1.0
intersection (Yield) intersection
A d 10 d 10 F
B 10 < d 20 10 < d 15 F
C 20 < d 35 15 < d 25 F
D 35 < d 55 25 < d 35 F
E 55 < d 80 35 < d 50 F
F d > 80 d > 50 F
Level‐ Volume/capacity
Descriptions
of‐ (v/c) ratio
(Arahan Teknik (Jalan) 8/86)
service (Sidra Intersection 7)
Free flow with low volumes, densities and high speeds. Drivers can maintain their
A 0.00 – 0.59
desired speeds with little or no delay.
Stable flow. Operating speeds beginning to be restricted somewhat by traffic
B 0.60 – 0.69
conditions. Some slight delay.
Stable flow. Speeds and manoeuvrability are more closely controlled by higher volume.
C 0.70 – 0.79
Acceptable delay.
Approaching unstable flow. Tolerable operating speeds which are considerably affected
D 0.80 – 0.89
by operating conditions. Tolerable delay.
Unstable flow. Yet lower operating speeds and perhaps stoppage of momentary
E 0.90 – 1.00 duration. Volumes are at or near capacity congestion and intolerable delay.
Forced flow. Speeds and volume can drop to zero. Stoppages can occur for long
F > 1.00 periods. Queues of vehicles backing up from a restriction downstream.
DESIGN VEHICLE We l e a d
• Design vehicle influences lane width and
turning radius.
• For a junction, choice of design vehicle is
made based on traffic characteristics,
function of road, road hierarchy and
pedestrian volume.
• JKR guide states that choice of design
vehicle depends on road hierarchy though
the minimum choice for design is design
vehicle type SU, while design vehicle type P
can be considered for design of small
junctions.
• Three types: P, SU and WB‐50
• Choice of design vehicle at junction depends
on dominant vehicle type.
• Right choice to avoid frequent maintenance
of traffic light post and kerbs.
DESIGN VEHICLE We l e a d
1) For intersections formed by roads of different design vehicles, the higher design
should primarily be chosen. However, if the frequency of turns made is small,
the lower design vehicle may be used.
2) Design vehicle P is normally applicable only to intersections of two local streets
or minor roads carrying low volumes.
DESIGN VEHICLE DIMENSTIONS We l e a d
Design Vehicle Dimension in metre
Turning
Wheel Overall Overall Overall Radius
Type Symbol Height (m)
base Front Rear Length Width
Passenger
P 3.4 0.9 1.5 5.8 2.1 1.3 7.3
Car
Single‐unit
SU 6.1 1.2 1.8 9.1 2.6 4.1 12.8
Truck
Truck
WB‐50 7.9 0.9 0.6 16.7 2.6 4.1 13.7
Combination
Note:
a) Maximum allowable overall lengths under current Malaysian Legislation are
30'(9.2 m), or 40'(12 m) if with special approval.
b) Maximum allowable overall width under current Malaysian Legislation is 2.5 m.
c) Maximum overall height control under current Malaysian Legislation is only for
buses, which is 15 ft (4.57 m).
DESIGN VEHICLES We l e a d
Passenger Vehicle
Single‐unit Truck or Bus
Truck (Semintrailer) Combination
TECHNIQUES FOR REDUCING CONFLICT
We l e a d
• Many conflict potentially takes place and each
conflict can be a source of accident.
• At‐grade junctions are designed to minimise the
possibility of conflict to take place. This can be
achieved via:
– Enforcement of traffic control system at the junction
– Physical design of junction
– Provision of adequate sight distance at junction
METHODS TO REDUCE TRAFFIC CONFLICT
We l e a d
• One of the following traffic controls practiced:
– No sign or stop control:
• Priority to enter junction not regulated by any rules.
Driver adjust speed to enable safe stopping when
confronted with an obstruction object.
– Yield Control:
• Vehicles on the minor road slow down and give priority
to movement of vehicles on the major road.
– Stop control
• Vehicle is required to stop before entering the
intersection.
– Signalised Control
• Entry into junction area controlled by traffic lights.
JUNCTION DESIGN ELEMENTS We l e a d
Elements considered in junction physical design:
1) Sight distance
2) Left turning lane
3) Right turning refuge lane
4) Acceleration and deceleration lanes
5) Traffic Islands
1) SIGHT DISTANCE We l e a d
Sight Triangle:
• Refers to the area bounded by driver sight line and two
approach roads. Also refers to the clear area (unobstructed)
required by driver emerging from an approach road to
observe vehicle movement on the other approach road or
sight triangle ABC shown in the underneath figure.
1) SIGHT DISTANCE We l e a d
Approach Sight Distance:
• Distance required to enable a driver to stop his vehicle safely behind
the stop line without encroaching into the intersection area.
• JKR guide requires junction to be designed so that drivers can see the
traffic lights or road sign “BERHENTI” from a distance as specified in the
table.
DESIGN SPEED OF SIGNAL CONTROL STOP CONTROL
MAJOR ROAD
RURAL URBAN (On Minor Road)*
( km/h)
100 480 370 260
80 350 260 170
60 240 170 105
50 190 130 80
40 140 100 55
30 100 70 35
20 60 40 20
* ON THE MAJOR ROAD OF STOP‐CONTROLLED INTERSECTIONS, THE STOPPING SIGHT DISTANCES GIVEN
IN ARAHAN TEKNIK (JALAN) 8/86 – “A GUIDE TO GEOMETRIC DESIGN OF ROADS” MUST BE SATISFIED.
1) SIGHT DISTANCE We l e a d
Departure Sight Distance (DSD):
• Distance required by a driver to clear the intersection by accelerating and cross
the junction safely after waiting behind the stop line at the junction approach.
Specifically, DSD refers to the distance that must be provided to enable vehicle
on the minor road cross over a junction safely without adversely affecting the
smooth trafic flow along the major road.
V
d (J ta )
3 .6
d = distance AC when B moves over a
distance S while at the same time
considering the perception‐reaction
time of A to accelerate
V = design speed on the major highway
J = perception‐reaction time and time taken
for driver of vehicle B to beging moving
ta = time taken to accelerate and clear the
intersection
1) SIGHT DISTANCE We l e a d
The time ta depends on the type of vehicle and distance, S
S = D + W + L
S = distance traversed by vehicle B to
cross over the junction safely (m)
D = distance between pavement edge
and front of vehicle (m)
W = pavement width traversed B (m)
L = vehicle length (m)
Distance, S (feet)
1) SIGHT DISTANCE We l e a d
• Appreciate sight distance based on existing site
conditions before proposing a new access point.
• Situations that can restrict sight distance
include sharp corners or placing a junction in
the vicinity of short vertical curves.
• No new access point allowed if sight distance
requirements not satisfied (failed by RSA).
• Excessive landscaping at central medians can
disrupt sight distance
2) LEFT TURNING LANE We l e a d
• Lane or channel dedicated for left turning, designed to ensure smooth
movement of left turning vehicle. This special lane is provided if left
turning traffic volume is high and presence of sufficient space for
junction.
• Two important elements are lane radius and lane width. Too big a
radius is not desirable since it encourages high speed cornering. If
space is a constraint, use a simple left turning lane radius 6m to 15m.
In urban areas, minimum size of traffic island is 8 m2.
• Exclusive left turning lane with radius greater than 15m must have
left‐turn island. Minimum size of traffic island is 50 m2. Since requires
large junction space, only feasible in rural areas.
• Channel radius (R) equated to approach road design speed, coefficient
of friction (f) and superelevation (e) and should be sufficient to
prevent back wheels from running over road kerbs or onto shoulder
when cornering.
2) LEFT TURNING LANE We l e a d
R1 W1 W2 W3 S
12 6.5 7.5 10.3 1.5 If R1 = 12 m ‐ 30 m
14 6.2 7.2 10.1 1.4 R2 = 1.5R1
16 6.0 7.1 9.9 1.3 R3 = 3R1
18 5.9 6.9 9.7 1.3 If R1 = 30 m ‐ 45 m
20 5.7 6.8 9.6 1.2 R2 = 2R1
22 5.6 6.7 9.5 1.2 R3 = 2R1
24 5.5 6.6 9.4 1.1 If R1 > 45 m, single radius acceptable
26 5.4 6.5 9.3 1.1
28 5.4 6.5 9.2 1.1 Lane Width
30 5.3 6.4 9.1 1.0 W1 = Single‐lane flow
45 5.0 6.1 8.8 0.9 W2 = Single‐lane flow with provision for passing a stalled vehicle
60 4.8 5.9 8.6 0.9 W3 = Two‐lane flow
90 4.6 5.8 8.4 0.8
120 4.5 5.7 8.3 0.7
150 4.5 5.6 8.2 0.7
2) LEFT TURNING LANE We l e a d
Simple flared
Simple flared Short left‐turn lane
Exclusive continuous – shared lane, slip lane
– shared lane, slip lane – slip lane with yield
left‐turn lane with yield control
with yield control control
Signalised junction
Short left‐turn lane (DC lane)
Short left‐turn lane Short left‐turn lane
– Slip lane with continuous Exclusive continuous
– slip lane with yield – slip lane with
left‐turn exit short lane left‐turn lane
control signal control
(AC lane)
2) LEFT TURNING LANE We l e a d
IN PRINCIPLE, LEFT
TURNING MOVEMENTS
SHOULD BE UNHINDERED
Short left‐turn lane
– slip lane with yield
control
Simple flared
– shared lane, slip lane
with yield control
2) LEFT TURNING LANE We l e a d
Exclusive continuous
left‐turn lane
3) RIGHT TURNING LANE We l e a d
• Exclusive right turning lane provided so as not to disrupt smooth flow of
through traffic. Length of refuge/storage lane is critical. It should be
sufficiently long so that queue developed will not extend beyond this
critical length.
• At priority junction, refuge lane length L (m) given in equation below:
Ls = 2 x M x S
where
M = Average right turning traffic volume per minute
S = Average headway (m) that depends on vehicle type, that is:
6 m for passenger car
12 m for commercial vehicle
• Storage length at signalised junction is given in equation below:
Ls = 1.5 x N x S
where
N = Average right turning traffic volume each cycle
• Desirable refuge lane width is 3.5 m. Smaller lane widths can be accepted.
3) RIGHT TURNING LANE We l e a d
• Preferable to provide storage or refuge or auxiliary lanes especially junctions
in rural and sub‐urban areas.
• Properly functioned refuge lane possible in the presence of a 1‐lane width
road central median.
Presence of a wide
central median can
facilitate design of
refuge lane
Right‐turn
Left‐turn lane
refuge lane
Left‐turn lane In the absence of raised central
median, use ghost islands to
create refuge lane for right turners
‐ forced to stall to give way, but
should be discouraged
3) RIGHT TURNING REFUGE LANE We l e a d
2.
1.
3) RIGHT TURNING LANE We l e a d
Exclusive right‐turn lane
3) RIGHT TURNING LANE We l e a d
• Refuge lane also required at U‐turns.
• Raise curbs instead of ghost islands preferable for traffic safety.
3) RIGHT TURNING LANE We l e a d
• Without right‐turn refuge lane:
– Right turn vehicles forced to queue hinders movement of
through/major traffic, forcing it to queue as well.
– Also rear end collision during dark hours.
3) RIGHT TURNING LANE We l e a d
• Can create discontinuity on through lanes resulting in lane
changing or severe weaving conflicts evident from presence of
many skid marks.
4) ACCELERATION AND DECELERATION LANES
We l e a d
• AC/ DC lanes ‐ speed change lanes.
• To enhance capacity and promote smooth flow of left
turning traffic ‐ vehicles can adjust speed and safely join
or leave a junction – are provided in almost all junctions
carrying heavy traffic.
• Acceleration lane enables left turning from a minor
approach road to accelerate and merge with traffic on
the main road.
• Deceleration lane enables a vehicle on an approach road
to reduce speed without adversely affecting smooth flow
of other traffic before turning diverging and merge with
traffic stream on the other approach road.
• JKR guide – consist of straight and taper.
4) ACCELERATION AND DECELERATION LANES
We l e a d
• Taper length:
Td
. .
Tm
. .
where
Td is the taper section for rate of lateral movement equivalent to 0.9 m/s, V is the
design speed of the approach road and Yd is the shift or width of speed change
lane or diverging traffic deflection (m). Tm is the minimum taper length of the
acceleration lane (m) for merging edge movement equivalent to 0.6 m/s. Ym is
the lateral deflection of merging traffic (m).
4) ACCELERATION AND DECELERATION LANES
We l e a d
Treatment for acceleration lane taper
Treatment for deceleration lane taper
4) ACCELERATION AND DECELERATION LANES
We l e a d
* Length for level grade (for grade correction see following table)
** Length required when a vehicle accelerates from zero speed
NOTE: Where a length of acceleration lane shown is less then the standard taper Tm, Tm
should not be reduced.
4) ACCELERATION AND DECELERATION LANES
We l e a d
• The ratio from above table multiplied by the length from previous table gives the
length of deceleration lane on grade.
4) ACCELERATION AND DECELERATION LANES
We l e a d
* Length for level grade (for grade correction see following table)
** Length required when a vehicle accelerates from zero speed
NOTE: Where a length of acceleration lane shown is less then the standard taper Td, Td
should not be reduced.
4) ACCELERATION AND DECELERATION LANES
We l e a d
• Traffic islands refer to the area bounded by traffic
lanes designed to control traffic movements.
• Functions as follows:
– Separate opposing streams of traffic
– Guide traffic away from and past fixed obstructions and
other hazardous points
– Reduce conflict area and control the angles at which
conflicts occur
– Provide shelter for turning or crossing vehicles
– Prohibit undesirable or unnecessary traffic movements
– Control speed
– Separate through and turning movements as well as define
their respective alignments
– Provide for and protect traffic control devices
TRAFFIC ISLANDS We l e a d
• Traffic islands may be defined as pavement markings,
kerbs or a combination of these.
• Area inside the island may be made of asphalt, concrete
interlocking blocks or grassed. Landscaping allowable
provided sight distance is not obstructed. If improperly
designed, traffic island can become an obstruction
object.
• Ensure islands are visible to drivers and the front portion
properly marked by chevrons. Painted or ghost islands
should be clearly visible during day and night.
• Three island types that can perform the above roles are
channelising island, median islands and refuge islands.
TRAFFIC ISLANDS We l e a d
The following design aspects should be considered for shape, location and size of islands
(ATJ 11/87):
a) They should be located and designed so that the proper line: of travel is obvious and
any changes in direction are gradual and smooth.
b) The approach end of any island should be offset from the edge of the adjacent traffic
lanes and preceded by appropriate pavement markings such as chevron markings. This
approach offset should be a minimum of 1.0m. The sides of islands should also be
offset from adjacent traffic lanes by 0.3m ‐ 0.6m where semi‐mountable or mountable
kerbs are used. For roads with design speeds exceeds ng 80km/hr, the offset should be
increased to 0.6m and 1.2m.
c) Except for very large rural islands, islands should be delineated with semi‐mountable
type kerb. Where pedestrian refuge is being provided, barrier kerb should be used.
d) In urban areas, raised islands should be of an area of not less than approximately 8m2.
A smaller area may be adopted where traffic signals need protection. Islands in rural
areas should desirably have a minimum area of 50m2. In rural areas without any street
lighting, raised islands should not be used. Instead pavement markings should be used.
e) Where an island has to provide for stop lines, traffic signals and pedestrian crossings,
the side of the island should be a minimum of 6m long with a minimum width of 1.2m
at the point where the signal pedestal is erected.
TRAFFIC ISLANDS We l e a d
MEDIAN ISLANDS
We l e a d
• Medians are used to separate opposing traffic streams, provide refuge for pedestrians
and reduce the number of points of crossing conflict along a road.
• The following design aspects of medians should be considered (ATJ 11/87):
a) The approach end of each median island should be set back from the right‐hand edge of the
adjacent traffic lane by at least 0.3m and preferably 0.5m to:
i. reduce the probability of collision with the island and ;
ii. relieve the optical illusion of a construction in the lane at the start of the island.
b) Unless stopping sight distance is available at its approach end, a median should not
commence on or beyond a crest . Medians should not also begin on the arc or a horizontal
curve but at or before the first tangent point or 30m or more beyond the second tangent
point.
c) A length of painted median should precede the approach era of the median so that the
approaching driver will notice the obstruction ahead. On high speed roads, any short length
of kerbed median should be offset from the delineated through traffic lane by approximately
0.5m (See Figure 3‐22, ATJ 11/87).
MEDIAN ISLANDS We l e a d
If median is narrower than 2m, a length of barrier line may be used in the approach (See Figure 3‐23,
ATJ 11/87) instead of the painted median.
d) The first median end encountered by approaching drivers should display a reflectorized KEEP LEFT
(Sign RM4) sign. Where the island is less than 1.2m wide at the approach end, this sign should be
placed up to 6m away from the. end to protect it from approaching traffic.
e) Where a median island is placed in a side road, the end adjacent to the through road should be as
narrow as practicable and set back 0.6m behind the prolongation of the kerb line of the through
road when :
i. no pedestrian crossing is provided or
ii. a minimum length of 2m of median can be provided between the pedestrian crossing and the through road.
If (ii) is not possible, the end of the median should be terminated at the pedestrian crossings.
f) Where a median would alter the number of lanes, the treatment to be adopted should follow that as
shown in Figure 3‐24, ATJ 11/87.
g) Semi‐mountable kerbs should be used.
MEDIAN ISLANDS (Figure 3.24, ATJ 11/87)
We l e a d
MEDIAN ISLANDS (Figure 3.24, ATJ 11/87)
We l e a d
MEDIAN ISLANDS (Figure 3.25, ATJ 11/87)
We l e a d
h) Where kerbs cannot be used, painted medians should be used as shown in Figure 3‐25, ATJ
11/87.
Where openings are provided in medians, the treatment of the median and ends should be in accordance
with those shown in Figure 3‐26, ATJ 11/87 depending on the width of the median.
OUTER SEPARATORS We l e a d
• Outer Separators are used to separate the through traffic lanes from service
roads. They should be as wide as possible with a desirable width of 5.0m.
Radius
Outer R2 (m)
Separator R1 (m)
Width (m)
5-10 15 0.2 W
11-15 23 0.2 W
16-25 30 0.2 W
JUNCTION LOCATION We l e a d
• For shophouses fronting main thoroughfare, locate junction
away from main road.
• Ensure safety of junction location with respect to horizontal
and vertical alignment.
Thank you
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