Power Transformers & Short Circuits

Evaluation of the short-circuit

performance of power transformers

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 Contents

Foreword

1. INTRODUCTION

2. HISTORICAL REVIEW
2.1 The very early stages
2.2 The transformer as a factor in the development of the electrical era
2.3 Transformers and short-circuit events: 1884 - 1950
2.4 Transformers and short-circuit events: from 1950 to present days
2.5 The electrical era
2.6 Once upon a time there was…

3. THE POWER TRANSFORMER AS A CIRCUIT COMPONENT

3.1 The notional transformer and the real transformer
3.2 Magnetizing flux and leakage flux
3.3 Short-circuit impedance
3.4 Magneto-motive force (ampere-turn) diagram and leakage flux calculation
3.5 Percentage short-circuit impedance of a two-winding core-type transformer
3.6 Natural short-circuit impedance values for core-type transformers
3.7 Minimum short-circuit impedance values recommended in IEC Standard 60076-5: Power transformers
- Part 5: Ability to withstand short circuit, Edition 3.0-2006
3.8 Short-circuit apparent power of the system
3.9 Voltage drop
3.10 “Shape” of the core & coil assembly of core-type transformers
3.11 A simple formula for selecting the core cross-section of a transformer for design purpose

4. BASIC TRANSFORMER STRUCTURES

4.1 Core-type transformers - Core and active part configurations
4.2 Insulation structures and types of winding of core-type transformers
4.2.1 Insulation structures
4.2.2 Types of winding
4.2.2.1 Helical-type windings
4.2.2.2 Disc-type windings
4.2.2.3 Layer-type windings
4.2.2.4 Windings for voltage regulation purpose
4.2.2.5 Metal foil windings
4.3 Various arrangements adopted with core-type transformers for the purpose of winding axial clamping
4.4 Shell-type transformers

5. MATERIALS USED IN POWER TRANSFORMERS

5.1 Magnetic steel laminations for transformer cores
5.2 Copper for winding conductors
5.2.1 Physical characteristics of annealed copper (minimum 99.90%)
5.2.2 Work-hardened copper and copper alloys
5.2.3 Shapes and types of conductor for power transformers
5.2.3.1 Rectangular paper-insulated conductors
5.2.3.2 Enamel covered conductors
5.2.3.3 Continuously transposed conductors (CTC)
5.2.3.4 Epoxy-bonded conductors - Adhesive coating for bonding purpose
5.3 Insulation materials
5.3.1 Paper for conductor insulation
5.3.2 Pressboard

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 5.3.2.1 Hard (high-density) pressboard
5.3.2.2 Formable pressboard
5.4 Other insulation materials
5.5 Structural steel
5.6 Mineral oil
5.7 Bending test to be performed on epoxy bonded CTC samples
5.8 Characteristics of the resin for bonding of cable strands
5.8.1 Application of the resin
5.8.2 Experimental tests (shear and bending)

6. SHORT-CIRCUIT EVENTS – SHORT-CIRCUIT CURRENTS

6.1 Short-circuit events
6.2 Short-circuit current
6.2.1 Nature of the short-circuit current
6.3 Calculation of short-circuit currents in three-phase systems
6.3.1 Typical cases of short circuit
6.3.2 Relative severity of various types of fault
6.3.3 Use of series reactors in power transformers
6.4 Special short-circuit events
6.5 Over-currents originated by switching-in operations

7. ELECTROMAGNETIC FORCES IN POWER TRANSFORMERS

7.1 General
7.2 Electromagnetic forces generated by the interaction of winding currents and magnetic leakage flux
7.2.1 Basic physics
7.2.2. Nature of the electromagnetic forces in power transformers
7.3 Magnetic leakage field calculations
7.3.1 Symmetrical configurations assumed for calculation purposes
7.3.2 Calculation codes and methods adopted for computing the magnetic leakage field in power transformers
7.3.3 Calculation assumptions - m.m.f. diagrams
7.3.4 Diagrams of leakage flux density (magnetic field intensity) distribution
7.4 Typical electromagnetic force patterns
7.5 Radial and axial electromagnetic forces in core-type transformers
7.5.1 Radial electromagnetic forces
7.5.2 Axial electromagnetic forces
7.6 Approximate formulas for calculation of radial and axial electromagnetic forces in core-type transformers
7.6.1 Approximate formulas for calculation of radial (electromagnetic) forces
7.6.2 Approximate formulas for calculation of axial (electromagnetic) forces
7.7 Axial and radial electromagnetic forces in shell-type transformers
7.8 Approximate formulas for calculation of electromagnetic forces in shell-type transformers
7.8.1 Approximate formulas for calculation of axial electromagnetic forces
7.8.2 Approximate formulas for calculation of radial electromagnetic forces
7.9 Axial forces in core-type transformer windings - Dynamic behavior
7.9.1 The visco-elastic model
7.9.2 Dynamic considerations
7.9.3 Damping in windings
7.9.4 Dynamic response of clamps
7.9.5 Effects of pre-stress
7.9.6 Experimental work
7.9.7 Final considerations
7.10 Dynamic considerations relating to shell-type transformers
7.11 Electromagnetic forces on leads

8. DESIGN FORCES
8.1 Introduction
8.2 General

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 8.3  asic considerations for calculating design forces, with specific reference to axial forces in core-type
B
transformers
8.4 ABB simplified procedure for calculation of axial electromagnetic forces for mechanical design purpose
of core-type transformers
8.4.1 Winding axial displacements
8.4.2 Dynamic considerations
8.4.3 Axial forces to be considered for design purpose of winding conductors, internal and external winding
insulation components, top and bottom press and insulation structures, axial clamping structures
8.4.4 Axial forces to be considered for design purpose of electrostatic shield rings and winding spreaders,
radial spacers with disc- and helical-type windings, and conductor insulation with layer-type windings
8.4.5 Axial force to be considered for design purpose of insulation and structural non-metallic components
common to the limb winding assembly, such as common spacer rings, press rings or press plates,
winding support blocks, etc.
8.4.6 Design force of yoke clamping structure and tie rods (flitch plates or tie plates)
8.5. Design layouts of core-type transformers creating special force problems

9 MECHANICAL STRESSES
9.1 General
9.2 Basic mechanical stresses induced by electromagnetic forces on winding conductors and insulation and
clamping structures on the occasion of short-circuit events
9.3 Mechanical stresses in core-type transformers
9.3.1 Mechanical stresses on winding conductors
9.3.2 Mechanical stresses on insulation, structural non-metallic components and clamping structures
9.4 Approximate formulas for calculation of mechanical stresses on winding conductors, insulation
components, structural non-metallic components, and clamping structures of core-type transformers
9.4.1 Calculation of stresses on winding conductors
9.4.1.1 Mean hoop tensile and mean hoop compressive stress
9.4.1.2 Stress due to radial bending of conductors in the span between axial sticks and between spacers
provided in the middle of hoop compressed windings in order to build axial cooling ducts
9.4.1.3 Bending stress on disc-type winding crossovers and helical-type winding conductor transpositions
9.4.1.4 Bending stress on series crossovers between adjacent layers and double-shell helical windings
9.4.1.5 Stress due to axial bending of conductors between radial spacers of disc- and helical-type windings
9.4.2 Calculation of stresses on insulation, non-metallic structural components and clamping structures
9.4.2.1 Stresses produced by radial forces
9.4.2.2 Stresses produced by axial forces
9.4.2.2.1 Stresses on the end-stack components of a physical winding, including winding end rings, static shield
rings, yoke collars (angle rings), pressboard rings with spacers (spacer rings)
9.4.2.2.2 Stresses on:
– static shield rings and winding spreaders placed at middle-height of a winding
– radial spacers with disc- and helical-type windings
– conductor insulation with layer-type windings
9.4.2.2.3 Stresses on insulation and structural non-metallic components common to the limb winding assembly,
such as common spacer rings, press plates, press blocks, etc.
9.4.2.2.4 Stresses on core clamps (clamping beams, yoke clamps), cross bars (horizontal tie-rods) and flitch
plates (tie plates)
9.5 Mechanical stresses with shell-type transformers
9.5.1 Action of the forces on the winding set
9.5.2 Action of the forces on the magnetic circuit and on the tank
9.5.3 Mechanical stresses on winding conductors
9.5.4 Mechanical stresses on insulation, structural non-metallic components and clamping structures
9.6  Calculation of mechanical stresses on winding conductors and insulation, non-metallic structural
components and clamping structure(s) of shell-type transformers
9.6.1 General – Static and dynamic considerations
9.6.2 Calculation of stresses on winding conductors
9.6.2.1 Compressive stress on pancake coil conductors produced by axial forces transferred by the spacers
fastened to the washers
9.6.2.2 Bending stress on pancake coil conductors in the spans between spacers

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 9.6.2.3 Bending stress on pancake coil conductors in the winding region outside core window
9.6.2.4 Compressive or tensile stress on conductors originated by radial forces
9.7 Comparison between two-winding core-type transformers and autotransformers as regards short-circuit
stresses
9.7.1 Consequences associated with high or low values of internal and external short-circuit impedances
respectively of autotransformers
9.8 Particular aspects concerning short-circuit stresses in high-power core-type units

10. FAILURE MODES CAUSED BY SHORT-CIRCUIT FORCES

10.1 Failure modes of core-type transformers caused by radial forces
10.1.1 Failure of tensile-stressed windings
10.1.2 Failure of compressive-stressed windings
10.1.2.1 Buckling
10.1.2.2 Spiralling
10.2 Failure modes of core-type transformers caused by axial forces
10.3 Interactive failure modes
10.4 Failure modes of shell-type transformers
10.4.1 Failure modes caused by axial forces
10.4.2 Failure modes caused by radial forces
10.5 Exceptional failure events

11. CRITICAL AND ALLOWABLE MECHANICAL STRESS VALUES

11.1 General
11.2 Critical and allowable mechanical stress values in power transformers – The approach adopted by ABB
11.3 Critical and allowable mechanical stress values in conductors of core-type transformers
11.3.1 Allowable mean hoop tensile stress
11.3.2 Critical and allowable mean hoop compressive stress
11.3.2.1 Allowable mean hoop compressive stress on conductors of disc- and helical-type windings
11.3.2.2 Allowable mean hoop compressive stress on conductors of layer-type windings
11.3.3 Allowable thrust force on exit leads to prevent spiralling
11.3.3.1 Allowable thrust force on exit leads of helical-type windings
11.3.3.2 Allowable thrust force on exit leads of layer-type windings
11.3.4 ABB design rules for allowable thrust force on winding exit leads to prevent spiralling
11.3.5 Critical axial force for conductor tilting
11.3.5.1 Allowable axial force to prevent conductor tilting
11.3.6 Allowable hoop compressive stress on disc winding conductors to prevent over-bending of crossovers
between disc sections
11.3.7 Allowable stress relating to axial bending of conductors in the spans between radial spacers of disc- and
helical-type windings
11.4 Allowable compressive, bending and shear stress values on various components of core-type transformers
(radial spacers, winding spreaders, end rings, common spacer rings, press rings, press plates, winding
supports, etc. made of hard pressboard and resin-impregnated laminated wood
11.4.1 Allowable stress values according to IEC Standard 60076-5, Edition 3.0-2006
11.4.2 Allowable mechanical stress limits for various structural materials
11.5 Allowable mechanical stresses on conductors of shell-type transformers
11.5.1 Allowable compressive stress on pancake coil conductors
11.5.2 Allowable stress relating to axial bending of pancake coil conductors in the spans between spacers
11.5.3. Allowable compressive or tensile stress on conductors originated by radial forces
11.6 Allowable mechanical stresses on various components of shell-type transformers
11.6.1 Allowable compressive stress on conductor paper insulation, spacers, washers, and laminated wood
wedges and shims
11.6.2 Allowable compressive and bending stresses on core laminations and tensile and bending stresses on
the steel tank

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 12. CRITICAL COMPRESSIVE STRESS FOR FREE BUCKLING OF CORE-TYPE TRANSFORMER
WINDINGS
12.1 General
12.2 Critical and allowable stress values for free buckling of core-type transformer windings: various types of
approach
12.2.1 The conventional approach based of the theory of the Strength of Materials
12.2.2 Research activity carried out in the former URSS, in particular at VEI (AREI) and OSC-VIT, on transformers
produced by various domestic manufacturers, together with testing activities carried out at the High-
Power Test Centre located in Togliatti
12.2.2.1 R&D activity carried out at VEI - Moscow
12.2.2.2 Theoretical and experimental activity carried out by OSC - VIT, Zaporozhye
12.2.2.3 Recent developments
12.2.2.4 Final comments
12.2.3 The short-circuit strength issue and testing experience in France
12.2.4 Dynamic approach to the short-circuit behavior of core-type transformer windings subjected to compressive
stress: the contri­bu­tion provided by the Advanced Development Engineering of General Electric Large
Power Transformer Operation – Pittsfield, Mass. USA.
12.2.4.1 General
12.2.4.2 Buckling of disc- and helical-type windings - Dynamic considerations
12.2.4.3 Buckling of layer-type windings - Case of a single layer
12.2.4.4 Buckling of multi-layer type windings
12.2.4.5 Use of hardened copper and epoxy bonded CTCs
12.2.4.6 Allowable mean hoop compressive stress on disc coils using bonded CTCs
12.2.5 The approach adopted by ABB concerning the critical stress in regard to buckling
12.2.5.1 Major objections against the conventional approach to collapse by buckling of core-type transformer
windings subjected to inward forces
12.2.5.2 Critical and allowable mean hoop compressive stress according to ABB design criteria
12.2.5.3 Final considerations as regards ABB design philosophy of hoop compressed windings
12.3 ABB experience as regards use of epoxy-resin impregnated windings

13. MANUFACTURING ISSUES

13.1 General
13.2 Winding manufacture
13.3 Conditioning (processing) and final clamping (pre-stress) of core-type transformer windings. Axial clamping
arrangements
13.4 Conditioning (processing) and final clamping (pre-stress) of shell-type transformer windings. Final assembling
procedures
13.5 ABB practice for control of the bonding properties of resin bonded CTCs
13.6 Manufacturing issues - Obligations of the manufacturer
13.7 Final considerations

14 SHORT-CIRCUIT WITHSTAND TESTS ON POWER TRANSFORMERS

14.1 General
14.2 Assurance of transformer’s short-circuit withstand capability: how the issue was perceived in the past
14.3 Assurance of transformer's short-circuit withstand capability: present situation
14.4 Remarkable short-circuit testing experiences
14.4.1 Short-circuit testing experience in the former URSS
14.4.2 Short-circuit testing experience in France
14.4.3 ABB short-circuit testing experience
14.5 Short-circuit testing techniques
14.6 Three-phase vs. single-phase equivalent testing – Testing of tertiary windings
14.7 Requirements in Standards on short-circuit current amplitude, number of tests, test duration
14.8 Basic measurements, checks and tests performed on the occasion of a short-circuit withstand test -
Detection of faults, evaluation of test results
14.9 Typical “problems” concerning the pre-established short-circuit test method
14.10 Tests of core-type transformers with axial-split winding arrangement
14.11 Behavior of transformer components and accessories during short-circuit tests and on the occasion of
faults in the network

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 14.12  ypical damages observed at the visual inspection after the untanking of the active parts of power
T
transformers which did not pass the short-circuit withstand test
14.13 Learning from short-circuit withstand tests – The ABB experience
14.14 A special experience: a failure of dielectric nature occurred on an autotransformer during the short-
circuit withstand test
14.15 Transformers for short-circuit testing purposes – Special requirements
14.16 Diagnostic techniques in relation to short-circuit withstand tests and operation in the field
14.16.1 Magnetizing currents
14.16.2 Winding capacitances
14.16.3 Short-circuit impedance (leakage inductance)
14.16.4 Low voltage impulse
14.16.5 Frequency response analysis

15. SHORT-CIRCUIT TESTING FACILITIES FOR POWER TRANSFORMERS

15.1 CESI High-power Test Station at Rondissone and Milano (Italy)
15.2 KEMA High-Power Laboratory, Arnhem – The Netherlands
15.3 High-power Test Station in Togliatti (Russia)
15.4 EDF – Les Renardières
15.5 Hydro Quebec High-power Test Station at Varennes, Quebec
15.6 New High-Power Test Laboratories under planning

16. TESTS ON MODELS

17. FAILURE RATES IN SERVICE AND FAILURE RATES AT TESTING

17.1 General
17.2 Definition of failure rate
17.3 Failure rates in service
17.3.1 Failure rates in France
17.3.2 Failure rates in Italy
17.3.3 Failure rates in Turkey
17.3.4 Failure rates in Russia (ex USSR)
17.3.5 Failure rates in the USA
17.3.6 Failure rates in Canada
17.3.7 Failure rates in India
17.3.8 Failure rates in the People’s Republic of China
17.3.9 Failure rates in Thailand
17.3.10 Other service experiences
17.4 Failure rates at the short-circuit withstand test
17.4.1 An inquiry on a world basis
17.4.2 Test experience at KEMA High-Power Laboratory, Arnhem, The Netherlands
17.4.3 Other test experiences
17.4.4 ABB failure rate at testing

18. TESTS VS. CALCULATIONS

18.1 General
18.2 Short-circuit withstand tests on power transformers: superfluous, useful, necessary? How a Test Lab. and a
manufacturer see the question
18.2.1 Some a priory objections against short-circuit withstand tests
18.2.2 Some good reasons for considering the short-circuit test option
18.2.4 Additional technical and economical aspects to consider
18.3 Demonstration by calculations vs. demonstration by tests: how to decide which method to follow
18.3.1 Demonstration based on design considerations and calculations, supported by test results obtained on
similar transformers (or transformer models)
18.3.2 Demonstration based on short-circuit withstand tests
18.4 How is the short-circuit capability secured by users
18.5 Design review procedures
18.6 How to deal with phase-shifting transformers (PSTs)

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 18.6.1 Policy adopted by a big Electric Utility based on the use of models
18.6.2 Comments concerning the use of models for validating the design of PSTs
18.7 Final message

19. “GOOD” TRANSFORMER

19.1 General
19.2 What is needed to build a short-circuit safe transformer
19.2.1 Technical specification
19.2.2 Electrical and mechanical design
19.2.3 Manufacture process
19.2.4 Proper installation and maintenance
19.3 Cost evaluation as regards poor and good quality
19.4 Conclusion

20. USER AND MANUFACTURER’S RESPONSIBILITY

20.1 Purchaser’s responsibility
20.2 Manufacturer’s responsibility
20.3 ABB Co-operation with customers
20.4 Final considerations

APPENDIXES
Appendix 01 SI units and other units
Appendix 1 Some hints about electric and magnetic quantities
Appendix 2 Mechanical properties of materials
Appendix 3 Mechanical characteristics of copper
Appendix 4 A few classical formulas concerning the strength of materials
Appendix 5 Balancing the axial forces in core-type transformers
Appendix 6 A few formulas used in the past for mechanical design purpose of core-type power transformers
Appendix 7 Inrush current
Appendix 8 The autotransformer principle
Appendix 9 McNutt’s formula and graph
Appendix 10 Guidelines for conducting design reviews for power transformers
Appendix 11 IEC definitions
Appendix 12 List of ABB transformers tested at short circuit
Appendix 13 A “brilliant” invention

BIBLIOGRAPHY

BIOGRAPHY

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